diff --git a/.github/dependabot.yml b/.github/dependabot.yml
index 3d56ff2b22..89b2f4d0b6 100644
--- a/.github/dependabot.yml
+++ b/.github/dependabot.yml
@@ -11,6 +11,7 @@ updates:
       go.opentelemetry.io:
         patterns:
           - "go.opentelemetry.io/*"
+    open-pull-requests-limit: 20
   - package-ecosystem: "gomod"
     directory: "/documentation/examples/remote_storage"
     schedule:
@@ -19,6 +20,7 @@ updates:
     directory: "/web/ui"
     schedule:
       interval: "monthly"
+    open-pull-requests-limit: 20
   - package-ecosystem: "github-actions"
     directory: "/"
     schedule:
diff --git a/.github/workflows/buf-lint.yml b/.github/workflows/buf-lint.yml
index 04e5cea792..acf91ea12a 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/buf-lint.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/buf-lint.yml
@@ -12,14 +12,14 @@ jobs:
     name: lint
     runs-on: ubuntu-latest
     steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@9bb56186c3b09b4f86b1c65136769dd318469633 # v4.1.2
-      - uses: bufbuild/buf-setup-action@517ee23296d5caf38df31c21945e6a54bbc8a89f # v1.30.0
+      - uses: actions/checkout@a5ac7e51b41094c92402da3b24376905380afc29 # v4.1.6
+      - uses: bufbuild/buf-setup-action@dde0b9351db90fbf78e345f41a57de8514bf1091 # v1.32.2
         with:
           github_token: ${{ secrets.GITHUB_TOKEN }}
-      - uses: bufbuild/buf-lint-action@044d13acb1f155179c606aaa2e53aea304d22058 # v1.1.0
+      - uses: bufbuild/buf-lint-action@06f9dd823d873146471cfaaf108a993fe00e5325 # v1.1.1
         with:
           input: 'prompb'
-      - uses: bufbuild/buf-breaking-action@f47418c81c00bfd65394628385593542f64db477 # v1.1.2
+      - uses: bufbuild/buf-breaking-action@c57b3d842a5c3f3b454756ef65305a50a587c5ba # v1.1.4
         with:
           input: 'prompb'
           against: 'https://github.com/prometheus/prometheus.git#branch=main,ref=HEAD,subdir=prompb'
diff --git a/.github/workflows/buf.yml b/.github/workflows/buf.yml
index db240c9f80..f52d20785f 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/buf.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/buf.yml
@@ -12,14 +12,14 @@ jobs:
     runs-on: ubuntu-latest
     if: github.repository_owner == 'prometheus'
     steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@9bb56186c3b09b4f86b1c65136769dd318469633 # v4.1.2
-      - uses: bufbuild/buf-setup-action@517ee23296d5caf38df31c21945e6a54bbc8a89f # v1.30.0
+      - uses: actions/checkout@a5ac7e51b41094c92402da3b24376905380afc29 # v4.1.6
+      - uses: bufbuild/buf-setup-action@dde0b9351db90fbf78e345f41a57de8514bf1091 # v1.32.2
         with:
           github_token: ${{ secrets.GITHUB_TOKEN }}
-      - uses: bufbuild/buf-lint-action@044d13acb1f155179c606aaa2e53aea304d22058 # v1.1.0
+      - uses: bufbuild/buf-lint-action@06f9dd823d873146471cfaaf108a993fe00e5325 # v1.1.1
         with:
           input: 'prompb'
-      - uses: bufbuild/buf-breaking-action@f47418c81c00bfd65394628385593542f64db477 # v1.1.2
+      - uses: bufbuild/buf-breaking-action@c57b3d842a5c3f3b454756ef65305a50a587c5ba # v1.1.4
         with:
           input: 'prompb'
           against: 'https://github.com/prometheus/prometheus.git#branch=main,ref=HEAD~1,subdir=prompb'
diff --git a/.github/workflows/ci.yml b/.github/workflows/ci.yml
index 714faf167d..8b3624383c 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/ci.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/ci.yml
@@ -13,7 +13,7 @@ jobs:
       # should also be updated.
       image: quay.io/prometheus/golang-builder:1.22-base
     steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@9bb56186c3b09b4f86b1c65136769dd318469633 # v4.1.2
+      - uses: actions/checkout@a5ac7e51b41094c92402da3b24376905380afc29 # v4.1.6
       - uses: prometheus/promci@3cb0c3871f223bd5ce1226995bd52ffb314798b6 # v0.1.0
       - uses: ./.github/promci/actions/setup_environment
       - run: make GOOPTS=--tags=stringlabels GO_ONLY=1 SKIP_GOLANGCI_LINT=1
@@ -27,7 +27,7 @@ jobs:
     container:
       image: quay.io/prometheus/golang-builder:1.22-base
     steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@9bb56186c3b09b4f86b1c65136769dd318469633 # v4.1.2
+      - uses: actions/checkout@a5ac7e51b41094c92402da3b24376905380afc29 # v4.1.6
       - uses: prometheus/promci@3cb0c3871f223bd5ce1226995bd52ffb314798b6 # v0.1.0
       - uses: ./.github/promci/actions/setup_environment
       - run: go test --tags=dedupelabels ./...
@@ -43,7 +43,7 @@ jobs:
       # The go version in this image should be N-1 wrt test_go.
       image: quay.io/prometheus/golang-builder:1.21-base
     steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@9bb56186c3b09b4f86b1c65136769dd318469633 # v4.1.2
+      - uses: actions/checkout@a5ac7e51b41094c92402da3b24376905380afc29 # v4.1.6
       - run: make build
       # Don't run NPM build; don't run race-detector.
       - run: make test GO_ONLY=1 test-flags=""
@@ -57,7 +57,7 @@ jobs:
       image: quay.io/prometheus/golang-builder:1.22-base
 
     steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@9bb56186c3b09b4f86b1c65136769dd318469633 # v4.1.2
+      - uses: actions/checkout@a5ac7e51b41094c92402da3b24376905380afc29 # v4.1.6
       - uses: prometheus/promci@3cb0c3871f223bd5ce1226995bd52ffb314798b6 # v0.1.0
       - uses: ./.github/promci/actions/setup_environment
         with:
@@ -74,8 +74,8 @@ jobs:
     name: Go tests on Windows
     runs-on: windows-latest
     steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@9bb56186c3b09b4f86b1c65136769dd318469633 # v4.1.2
-      - uses: actions/setup-go@0c52d547c9bc32b1aa3301fd7a9cb496313a4491 # v5.0.0
+      - uses: actions/checkout@a5ac7e51b41094c92402da3b24376905380afc29 # v4.1.6
+      - uses: actions/setup-go@cdcb36043654635271a94b9a6d1392de5bb323a7 # v5.0.1
         with:
           go-version: 1.22.x
       - run: |
@@ -91,7 +91,7 @@ jobs:
     container:
       image: quay.io/prometheus/golang-builder:1.22-base
     steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@9bb56186c3b09b4f86b1c65136769dd318469633 # v4.1.2
+      - uses: actions/checkout@a5ac7e51b41094c92402da3b24376905380afc29 # v4.1.6
       - run: go install ./cmd/promtool/.
       - run: go install github.com/google/go-jsonnet/cmd/jsonnet@latest
       - run: go install github.com/google/go-jsonnet/cmd/jsonnetfmt@latest
@@ -114,7 +114,7 @@ jobs:
       matrix:
         thread: [ 0, 1, 2 ]
     steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@9bb56186c3b09b4f86b1c65136769dd318469633 # v4.1.2
+      - uses: actions/checkout@a5ac7e51b41094c92402da3b24376905380afc29 # v4.1.6
       - uses: prometheus/promci@3cb0c3871f223bd5ce1226995bd52ffb314798b6 # v0.1.0
       - uses: ./.github/promci/actions/build
         with:
@@ -137,32 +137,44 @@ jobs:
     # Whenever the Go version is updated here, .promu.yml
     # should also be updated.
     steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@9bb56186c3b09b4f86b1c65136769dd318469633 # v4.1.2
+      - uses: actions/checkout@a5ac7e51b41094c92402da3b24376905380afc29 # v4.1.6
       - uses: prometheus/promci@3cb0c3871f223bd5ce1226995bd52ffb314798b6 # v0.1.0
       - uses: ./.github/promci/actions/build
         with:
           parallelism: 12
           thread: ${{ matrix.thread }}
+  check_generated_parser:
+    name: Check generated parser
+    runs-on: ubuntu-latest
+    steps:
+      - name: Checkout repository
+        uses: actions/checkout@a5ac7e51b41094c92402da3b24376905380afc29 # v4.1.6
+      - name: Install Go
+        uses: actions/setup-go@cdcb36043654635271a94b9a6d1392de5bb323a7 # v5.0.1
+        with:
+          cache: false
+          go-version: 1.22.x
+      - name: Run goyacc and check for diff
+        run: make install-goyacc check-generated-parser
   golangci:
     name: golangci-lint
     runs-on: ubuntu-latest
     steps:
       - name: Checkout repository
-        uses: actions/checkout@9bb56186c3b09b4f86b1c65136769dd318469633 # v4.1.2
+        uses: actions/checkout@a5ac7e51b41094c92402da3b24376905380afc29 # v4.1.6
       - name: Install Go
-        uses: actions/setup-go@0c52d547c9bc32b1aa3301fd7a9cb496313a4491 # v5.0.0
+        uses: actions/setup-go@cdcb36043654635271a94b9a6d1392de5bb323a7 # v5.0.1
         with:
-          cache: false
           go-version: 1.22.x
       - name: Install snmp_exporter/generator dependencies
         run: sudo apt-get update && sudo apt-get -y install libsnmp-dev
         if: github.repository == 'prometheus/snmp_exporter'
       - name: Lint
-        uses: golangci/golangci-lint-action@3cfe3a4abbb849e10058ce4af15d205b6da42804 # v4.0.0
+        uses: golangci/golangci-lint-action@a4f60bb28d35aeee14e6880718e0c85ff1882e64 # v6.0.1
         with:
           args: --verbose
           # Make sure to sync this with Makefile.common and scripts/golangci-lint.yml.
-          version: v1.56.2
+          version: v1.59.1
   fuzzing:
     uses: ./.github/workflows/fuzzing.yml
     if: github.event_name == 'pull_request'
@@ -175,7 +187,7 @@ jobs:
     needs: [test_ui, test_go, test_go_more, test_go_oldest, test_windows, golangci, codeql, build_all]
     if: github.event_name == 'push' && github.event.ref == 'refs/heads/main'
     steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@9bb56186c3b09b4f86b1c65136769dd318469633 # v4.1.2
+      - uses: actions/checkout@a5ac7e51b41094c92402da3b24376905380afc29 # v4.1.6
       - uses: prometheus/promci@3cb0c3871f223bd5ce1226995bd52ffb314798b6 # v0.1.0
       - uses: ./.github/promci/actions/publish_main
         with:
@@ -189,7 +201,7 @@ jobs:
     needs: [test_ui, test_go, test_go_more, test_go_oldest, test_windows, golangci, codeql, build_all]
     if: github.event_name == 'push' && startsWith(github.ref, 'refs/tags/v2.')
     steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@9bb56186c3b09b4f86b1c65136769dd318469633 # v4.1.2
+      - uses: actions/checkout@a5ac7e51b41094c92402da3b24376905380afc29 # v4.1.6
       - uses: prometheus/promci@3cb0c3871f223bd5ce1226995bd52ffb314798b6 # v0.1.0
       - uses: ./.github/promci/actions/publish_release
         with:
@@ -204,7 +216,7 @@ jobs:
     needs: [test_ui, codeql]
     steps:
       - name: Checkout
-        uses: actions/checkout@9bb56186c3b09b4f86b1c65136769dd318469633 # v4.1.2
+        uses: actions/checkout@a5ac7e51b41094c92402da3b24376905380afc29 # v4.1.6
       - uses: prometheus/promci@3cb0c3871f223bd5ce1226995bd52ffb314798b6 # v0.1.0
       - name: Install nodejs
         uses: actions/setup-node@60edb5dd545a775178f52524783378180af0d1f8 # v4.0.2
diff --git a/.github/workflows/codeql-analysis.yml b/.github/workflows/codeql-analysis.yml
index 836fb25682..1ea1f5efae 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/codeql-analysis.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/codeql-analysis.yml
@@ -24,15 +24,15 @@ jobs:
 
     steps:
       - name: Checkout repository
-        uses: actions/checkout@9bb56186c3b09b4f86b1c65136769dd318469633 # v4.1.2
+        uses: actions/checkout@a5ac7e51b41094c92402da3b24376905380afc29 # v4.1.6
 
       - name: Initialize CodeQL
-        uses: github/codeql-action/init@012739e5082ff0c22ca6d6ab32e07c36df03c4a4 # v3.22.12
+        uses: github/codeql-action/init@2e230e8fe0ad3a14a340ad0815ddb96d599d2aff # v3.25.8
         with:
           languages: ${{ matrix.language }}
 
       - name: Autobuild
-        uses: github/codeql-action/autobuild@012739e5082ff0c22ca6d6ab32e07c36df03c4a4 # v3.22.12
+        uses: github/codeql-action/autobuild@2e230e8fe0ad3a14a340ad0815ddb96d599d2aff # v3.25.8
 
       - name: Perform CodeQL Analysis
-        uses: github/codeql-action/analyze@012739e5082ff0c22ca6d6ab32e07c36df03c4a4 # v3.22.12
+        uses: github/codeql-action/analyze@2e230e8fe0ad3a14a340ad0815ddb96d599d2aff # v3.25.8
diff --git a/.github/workflows/container_description.yml b/.github/workflows/container_description.yml
index d0368eaa1c..8ddbc34aeb 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/container_description.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/container_description.yml
@@ -4,6 +4,7 @@ on:
   push:
     paths:
       - "README.md"
+      - "README-containers.md"
       - ".github/workflows/container_description.yml"
     branches: [ main, master ]
 
@@ -17,7 +18,7 @@ jobs:
     if: github.repository_owner == 'prometheus' || github.repository_owner == 'prometheus-community' # Don't run this workflow on forks.
     steps:
       - name: git checkout
-        uses: actions/checkout@9bb56186c3b09b4f86b1c65136769dd318469633 # v4.1.2
+        uses: actions/checkout@a5ac7e51b41094c92402da3b24376905380afc29 # v4.1.6
       - name: Set docker hub repo name
         run: echo "DOCKER_REPO_NAME=$(make docker-repo-name)" >> $GITHUB_ENV
       - name: Push README to Dockerhub
@@ -29,7 +30,9 @@ jobs:
           destination_container_repo: ${{ env.DOCKER_REPO_NAME }}
           provider: dockerhub
           short_description: ${{ env.DOCKER_REPO_NAME }}
-          readme_file: 'README.md'
+          # Empty string results in README-containers.md being pushed if it
+          # exists. Otherwise, README.md is pushed.
+          readme_file: ''
 
   PushQuayIoReadme:
     runs-on: ubuntu-latest
@@ -37,7 +40,7 @@ jobs:
     if: github.repository_owner == 'prometheus' || github.repository_owner == 'prometheus-community' # Don't run this workflow on forks.
     steps:
       - name: git checkout
-        uses: actions/checkout@9bb56186c3b09b4f86b1c65136769dd318469633 # v4.1.2
+        uses: actions/checkout@a5ac7e51b41094c92402da3b24376905380afc29 # v4.1.6
       - name: Set quay.io org name
         run: echo "DOCKER_REPO=$(echo quay.io/${GITHUB_REPOSITORY_OWNER} | tr -d '-')" >> $GITHUB_ENV
       - name: Set quay.io repo name
@@ -49,4 +52,6 @@ jobs:
         with:
           destination_container_repo: ${{ env.DOCKER_REPO_NAME }}
           provider: quay
-          readme_file: 'README.md'
+          # Empty string results in README-containers.md being pushed if it
+          # exists. Otherwise, README.md is pushed.
+          readme_file: ''
diff --git a/.github/workflows/fuzzing.yml b/.github/workflows/fuzzing.yml
index 4c19563eb4..dc510e5966 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/fuzzing.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/fuzzing.yml
@@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ jobs:
           fuzz-seconds: 600
           dry-run: false
       - name: Upload Crash
-        uses: actions/upload-artifact@5d5d22a31266ced268874388b861e4b58bb5c2f3 # v4.3.1
+        uses: actions/upload-artifact@65462800fd760344b1a7b4382951275a0abb4808 # v4.3.3
         if: failure() && steps.build.outcome == 'success'
         with:
           name: artifacts
diff --git a/.github/workflows/repo_sync.yml b/.github/workflows/repo_sync.yml
index 3458d7b119..537e9abd84 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/repo_sync.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/repo_sync.yml
@@ -13,7 +13,7 @@ jobs:
     container:
       image: quay.io/prometheus/golang-builder
     steps:
-      - uses: actions/checkout@9bb56186c3b09b4f86b1c65136769dd318469633 # v4.1.2
+      - uses: actions/checkout@a5ac7e51b41094c92402da3b24376905380afc29 # v4.1.6
       - run: ./scripts/sync_repo_files.sh
         env:
           GITHUB_TOKEN: ${{ secrets.PROMBOT_GITHUB_TOKEN }}
diff --git a/.github/workflows/scorecards.yml b/.github/workflows/scorecards.yml
index 51ff643ab2..078084888a 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/scorecards.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/scorecards.yml
@@ -21,12 +21,12 @@ jobs:
 
     steps:
       - name: "Checkout code"
-        uses: actions/checkout@9bb56186c3b09b4f86b1c65136769dd318469633 # tag=v4.1.2
+        uses: actions/checkout@a5ac7e51b41094c92402da3b24376905380afc29 # tag=v4.1.6
         with:
           persist-credentials: false
 
       - name: "Run analysis"
-        uses: ossf/scorecard-action@0864cf19026789058feabb7e87baa5f140aac736 # tag=v2.3.1
+        uses: ossf/scorecard-action@dc50aa9510b46c811795eb24b2f1ba02a914e534 # tag=v2.3.3
         with:
           results_file: results.sarif
           results_format: sarif
@@ -37,7 +37,7 @@ jobs:
       # Upload the results as artifacts (optional). Commenting out will disable uploads of run results in SARIF
       # format to the repository Actions tab.
       - name: "Upload artifact"
-        uses: actions/upload-artifact@5d5d22a31266ced268874388b861e4b58bb5c2f3 # tag=v4.3.1
+        uses: actions/upload-artifact@65462800fd760344b1a7b4382951275a0abb4808 # tag=v4.3.3
         with:
           name: SARIF file
           path: results.sarif
@@ -45,6 +45,6 @@ jobs:
 
       # Upload the results to GitHub's code scanning dashboard.
       - name: "Upload to code-scanning"
-        uses: github/codeql-action/upload-sarif@012739e5082ff0c22ca6d6ab32e07c36df03c4a4 # tag=v3.22.12
+        uses: github/codeql-action/upload-sarif@2e230e8fe0ad3a14a340ad0815ddb96d599d2aff # tag=v3.25.8
         with:
           sarif_file: results.sarif
diff --git a/.gitpod.Dockerfile b/.gitpod.Dockerfile
index d645db5de1..2370ec5f5c 100644
--- a/.gitpod.Dockerfile
+++ b/.gitpod.Dockerfile
@@ -1,15 +1,33 @@
 FROM gitpod/workspace-full
 
+# Set Node.js version as an environment variable.
 ENV CUSTOM_NODE_VERSION=16
-ENV CUSTOM_GO_VERSION=1.19
-ENV GOPATH=$HOME/go-packages
-ENV GOROOT=$HOME/go
-ENV PATH=$GOROOT/bin:$GOPATH/bin:$PATH
 
+# Install and use the specified Node.js version via nvm.
 RUN bash -c ". .nvm/nvm.sh && nvm install ${CUSTOM_NODE_VERSION} && nvm use ${CUSTOM_NODE_VERSION} && nvm alias default ${CUSTOM_NODE_VERSION}"
 
+# Ensure nvm uses the default Node.js version in all new shells.
 RUN echo "nvm use default &>/dev/null" >> ~/.bashrc.d/51-nvm-fix
-RUN curl -fsSL https://dl.google.com/go/go${GO_VERSION}.linux-amd64.tar.gz | tar xzs \
-    && printf '%s\n' 'export GOPATH=/workspace/go' \
-                      'export PATH=$GOPATH/bin:$PATH' > $HOME/.bashrc.d/300-go
 
+# Remove any existing Go installation in $HOME path.
+RUN rm -rf $HOME/go $HOME/go-packages
+
+# Export go environment variables.
+RUN echo "export GOPATH=/workspace/go" >> ~/.bashrc.d/300-go && \
+    echo "export GOBIN=\$GOPATH/bin" >> ~/.bashrc.d/300-go && \
+    echo "export GOROOT=${HOME}/go" >> ~/.bashrc.d/300-go && \
+    echo "export PATH=\$GOROOT/bin:\$GOBIN:\$PATH" >> ~/.bashrc
+
+# Reload the environment variables to ensure go environment variables are
+# available in subsequent commands.
+RUN bash -c "source ~/.bashrc && source ~/.bashrc.d/300-go"
+
+# Fetch the Go version dynamically from the Prometheus go.mod file and Install Go in $HOME path.
+RUN export CUSTOM_GO_VERSION=$(curl -sSL "https://raw.githubusercontent.com/prometheus/prometheus/main/go.mod" | awk '/^go/{print $2".0"}') && \
+    curl -fsSL "https://dl.google.com/go/go${CUSTOM_GO_VERSION}.linux-amd64.tar.gz" | \
+    tar -xz -C $HOME
+
+# Fetch the goyacc parser version dynamically from the Prometheus Makefile
+# and install it globally in $GOBIN path.
+RUN GOYACC_VERSION=$(curl -fsSL "https://raw.githubusercontent.com/prometheus/prometheus/main/Makefile" | awk -F'=' '/GOYACC_VERSION \?=/{gsub(/ /, "", $2); print $2}') && \
+    go install "golang.org/x/tools/cmd/goyacc@${GOYACC_VERSION}"
diff --git a/.golangci.yml b/.golangci.yml
index a85a76cdf1..026d68a313 100644
--- a/.golangci.yml
+++ b/.golangci.yml
@@ -21,6 +21,7 @@ linters:
     - goimports
     - misspell
     - nolintlint
+    - perfsprint
     - predeclared
     - revive
     - testifylint
@@ -28,6 +29,7 @@ linters:
     - unused
     - usestdlibvars
     - whitespace
+    - loggercheck
 
 issues:
   max-same-issues: 0
@@ -44,7 +46,9 @@ issues:
     - linters:
         - godot
       source: "^// ==="
-
+    - linters:
+        - perfsprint
+      text: "fmt.Sprintf can be replaced with string concatenation"
 linters-settings:
   depguard:
     rules:
@@ -85,6 +89,9 @@ linters-settings:
     local-prefixes: github.com/prometheus/prometheus
   gofumpt:
     extra-rules: true
+  perfsprint:
+     # Optimizes `fmt.Errorf`.
+    errorf: false
   revive:
     # By default, revive will enable only the linting rules that are named in the configuration file.
     # So, it's needed to explicitly set in configuration all required rules.
diff --git a/CHANGELOG.md b/CHANGELOG.md
index 0afd8d7026..7e47999934 100644
--- a/CHANGELOG.md
+++ b/CHANGELOG.md
@@ -2,7 +2,56 @@
 
 ## unreleased
 
+## 2.53.0 / 2024-06-16
+
+This release changes the default for GOGC, the Go runtime control for the trade-off between excess memory use and CPU usage. We have found that Prometheus operates with minimal additional CPU usage, but greatly reduced memory by adjusting the upstream Go default from 100 to 75.
+
+* [CHANGE] Rules: Execute 1 query instead of N (where N is the number of alerts within alert rule) when restoring alerts. #13980 #14048
+* [CHANGE] Runtime: Change GOGC threshold from 100 to 75 #14176 #14285
+* [FEATURE] Rules: Add new option `query_offset` for each rule group via rule group configuration file and `rule_query_offset` as part of the global configuration to have more resilience for remote write delays. #14061 #14216 #14273
+* [ENHANCEMENT] Rules: Add `rule_group_last_restore_duration_seconds` metric to measure the time it takes to restore a rule group. #13974
+* [ENHANCEMENT] OTLP: Improve remote write format translation performance by using label set hashes for metric identifiers instead of string based ones. #14006 #13991
+* [ENHANCEMENT] TSDB: Optimize querying with regexp matchers. #13620
+* [BUGFIX] OTLP: Don't generate target_info unless there are metrics and at least one identifying label is defined. #13991
+* [BUGFIX] Scrape: Do no try to ingest native histograms when the native histograms feature is turned off. This happened when protobuf scrape was enabled by for example the created time feature. #13987
+* [BUGFIX] Scaleway SD: Use the instance's public IP if no private IP is available as the `__address__` meta label. #13941
+* [BUGFIX] Query logger: Do not leak file descriptors on error. #13948
+* [BUGFIX] TSDB: Let queries with heavy regex matches be cancelled and not use up the CPU. #14096 #14103 #14118 #14199
+* [BUGFIX] API: Do not warn if result count is equal to the limit, only when exceeding the limit for the series, label-names and label-values APIs. #14116
+* [BUGFIX] TSDB: Fix head stats and hooks when replaying a corrupted snapshot. #14079
+
+## 2.52.1 / 2024-05-29
+
+* [BUGFIX] Linode SD: Fix partial fetch when discovery would return more than 500 elements. #14141
+
+## 2.52.0 / 2024-05-07
+
 * [CHANGE] TSDB: Fix the predicate checking for blocks which are beyond the retention period to include the ones right at the retention boundary. #9633
+* [FEATURE] Kubernetes SD: Add a new metric `prometheus_sd_kubernetes_failures_total` to track failed requests to Kubernetes API. #13554
+* [FEATURE] Kubernetes SD: Add node and zone metadata labels when using the endpointslice role. #13935
+* [FEATURE] Azure SD/Remote Write: Allow usage of Azure authorization SDK. #13099
+* [FEATURE] Alerting: Support native histogram templating. #13731
+* [FEATURE] Linode SD: Support IPv6 range discovery and region filtering. #13774
+* [ENHANCEMENT] PromQL: Performance improvements for queries with regex matchers. #13461
+* [ENHANCEMENT] PromQL: Performance improvements when using aggregation operators. #13744
+* [ENHANCEMENT] PromQL: Validate label_join destination label. #13803
+* [ENHANCEMENT] Scrape: Increment `prometheus_target_scrapes_sample_duplicate_timestamp_total` metric on duplicated series during one scrape. #12933
+* [ENHANCEMENT] TSDB: Many improvements in performance. #13742 #13673 #13782
+* [ENHANCEMENT] TSDB: Pause regular block compactions if the head needs to be compacted (prioritize head as it increases memory consumption). #13754
+* [ENHANCEMENT] Observability: Improved logging during signal handling termination. #13772
+* [ENHANCEMENT] Observability: All log lines for drop series use "num_dropped" key consistently. #13823
+* [ENHANCEMENT] Observability: Log chunk snapshot and mmaped chunk replay duration during WAL replay. #13838
+* [ENHANCEMENT] Observability: Log if the block is being created from WBL during compaction. #13846
+* [BUGFIX] PromQL: Fix inaccurate sample number statistic when querying histograms. #13667
+* [BUGFIX] PromQL: Fix `histogram_stddev` and `histogram_stdvar` for cases where the histogram has negative buckets. #13852
+* [BUGFIX] PromQL: Fix possible duplicated label name and values in a metric result for specific queries. #13845
+* [BUGFIX] Scrape: Fix setting native histogram schema factor during scrape. #13846
+* [BUGFIX] TSDB: Fix counting of histogram samples when creating WAL checkpoint stats. #13776
+* [BUGFIX] TSDB: Fix cases of compacting empty heads. #13755
+* [BUGFIX] TSDB: Count float histograms in WAL checkpoint. #13844
+* [BUGFIX] Remote Read: Fix memory leak due to broken requests. #13777
+* [BUGFIX] API: Stop building response for `/api/v1/series/` when the API request was cancelled. #13766
+* [BUGFIX] promtool: Fix panic on `promtool tsdb analyze --extended` when no native histograms are present. #13976
 
 ## 2.51.2 / 2024-04-09
 
diff --git a/CONTRIBUTING.md b/CONTRIBUTING.md
index 7687826ba4..9b1b286ccf 100644
--- a/CONTRIBUTING.md
+++ b/CONTRIBUTING.md
@@ -42,7 +42,12 @@ go build ./cmd/prometheus/
 make test         # Make sure all the tests pass before you commit and push :)
 ```
 
-We use [`golangci-lint`](https://github.com/golangci/golangci-lint) for linting the code. If it reports an issue and you think that the warning needs to be disregarded or is a false-positive, you can add a special comment `//nolint:linter1[,linter2,...]` before the offending line. Use this sparingly though, fixing the code to comply with the linter's recommendation is in general the preferred course of action.
+To run a collection of Go linters through [`golangci-lint`](https://github.com/golangci/golangci-lint), do:
+```bash
+make lint
+```
+
+If it reports an issue and you think that the warning needs to be disregarded or is a false-positive, you can add a special comment `//nolint:linter1[,linter2,...]` before the offending line. Use this sparingly though, fixing the code to comply with the linter's recommendation is in general the preferred course of action. See [this section of the golangci-lint documentation](https://golangci-lint.run/usage/false-positives/#nolint-directive) for more information.
 
 All our issues are regularly tagged so that you can also filter down the issues involving the components you want to work on. For our labeling policy refer [the wiki page](https://github.com/prometheus/prometheus/wiki/Label-Names-and-Descriptions).
 
diff --git a/MAINTAINERS.md b/MAINTAINERS.md
index d9a7d0f783..3661ddaa0a 100644
--- a/MAINTAINERS.md
+++ b/MAINTAINERS.md
@@ -16,7 +16,7 @@ Maintainers for specific parts of the codebase:
 * `model/histogram` and other code related to native histograms: Björn Rabenstein (<beorn@grafana.com> / @beorn7), 
 George Krajcsovits (<gyorgy.krajcsovits@grafana.com> / @krajorama)
 * `storage`
-  * `remote`: Callum Styan (<callumstyan@gmail.com> / @cstyan), Bartłomiej Płotka (<bwplotka@gmail.com> / @bwplotka), Tom Wilkie (<tom.wilkie@gmail.com> / @tomwilkie)
+  * `remote`: Callum Styan (<callumstyan@gmail.com> / @cstyan), Bartłomiej Płotka (<bwplotka@gmail.com> / @bwplotka), Tom Wilkie (tom.wilkie@gmail.com / @tomwilkie), Nicolás Pazos ( <npazosmendez@gmail.com> / @npazosmendez), Alex Greenbank ( <alex.greenbank@grafana.com> / @alexgreenbank)
     * `otlptranslator`: Arve Knudsen (<arve.knudsen@gmail.com> / @aknuds1), Jesús Vázquez (<jesus.vazquez@grafana.com> / @jesusvazquez)
 * `tsdb`: Ganesh Vernekar (<ganesh@grafana.com> / @codesome), Bartłomiej Płotka (<bwplotka@gmail.com> / @bwplotka), Jesús Vázquez (<jesus.vazquez@grafana.com> / @jesusvazquez)
   * `agent`: Robert Fratto (<robert.fratto@grafana.com> / @rfratto)
diff --git a/Makefile b/Makefile
index b8dff34884..ea66309b50 100644
--- a/Makefile
+++ b/Makefile
@@ -24,6 +24,7 @@ TSDB_BENCHMARK_DATASET ?= ./tsdb/testdata/20kseries.json
 TSDB_BENCHMARK_OUTPUT_DIR ?= ./benchout
 
 GOLANGCI_LINT_OPTS ?= --timeout 4m
+GOYACC_VERSION ?= v0.6.0
 
 include Makefile.common
 
@@ -86,24 +87,42 @@ assets-tarball: assets
 	@echo '>> packaging assets'
 	scripts/package_assets.sh
 
-# We only want to generate the parser when there's changes to the grammar.
 .PHONY: parser
 parser:
 	@echo ">> running goyacc to generate the .go file."
 ifeq (, $(shell command -v goyacc 2> /dev/null))
 	@echo "goyacc not installed so skipping"
-	@echo "To install: go install golang.org/x/tools/cmd/goyacc@v0.6.0"
+	@echo "To install: \"go install golang.org/x/tools/cmd/goyacc@$(GOYACC_VERSION)\" or run \"make install-goyacc\""
 else
-	goyacc -l -o promql/parser/generated_parser.y.go promql/parser/generated_parser.y
+	$(MAKE) promql/parser/generated_parser.y.go
 endif
 
+promql/parser/generated_parser.y.go: promql/parser/generated_parser.y
+	@echo ">> running goyacc to generate the .go file."
+	@$(FIRST_GOPATH)/bin/goyacc -l -o promql/parser/generated_parser.y.go promql/parser/generated_parser.y
+
+.PHONY: clean-parser
+clean-parser:
+	@echo ">> cleaning generated parser"
+	@rm -f promql/parser/generated_parser.y.go
+
+.PHONY: check-generated-parser
+check-generated-parser: clean-parser promql/parser/generated_parser.y.go
+	@echo ">> checking generated parser"
+	@git diff --exit-code -- promql/parser/generated_parser.y.go || (echo "Generated parser is out of date. Please run 'make parser' and commit the changes." && false)
+
+.PHONY: install-goyacc
+install-goyacc:
+	@echo ">> installing goyacc $(GOYACC_VERSION)"
+	@go install golang.org/x/tools/cmd/goyacc@$(GOYACC_VERSION)
+
 .PHONY: test
 # If we only want to only test go code we have to change the test target
 # which is called by all.
 ifeq ($(GO_ONLY),1)
 test: common-test check-go-mod-version
 else
-test: common-test ui-build-module ui-test ui-lint check-go-mod-version
+test: check-generated-parser common-test ui-build-module ui-test ui-lint check-go-mod-version
 endif
 
 .PHONY: npm_licenses
diff --git a/Makefile.common b/Makefile.common
index 0acfb9d806..e3da72ab47 100644
--- a/Makefile.common
+++ b/Makefile.common
@@ -55,13 +55,13 @@ ifneq ($(shell command -v gotestsum 2> /dev/null),)
 endif
 endif
 
-PROMU_VERSION ?= 0.15.0
+PROMU_VERSION ?= 0.17.0
 PROMU_URL     := https://github.com/prometheus/promu/releases/download/v$(PROMU_VERSION)/promu-$(PROMU_VERSION).$(GO_BUILD_PLATFORM).tar.gz
 
 SKIP_GOLANGCI_LINT :=
 GOLANGCI_LINT :=
 GOLANGCI_LINT_OPTS ?=
-GOLANGCI_LINT_VERSION ?= v1.56.2
+GOLANGCI_LINT_VERSION ?= v1.59.1
 # golangci-lint only supports linux, darwin and windows platforms on i386/amd64/arm64.
 # windows isn't included here because of the path separator being different.
 ifeq ($(GOHOSTOS),$(filter $(GOHOSTOS),linux darwin))
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
index 023619a781..cd14ed2ecb 100644
--- a/README.md
+++ b/README.md
@@ -1,8 +1,8 @@
 <h1 align="center" style="border-bottom: none">
-    <a href="//prometheus.io" target="_blank"><img alt="Prometheus" src="/documentation/images/prometheus-logo.svg"></a><br>Prometheus
+    <a href="https://prometheus.io" target="_blank"><img alt="Prometheus" src="/documentation/images/prometheus-logo.svg"></a><br>Prometheus
 </h1>
 
-<p align="center">Visit <a href="//prometheus.io" target="_blank">prometheus.io</a> for the full documentation,
+<p align="center">Visit <a href="https://prometheus.io" target="_blank">prometheus.io</a> for the full documentation,
 examples and guides.</p>
 
 <div align="center">
diff --git a/RELEASE.md b/RELEASE.md
index f313c4172d..0d3f7456cd 100644
--- a/RELEASE.md
+++ b/RELEASE.md
@@ -57,7 +57,8 @@ Release cadence of first pre-releases being cut is 6 weeks.
 | v2.50          | 2024-01-16                                 | Augustin Husson (GitHub: @nexucis)          |
 | v2.51          | 2024-03-07                                 | Bryan Boreham (GitHub: @bboreham)           |
 | v2.52          | 2024-04-22                                 | Arthur Silva Sens (GitHub: @ArthurSens)     |
-| v2.53          | 2024-06-03                                 | George Krajcsovits (GitHub: @krajorama)     |
+| v2.53 LTS      | 2024-06-03                                 | George Krajcsovits (GitHub: @krajorama)     |
+| v2.54          | 2024-07-17                                 | Bryan Boreham (GitHub: @bboreham)           |
 
 If you are interested in volunteering please create a pull request against the [prometheus/prometheus](https://github.com/prometheus/prometheus) repository and propose yourself for the release series of your choice.
 
@@ -149,6 +150,8 @@ Changes for a patch release or release candidate should be merged into the previ
 
 Bump the version in the `VERSION` file and update `CHANGELOG.md`. Do this in a proper PR pointing to the release branch as this gives others the opportunity to chime in on the release in general and on the addition to the changelog in particular. For a release candidate, append something like `-rc.0` to the version (with the corresponding changes to the tag name, the release name etc.).
 
+When updating the `CHANGELOG.md` look at all PRs included in the release since the last release and verify if they need a changelog entry.
+
 Note that `CHANGELOG.md` should only document changes relevant to users of Prometheus, including external API changes, performance improvements, and new features. Do not document changes of internal interfaces, code refactorings and clean-ups, changes to the build process, etc. People interested in these are asked to refer to the git history.
 
 For release candidates still update `CHANGELOG.md`, but when you cut the final release later, merge all the changes from the pre-releases into the one final update.
diff --git a/VERSION b/VERSION
index 587b583f91..261d95596f 100644
--- a/VERSION
+++ b/VERSION
@@ -1 +1 @@
-2.51.2
+2.53.0
diff --git a/cmd/prometheus/main.go b/cmd/prometheus/main.go
index ed62926cc6..b4737e6287 100644
--- a/cmd/prometheus/main.go
+++ b/cmd/prometheus/main.go
@@ -28,6 +28,8 @@ import (
 	"os/signal"
 	"path/filepath"
 	"runtime"
+	"runtime/debug"
+	"strconv"
 	"strings"
 	"sync"
 	"syscall"
@@ -42,6 +44,7 @@ import (
 	"github.com/mwitkow/go-conntrack"
 	"github.com/oklog/run"
 	"github.com/prometheus/client_golang/prometheus"
+	"github.com/prometheus/client_golang/prometheus/collectors"
 	versioncollector "github.com/prometheus/client_golang/prometheus/collectors/version"
 	"github.com/prometheus/common/model"
 	"github.com/prometheus/common/promlog"
@@ -191,6 +194,9 @@ func (c *flagConfig) setFeatureListOptions(logger log.Logger) error {
 			case "extra-scrape-metrics":
 				c.scrape.ExtraMetrics = true
 				level.Info(logger).Log("msg", "Experimental additional scrape metrics enabled")
+			case "metadata-wal-records":
+				c.scrape.AppendMetadata = true
+				level.Info(logger).Log("msg", "Experimental metadata records in WAL enabled, required for remote write 2.0")
 			case "new-service-discovery-manager":
 				c.enableNewSDManager = true
 				level.Info(logger).Log("msg", "Experimental service discovery manager")
@@ -217,6 +223,7 @@ func (c *flagConfig) setFeatureListOptions(logger log.Logger) error {
 				level.Info(logger).Log("msg", "Experimental PromQL functions enabled.")
 			case "native-histograms":
 				c.tsdb.EnableNativeHistograms = true
+				c.scrape.EnableNativeHistogramsIngestion = true
 				// Change relevant global variables. Hacky, but it's hard to pass a new option or default to unmarshallers.
 				config.DefaultConfig.GlobalConfig.ScrapeProtocols = config.DefaultProtoFirstScrapeProtocols
 				config.DefaultGlobalConfig.ScrapeProtocols = config.DefaultProtoFirstScrapeProtocols
@@ -254,6 +261,18 @@ func main() {
 		newFlagRetentionDuration model.Duration
 	)
 
+	// Unregister the default GoCollector, and reregister with our defaults.
+	if prometheus.Unregister(collectors.NewGoCollector()) {
+		prometheus.MustRegister(
+			collectors.NewGoCollector(
+				collectors.WithGoCollectorRuntimeMetrics(
+					collectors.MetricsGC,
+					collectors.MetricsScheduler,
+				),
+			),
+		)
+	}
+
 	cfg := flagConfig{
 		notifier: notifier.Options{
 			Registerer: prometheus.DefaultRegisterer,
@@ -309,9 +328,15 @@ func main() {
 	a.Flag("web.enable-admin-api", "Enable API endpoints for admin control actions.").
 		Default("false").BoolVar(&cfg.web.EnableAdminAPI)
 
+	// TODO(bwplotka): Consider allowing those remote receive flags to be changed in config.
+	// See https://github.com/prometheus/prometheus/issues/14410
 	a.Flag("web.enable-remote-write-receiver", "Enable API endpoint accepting remote write requests.").
 		Default("false").BoolVar(&cfg.web.EnableRemoteWriteReceiver)
 
+	supportedRemoteWriteProtoMsgs := config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgs{config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1, config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV2}
+	a.Flag("web.remote-write-receiver.accepted-protobuf-messages", fmt.Sprintf("List of the remote write protobuf messages to accept when receiving the remote writes. Supported values: %v", supportedRemoteWriteProtoMsgs.String())).
+		Default(supportedRemoteWriteProtoMsgs.Strings()...).SetValue(rwProtoMsgFlagValue(&cfg.web.AcceptRemoteWriteProtoMsgs))
+
 	a.Flag("web.console.templates", "Path to the console template directory, available at /consoles.").
 		Default("consoles").StringVar(&cfg.web.ConsoleTemplatesPath)
 
@@ -420,7 +445,7 @@ func main() {
 	serverOnlyFlag(a, "rules.alert.resend-delay", "Minimum amount of time to wait before resending an alert to Alertmanager.").
 		Default("1m").SetValue(&cfg.resendDelay)
 
-	serverOnlyFlag(a, "rules.max-concurrent-evals", "Global concurrency limit for independent rules that can run concurrently.").
+	serverOnlyFlag(a, "rules.max-concurrent-evals", "Global concurrency limit for independent rules that can run concurrently. When set, \"query.max-concurrency\" may need to be adjusted accordingly.").
 		Default("4").Int64Var(&cfg.maxConcurrentEvals)
 
 	a.Flag("scrape.adjust-timestamps", "Adjust scrape timestamps by up to `scrape.timestamp-tolerance` to align them to the intended schedule. See https://github.com/prometheus/prometheus/issues/7846 for more context. Experimental. This flag will be removed in a future release.").
@@ -432,6 +457,9 @@ func main() {
 	serverOnlyFlag(a, "alertmanager.notification-queue-capacity", "The capacity of the queue for pending Alertmanager notifications.").
 		Default("10000").IntVar(&cfg.notifier.QueueCapacity)
 
+	serverOnlyFlag(a, "alertmanager.drain-notification-queue-on-shutdown", "Send any outstanding Alertmanager notifications when shutting down. If false, any outstanding Alertmanager notifications will be dropped when shutting down.").
+		Default("true").BoolVar(&cfg.notifier.DrainOnShutdown)
+
 	// TODO: Remove in Prometheus 3.0.
 	alertmanagerTimeout := a.Flag("alertmanager.timeout", "[DEPRECATED] This flag has no effect.").Hidden().String()
 
@@ -630,7 +658,7 @@ func main() {
 	var (
 		localStorage  = &readyStorage{stats: tsdb.NewDBStats()}
 		scraper       = &readyScrapeManager{}
-		remoteStorage = remote.NewStorage(log.With(logger, "component", "remote"), prometheus.DefaultRegisterer, localStorage.StartTime, localStoragePath, time.Duration(cfg.RemoteFlushDeadline), scraper)
+		remoteStorage = remote.NewStorage(log.With(logger, "component", "remote"), prometheus.DefaultRegisterer, localStorage.StartTime, localStoragePath, time.Duration(cfg.RemoteFlushDeadline), scraper, cfg.scrape.AppendMetadata)
 		fanoutStorage = storage.NewFanout(logger, localStorage, remoteStorage)
 	)
 
@@ -774,6 +802,9 @@ func main() {
 			ResendDelay:            time.Duration(cfg.resendDelay),
 			MaxConcurrentEvals:     cfg.maxConcurrentEvals,
 			ConcurrentEvalsEnabled: cfg.enableConcurrentRuleEval,
+			DefaultRuleQueryOffset: func() time.Duration {
+				return time.Duration(cfgFile.GlobalConfig.RuleQueryOffset)
+			},
 		})
 	}
 
@@ -1181,7 +1212,7 @@ func main() {
 	}
 	if agentMode {
 		// WAL storage.
-		opts := cfg.agent.ToAgentOptions()
+		opts := cfg.agent.ToAgentOptions(cfg.tsdb.OutOfOrderTimeWindow)
 		cancel := make(chan struct{})
 		g.Add(
 			func() error {
@@ -1217,6 +1248,7 @@ func main() {
 					"TruncateFrequency", cfg.agent.TruncateFrequency,
 					"MinWALTime", cfg.agent.MinWALTime,
 					"MaxWALTime", cfg.agent.MaxWALTime,
+					"OutOfOrderTimeWindow", cfg.agent.OutOfOrderTimeWindow,
 				)
 
 				localStorage.Set(db, 0)
@@ -1370,6 +1402,17 @@ func reloadConfig(filename string, expandExternalLabels, enableExemplarStorage b
 		return fmt.Errorf("one or more errors occurred while applying the new configuration (--config.file=%q)", filename)
 	}
 
+	oldGoGC := debug.SetGCPercent(conf.Runtime.GoGC)
+	if oldGoGC != conf.Runtime.GoGC {
+		level.Info(logger).Log("msg", "updated GOGC", "old", oldGoGC, "new", conf.Runtime.GoGC)
+	}
+	// Write the new setting out to the ENV var for runtime API output.
+	if conf.Runtime.GoGC >= 0 {
+		os.Setenv("GOGC", strconv.Itoa(conf.Runtime.GoGC))
+	} else {
+		os.Setenv("GOGC", "off")
+	}
+
 	noStepSuqueryInterval.Set(conf.GlobalConfig.EvaluationInterval)
 	l := []interface{}{"msg", "Completed loading of configuration file", "filename", filename, "totalDuration", time.Since(start)}
 	level.Info(logger).Log(append(l, timings...)...)
@@ -1709,17 +1752,22 @@ type agentOptions struct {
 	TruncateFrequency      model.Duration
 	MinWALTime, MaxWALTime model.Duration
 	NoLockfile             bool
+	OutOfOrderTimeWindow   int64
 }
 
-func (opts agentOptions) ToAgentOptions() agent.Options {
+func (opts agentOptions) ToAgentOptions(outOfOrderTimeWindow int64) agent.Options {
+	if outOfOrderTimeWindow < 0 {
+		outOfOrderTimeWindow = 0
+	}
 	return agent.Options{
-		WALSegmentSize:    int(opts.WALSegmentSize),
-		WALCompression:    wlog.ParseCompressionType(opts.WALCompression, opts.WALCompressionType),
-		StripeSize:        opts.StripeSize,
-		TruncateFrequency: time.Duration(opts.TruncateFrequency),
-		MinWALTime:        durationToInt64Millis(time.Duration(opts.MinWALTime)),
-		MaxWALTime:        durationToInt64Millis(time.Duration(opts.MaxWALTime)),
-		NoLockfile:        opts.NoLockfile,
+		WALSegmentSize:       int(opts.WALSegmentSize),
+		WALCompression:       wlog.ParseCompressionType(opts.WALCompression, opts.WALCompressionType),
+		StripeSize:           opts.StripeSize,
+		TruncateFrequency:    time.Duration(opts.TruncateFrequency),
+		MinWALTime:           durationToInt64Millis(time.Duration(opts.MinWALTime)),
+		MaxWALTime:           durationToInt64Millis(time.Duration(opts.MaxWALTime)),
+		NoLockfile:           opts.NoLockfile,
+		OutOfOrderTimeWindow: outOfOrderTimeWindow,
 	}
 }
 
@@ -1731,3 +1779,39 @@ type discoveryManager interface {
 	Run() error
 	SyncCh() <-chan map[string][]*targetgroup.Group
 }
+
+// rwProtoMsgFlagParser is a custom parser for config.RemoteWriteProtoMsg enum.
+type rwProtoMsgFlagParser struct {
+	msgs *[]config.RemoteWriteProtoMsg
+}
+
+func rwProtoMsgFlagValue(msgs *[]config.RemoteWriteProtoMsg) kingpin.Value {
+	return &rwProtoMsgFlagParser{msgs: msgs}
+}
+
+// IsCumulative is used by kingpin to tell if it's an array or not.
+func (p *rwProtoMsgFlagParser) IsCumulative() bool {
+	return true
+}
+
+func (p *rwProtoMsgFlagParser) String() string {
+	ss := make([]string, 0, len(*p.msgs))
+	for _, t := range *p.msgs {
+		ss = append(ss, string(t))
+	}
+	return strings.Join(ss, ",")
+}
+
+func (p *rwProtoMsgFlagParser) Set(opt string) error {
+	t := config.RemoteWriteProtoMsg(opt)
+	if err := t.Validate(); err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	for _, prev := range *p.msgs {
+		if prev == t {
+			return fmt.Errorf("duplicated %v flag value, got %v already", t, *p.msgs)
+		}
+	}
+	*p.msgs = append(*p.msgs, t)
+	return nil
+}
diff --git a/cmd/prometheus/main_test.go b/cmd/prometheus/main_test.go
index 03f3a9bc39..c827812e60 100644
--- a/cmd/prometheus/main_test.go
+++ b/cmd/prometheus/main_test.go
@@ -24,16 +24,19 @@ import (
 	"os/exec"
 	"path/filepath"
 	"runtime"
+	"strconv"
 	"strings"
 	"syscall"
 	"testing"
 	"time"
 
+	"github.com/alecthomas/kingpin/v2"
 	"github.com/go-kit/log"
 	"github.com/prometheus/client_golang/prometheus"
 	"github.com/prometheus/common/model"
 	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
 
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/config"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/labels"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/notifier"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/rules"
@@ -189,7 +192,7 @@ func TestSendAlerts(t *testing.T) {
 
 	for i, tc := range testCases {
 		tc := tc
-		t.Run(fmt.Sprintf("%d", i), func(t *testing.T) {
+		t.Run(strconv.Itoa(i), func(t *testing.T) {
 			senderFunc := senderFunc(func(alerts ...*notifier.Alert) {
 				require.NotEmpty(t, tc.in, "sender called with 0 alert")
 				require.Equal(t, tc.exp, alerts)
@@ -498,3 +501,65 @@ func TestDocumentation(t *testing.T) {
 
 	require.Equal(t, string(expectedContent), generatedContent, "Generated content does not match documentation. Hint: run `make cli-documentation`.")
 }
+
+func TestRwProtoMsgFlagParser(t *testing.T) {
+	defaultOpts := config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgs{
+		config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1, config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV2,
+	}
+
+	for _, tcase := range []struct {
+		args        []string
+		expected    []config.RemoteWriteProtoMsg
+		expectedErr error
+	}{
+		{
+			args:     nil,
+			expected: defaultOpts,
+		},
+		{
+			args:        []string{"--test-proto-msgs", "test"},
+			expectedErr: errors.New("unknown remote write protobuf message test, supported: prometheus.WriteRequest, io.prometheus.write.v2.Request"),
+		},
+		{
+			args:     []string{"--test-proto-msgs", "io.prometheus.write.v2.Request"},
+			expected: config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgs{config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV2},
+		},
+		{
+			args: []string{
+				"--test-proto-msgs", "io.prometheus.write.v2.Request",
+				"--test-proto-msgs", "io.prometheus.write.v2.Request",
+			},
+			expectedErr: errors.New("duplicated io.prometheus.write.v2.Request flag value, got [io.prometheus.write.v2.Request] already"),
+		},
+		{
+			args: []string{
+				"--test-proto-msgs", "io.prometheus.write.v2.Request",
+				"--test-proto-msgs", "prometheus.WriteRequest",
+			},
+			expected: config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgs{config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV2, config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1},
+		},
+		{
+			args: []string{
+				"--test-proto-msgs", "io.prometheus.write.v2.Request",
+				"--test-proto-msgs", "prometheus.WriteRequest",
+				"--test-proto-msgs", "io.prometheus.write.v2.Request",
+			},
+			expectedErr: errors.New("duplicated io.prometheus.write.v2.Request flag value, got [io.prometheus.write.v2.Request prometheus.WriteRequest] already"),
+		},
+	} {
+		t.Run(strings.Join(tcase.args, ","), func(t *testing.T) {
+			a := kingpin.New("test", "")
+			var opt []config.RemoteWriteProtoMsg
+			a.Flag("test-proto-msgs", "").Default(defaultOpts.Strings()...).SetValue(rwProtoMsgFlagValue(&opt))
+
+			_, err := a.Parse(tcase.args)
+			if tcase.expectedErr != nil {
+				require.Error(t, err)
+				require.Equal(t, tcase.expectedErr, err)
+			} else {
+				require.NoError(t, err)
+				require.Equal(t, tcase.expected, opt)
+			}
+		})
+	}
+}
diff --git a/cmd/prometheus/query_log_test.go b/cmd/prometheus/query_log_test.go
index dd6b56672c..62e317bf8b 100644
--- a/cmd/prometheus/query_log_test.go
+++ b/cmd/prometheus/query_log_test.go
@@ -72,7 +72,7 @@ func (p *queryLogTest) waitForPrometheus() error {
 	var err error
 	for x := 0; x < 20; x++ {
 		var r *http.Response
-		if r, err = http.Get(fmt.Sprintf("http://%s:%d%s/-/ready", p.host, p.port, p.prefix)); err == nil && r.StatusCode == 200 {
+		if r, err = http.Get(fmt.Sprintf("http://%s:%d%s/-/ready", p.host, p.port, p.prefix)); err == nil && r.StatusCode == http.StatusOK {
 			break
 		}
 		time.Sleep(500 * time.Millisecond)
@@ -296,7 +296,7 @@ func (p *queryLogTest) run(t *testing.T) {
 	if p.exactQueryCount() {
 		require.Equal(t, 1, qc)
 	} else {
-		require.Greater(t, qc, 0, "no queries logged")
+		require.Positive(t, qc, "no queries logged")
 	}
 	p.validateLastQuery(t, ql)
 
@@ -366,7 +366,7 @@ func (p *queryLogTest) run(t *testing.T) {
 	if p.exactQueryCount() {
 		require.Equal(t, 1, qc)
 	} else {
-		require.Greater(t, qc, 0, "no queries logged")
+		require.Positive(t, qc, "no queries logged")
 	}
 }
 
diff --git a/cmd/promtool/backfill.go b/cmd/promtool/backfill.go
index 601c3ced9f..400cae421a 100644
--- a/cmd/promtool/backfill.go
+++ b/cmd/promtool/backfill.go
@@ -22,6 +22,7 @@ import (
 	"time"
 
 	"github.com/go-kit/log"
+	"github.com/oklog/ulid"
 
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/labels"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/textparse"
@@ -88,7 +89,7 @@ func createBlocks(input []byte, mint, maxt, maxBlockDuration int64, maxSamplesIn
 	blockDuration := getCompatibleBlockDuration(maxBlockDuration)
 	mint = blockDuration * (mint / blockDuration)
 
-	db, err := tsdb.OpenDBReadOnly(outputDir, nil)
+	db, err := tsdb.OpenDBReadOnly(outputDir, "", nil)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
@@ -191,6 +192,10 @@ func createBlocks(input []byte, mint, maxt, maxBlockDuration int64, maxSamplesIn
 				if quiet {
 					break
 				}
+				// Empty block, don't print.
+				if block.Compare(ulid.ULID{}) == 0 {
+					break
+				}
 				blocks, err := db.Blocks()
 				if err != nil {
 					return fmt.Errorf("get blocks: %w", err)
diff --git a/cmd/promtool/main.go b/cmd/promtool/main.go
index a62ae4fbf4..e1d275e97e 100644
--- a/cmd/promtool/main.go
+++ b/cmd/promtool/main.go
@@ -56,8 +56,8 @@ import (
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/rulefmt"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/notifier"
 	_ "github.com/prometheus/prometheus/plugins" // Register plugins.
-	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/promql"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/promql/parser"
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/promql/promqltest"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/scrape"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/util/documentcli"
 )
@@ -235,12 +235,14 @@ func main() {
 
 	tsdbDumpCmd := tsdbCmd.Command("dump", "Dump samples from a TSDB.")
 	dumpPath := tsdbDumpCmd.Arg("db path", "Database path (default is "+defaultDBPath+").").Default(defaultDBPath).String()
+	dumpSandboxDirRoot := tsdbDumpCmd.Flag("sandbox-dir-root", "Root directory where a sandbox directory would be created in case WAL replay generates chunks. The sandbox directory is cleaned up at the end.").Default(defaultDBPath).String()
 	dumpMinTime := tsdbDumpCmd.Flag("min-time", "Minimum timestamp to dump.").Default(strconv.FormatInt(math.MinInt64, 10)).Int64()
 	dumpMaxTime := tsdbDumpCmd.Flag("max-time", "Maximum timestamp to dump.").Default(strconv.FormatInt(math.MaxInt64, 10)).Int64()
 	dumpMatch := tsdbDumpCmd.Flag("match", "Series selector. Can be specified multiple times.").Default("{__name__=~'(?s:.*)'}").Strings()
 
-	tsdbDumpOpenMetricsCmd := tsdbCmd.Command("dump-openmetrics", "[Experimental] Dump samples from a TSDB into OpenMetrics format. Native histograms are not dumped.")
+	tsdbDumpOpenMetricsCmd := tsdbCmd.Command("dump-openmetrics", "[Experimental] Dump samples from a TSDB into OpenMetrics text format, excluding native histograms and staleness markers, which are not representable in OpenMetrics.")
 	dumpOpenMetricsPath := tsdbDumpOpenMetricsCmd.Arg("db path", "Database path (default is "+defaultDBPath+").").Default(defaultDBPath).String()
+	dumpOpenMetricsSandboxDirRoot := tsdbDumpOpenMetricsCmd.Flag("sandbox-dir-root", "Root directory where a sandbox directory would be created in case WAL replay generates chunks. The sandbox directory is cleaned up at the end.").Default(defaultDBPath).String()
 	dumpOpenMetricsMinTime := tsdbDumpOpenMetricsCmd.Flag("min-time", "Minimum timestamp to dump.").Default(strconv.FormatInt(math.MinInt64, 10)).Int64()
 	dumpOpenMetricsMaxTime := tsdbDumpOpenMetricsCmd.Flag("max-time", "Maximum timestamp to dump.").Default(strconv.FormatInt(math.MaxInt64, 10)).Int64()
 	dumpOpenMetricsMatch := tsdbDumpOpenMetricsCmd.Flag("match", "Series selector. Can be specified multiple times.").Default("{__name__=~'(?s:.*)'}").Strings()
@@ -377,7 +379,7 @@ func main() {
 
 	case testRulesCmd.FullCommand():
 		os.Exit(RulesUnitTest(
-			promql.LazyLoaderOpts{
+			promqltest.LazyLoaderOpts{
 				EnableAtModifier:     true,
 				EnableNegativeOffset: true,
 			},
@@ -396,9 +398,9 @@ func main() {
 		os.Exit(checkErr(listBlocks(*listPath, *listHumanReadable)))
 
 	case tsdbDumpCmd.FullCommand():
-		os.Exit(checkErr(dumpSamples(ctx, *dumpPath, *dumpMinTime, *dumpMaxTime, *dumpMatch, formatSeriesSet)))
+		os.Exit(checkErr(dumpSamples(ctx, *dumpPath, *dumpSandboxDirRoot, *dumpMinTime, *dumpMaxTime, *dumpMatch, formatSeriesSet)))
 	case tsdbDumpOpenMetricsCmd.FullCommand():
-		os.Exit(checkErr(dumpSamples(ctx, *dumpOpenMetricsPath, *dumpOpenMetricsMinTime, *dumpOpenMetricsMaxTime, *dumpOpenMetricsMatch, formatSeriesSetOpenMetrics)))
+		os.Exit(checkErr(dumpSamples(ctx, *dumpOpenMetricsPath, *dumpOpenMetricsSandboxDirRoot, *dumpOpenMetricsMinTime, *dumpOpenMetricsMaxTime, *dumpOpenMetricsMatch, formatSeriesSetOpenMetrics)))
 	// TODO(aSquare14): Work on adding support for custom block size.
 	case openMetricsImportCmd.FullCommand():
 		os.Exit(backfillOpenMetrics(*importFilePath, *importDBPath, *importHumanReadable, *importQuiet, *maxBlockDuration))
diff --git a/cmd/promtool/main_test.go b/cmd/promtool/main_test.go
index 7306a3e648..78500fe937 100644
--- a/cmd/promtool/main_test.go
+++ b/cmd/promtool/main_test.go
@@ -25,6 +25,7 @@ import (
 	"os/exec"
 	"path/filepath"
 	"runtime"
+	"strconv"
 	"strings"
 	"syscall"
 	"testing"
@@ -410,7 +411,7 @@ func TestExitCodes(t *testing.T) {
 	} {
 		t.Run(c.file, func(t *testing.T) {
 			for _, lintFatal := range []bool{true, false} {
-				t.Run(fmt.Sprintf("%t", lintFatal), func(t *testing.T) {
+				t.Run(strconv.FormatBool(lintFatal), func(t *testing.T) {
 					args := []string{"-test.main", "check", "config", "testdata/" + c.file}
 					if lintFatal {
 						args = append(args, "--lint-fatal")
diff --git a/cmd/promtool/tsdb.go b/cmd/promtool/tsdb.go
index b786c92976..2ed7244b1c 100644
--- a/cmd/promtool/tsdb.go
+++ b/cmd/promtool/tsdb.go
@@ -338,7 +338,7 @@ func readPrometheusLabels(r io.Reader, n int) ([]labels.Labels, error) {
 }
 
 func listBlocks(path string, humanReadable bool) error {
-	db, err := tsdb.OpenDBReadOnly(path, nil)
+	db, err := tsdb.OpenDBReadOnly(path, "", nil)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
@@ -393,7 +393,7 @@ func getFormatedBytes(bytes int64, humanReadable bool) string {
 }
 
 func openBlock(path, blockID string) (*tsdb.DBReadOnly, tsdb.BlockReader, error) {
-	db, err := tsdb.OpenDBReadOnly(path, nil)
+	db, err := tsdb.OpenDBReadOnly(path, "", nil)
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, nil, err
 	}
@@ -708,8 +708,8 @@ func analyzeCompaction(ctx context.Context, block tsdb.BlockReader, indexr tsdb.
 
 type SeriesSetFormatter func(series storage.SeriesSet) error
 
-func dumpSamples(ctx context.Context, path string, mint, maxt int64, match []string, formatter SeriesSetFormatter) (err error) {
-	db, err := tsdb.OpenDBReadOnly(path, nil)
+func dumpSamples(ctx context.Context, dbDir, sandboxDirRoot string, mint, maxt int64, match []string, formatter SeriesSetFormatter) (err error) {
+	db, err := tsdb.OpenDBReadOnly(dbDir, sandboxDirRoot, nil)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
@@ -838,6 +838,10 @@ func backfillOpenMetrics(path, outputDir string, humanReadable, quiet bool, maxB
 }
 
 func displayHistogram(dataType string, datas []int, total int) {
+	if len(datas) == 0 {
+		fmt.Printf("%s: N/A\n\n", dataType)
+		return
+	}
 	slices.Sort(datas)
 	start, end, step := generateBucket(datas[0], datas[len(datas)-1])
 	sum := 0
@@ -852,9 +856,9 @@ func displayHistogram(dataType string, datas []int, total int) {
 	}
 	avg := sum / len(datas)
 	fmt.Printf("%s (min/avg/max): %d/%d/%d\n", dataType, datas[0], avg, datas[len(datas)-1])
-	maxLeftLen := strconv.Itoa(len(fmt.Sprintf("%d", end)))
-	maxRightLen := strconv.Itoa(len(fmt.Sprintf("%d", end+step)))
-	maxCountLen := strconv.Itoa(len(fmt.Sprintf("%d", maxCount)))
+	maxLeftLen := strconv.Itoa(len(strconv.Itoa(end)))
+	maxRightLen := strconv.Itoa(len(strconv.Itoa(end + step)))
+	maxCountLen := strconv.Itoa(len(strconv.Itoa(maxCount)))
 	for bucket, count := range buckets {
 		percentage := 100.0 * count / total
 		fmt.Printf("[%"+maxLeftLen+"d, %"+maxRightLen+"d]: %"+maxCountLen+"d %s\n", bucket*step+start+1, (bucket+1)*step+start, count, strings.Repeat("#", percentage))
diff --git a/cmd/promtool/tsdb_test.go b/cmd/promtool/tsdb_test.go
index 36a65d73e4..75089b168b 100644
--- a/cmd/promtool/tsdb_test.go
+++ b/cmd/promtool/tsdb_test.go
@@ -26,7 +26,7 @@ import (
 
 	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
 
-	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/promql"
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/promql/promqltest"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/tsdb"
 )
 
@@ -64,6 +64,7 @@ func getDumpedSamples(t *testing.T, path string, mint, maxt int64, match []strin
 	err := dumpSamples(
 		context.Background(),
 		path,
+		t.TempDir(),
 		mint,
 		maxt,
 		match,
@@ -88,7 +89,7 @@ func normalizeNewLine(b []byte) []byte {
 }
 
 func TestTSDBDump(t *testing.T) {
-	storage := promql.LoadedStorage(t, `
+	storage := promqltest.LoadedStorage(t, `
 		load 1m
 			metric{foo="bar", baz="abc"} 1 2 3 4 5
 			heavy_metric{foo="bar"} 5 4 3 2 1
@@ -158,7 +159,7 @@ func TestTSDBDump(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestTSDBDumpOpenMetrics(t *testing.T) {
-	storage := promql.LoadedStorage(t, `
+	storage := promqltest.LoadedStorage(t, `
 		load 1m
 			my_counter{foo="bar", baz="abc"} 1 2 3 4 5
 			my_gauge{bar="foo", abc="baz"} 9 8 0 4 7
diff --git a/cmd/promtool/unittest.go b/cmd/promtool/unittest.go
index 6d6683a934..5451c5296c 100644
--- a/cmd/promtool/unittest.go
+++ b/cmd/promtool/unittest.go
@@ -36,13 +36,14 @@ import (
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/labels"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/promql"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/promql/parser"
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/promql/promqltest"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/rules"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/storage"
 )
 
 // RulesUnitTest does unit testing of rules based on the unit testing files provided.
 // More info about the file format can be found in the docs.
-func RulesUnitTest(queryOpts promql.LazyLoaderOpts, runStrings []string, diffFlag bool, files ...string) int {
+func RulesUnitTest(queryOpts promqltest.LazyLoaderOpts, runStrings []string, diffFlag bool, files ...string) int {
 	failed := false
 
 	var run *regexp.Regexp
@@ -69,7 +70,7 @@ func RulesUnitTest(queryOpts promql.LazyLoaderOpts, runStrings []string, diffFla
 	return successExitCode
 }
 
-func ruleUnitTest(filename string, queryOpts promql.LazyLoaderOpts, run *regexp.Regexp, diffFlag bool) []error {
+func ruleUnitTest(filename string, queryOpts promqltest.LazyLoaderOpts, run *regexp.Regexp, diffFlag bool) []error {
 	fmt.Println("Unit Testing: ", filename)
 
 	b, err := os.ReadFile(filename)
@@ -175,9 +176,9 @@ type testGroup struct {
 }
 
 // test performs the unit tests.
-func (tg *testGroup) test(evalInterval time.Duration, groupOrderMap map[string]int, queryOpts promql.LazyLoaderOpts, diffFlag bool, ruleFiles ...string) (outErr []error) {
+func (tg *testGroup) test(evalInterval time.Duration, groupOrderMap map[string]int, queryOpts promqltest.LazyLoaderOpts, diffFlag bool, ruleFiles ...string) (outErr []error) {
 	// Setup testing suite.
-	suite, err := promql.NewLazyLoader(tg.seriesLoadingString(), queryOpts)
+	suite, err := promqltest.NewLazyLoader(tg.seriesLoadingString(), queryOpts)
 	if err != nil {
 		return []error{err}
 	}
@@ -413,7 +414,7 @@ Outer:
 			gotSamples = append(gotSamples, parsedSample{
 				Labels:    s.Metric.Copy(),
 				Value:     s.F,
-				Histogram: promql.HistogramTestExpression(s.H),
+				Histogram: promqltest.HistogramTestExpression(s.H),
 			})
 		}
 
@@ -443,7 +444,7 @@ Outer:
 			expSamples = append(expSamples, parsedSample{
 				Labels:    lb,
 				Value:     s.Value,
-				Histogram: promql.HistogramTestExpression(hist),
+				Histogram: promqltest.HistogramTestExpression(hist),
 			})
 		}
 
@@ -572,7 +573,7 @@ func (la labelsAndAnnotations) String() string {
 	}
 	s := "[\n0:" + indentLines("\n"+la[0].String(), "  ")
 	for i, l := range la[1:] {
-		s += ",\n" + fmt.Sprintf("%d", i+1) + ":" + indentLines("\n"+l.String(), "  ")
+		s += ",\n" + strconv.Itoa(i+1) + ":" + indentLines("\n"+l.String(), "  ")
 	}
 	s += "\n]"
 
diff --git a/cmd/promtool/unittest_test.go b/cmd/promtool/unittest_test.go
index 971ddb40c5..2dbd5a4e51 100644
--- a/cmd/promtool/unittest_test.go
+++ b/cmd/promtool/unittest_test.go
@@ -18,7 +18,7 @@ import (
 
 	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
 
-	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/promql"
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/promql/promqltest"
 )
 
 func TestRulesUnitTest(t *testing.T) {
@@ -28,7 +28,7 @@ func TestRulesUnitTest(t *testing.T) {
 	tests := []struct {
 		name      string
 		args      args
-		queryOpts promql.LazyLoaderOpts
+		queryOpts promqltest.LazyLoaderOpts
 		want      int
 	}{
 		{
@@ -92,7 +92,7 @@ func TestRulesUnitTest(t *testing.T) {
 			args: args{
 				files: []string{"./testdata/at-modifier-test.yml"},
 			},
-			queryOpts: promql.LazyLoaderOpts{
+			queryOpts: promqltest.LazyLoaderOpts{
 				EnableAtModifier: true,
 			},
 			want: 0,
@@ -109,7 +109,7 @@ func TestRulesUnitTest(t *testing.T) {
 			args: args{
 				files: []string{"./testdata/negative-offset-test.yml"},
 			},
-			queryOpts: promql.LazyLoaderOpts{
+			queryOpts: promqltest.LazyLoaderOpts{
 				EnableNegativeOffset: true,
 			},
 			want: 0,
@@ -119,7 +119,7 @@ func TestRulesUnitTest(t *testing.T) {
 			args: args{
 				files: []string{"./testdata/no-test-group-interval.yml"},
 			},
-			queryOpts: promql.LazyLoaderOpts{
+			queryOpts: promqltest.LazyLoaderOpts{
 				EnableNegativeOffset: true,
 			},
 			want: 0,
@@ -142,7 +142,7 @@ func TestRulesUnitTestRun(t *testing.T) {
 	tests := []struct {
 		name      string
 		args      args
-		queryOpts promql.LazyLoaderOpts
+		queryOpts promqltest.LazyLoaderOpts
 		want      int
 	}{
 		{
diff --git a/config/config.go b/config/config.go
index 1cfd588643..c924e30989 100644
--- a/config/config.go
+++ b/config/config.go
@@ -20,6 +20,7 @@ import (
 	"os"
 	"path/filepath"
 	"sort"
+	"strconv"
 	"strings"
 	"time"
 
@@ -145,11 +146,17 @@ var (
 		ScrapeInterval:     model.Duration(1 * time.Minute),
 		ScrapeTimeout:      model.Duration(10 * time.Second),
 		EvaluationInterval: model.Duration(1 * time.Minute),
+		RuleQueryOffset:    model.Duration(0 * time.Minute),
 		// When native histogram feature flag is enabled, ScrapeProtocols default
 		// changes to DefaultNativeHistogramScrapeProtocols.
 		ScrapeProtocols: DefaultScrapeProtocols,
 	}
 
+	DefaultRuntimeConfig = RuntimeConfig{
+		// Go runtime tuning.
+		GoGC: 75,
+	}
+
 	// DefaultScrapeConfig is the default scrape configuration.
 	DefaultScrapeConfig = ScrapeConfig{
 		// ScrapeTimeout, ScrapeInterval and ScrapeProtocols default to the configured globals.
@@ -173,6 +180,7 @@ var (
 	// DefaultRemoteWriteConfig is the default remote write configuration.
 	DefaultRemoteWriteConfig = RemoteWriteConfig{
 		RemoteTimeout:    model.Duration(30 * time.Second),
+		ProtobufMessage:  RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1,
 		QueueConfig:      DefaultQueueConfig,
 		MetadataConfig:   DefaultMetadataConfig,
 		HTTPClientConfig: config.DefaultHTTPClientConfig,
@@ -224,6 +232,7 @@ var (
 // Config is the top-level configuration for Prometheus's config files.
 type Config struct {
 	GlobalConfig      GlobalConfig    `yaml:"global"`
+	Runtime           RuntimeConfig   `yaml:"runtime,omitempty"`
 	AlertingConfig    AlertingConfig  `yaml:"alerting,omitempty"`
 	RuleFiles         []string        `yaml:"rule_files,omitempty"`
 	ScrapeConfigFiles []string        `yaml:"scrape_config_files,omitempty"`
@@ -271,7 +280,7 @@ func (c *Config) GetScrapeConfigs() ([]*ScrapeConfig, error) {
 
 	jobNames := map[string]string{}
 	for i, scfg := range c.ScrapeConfigs {
-		// We do these checks for library users that would not call Validate in
+		// We do these checks for library users that would not call validate in
 		// Unmarshal.
 		if err := scfg.Validate(c.GlobalConfig); err != nil {
 			return nil, err
@@ -334,6 +343,14 @@ func (c *Config) UnmarshalYAML(unmarshal func(interface{}) error) error {
 		c.GlobalConfig = DefaultGlobalConfig
 	}
 
+	// If a runtime block was open but empty the default runtime config is overwritten.
+	// We have to restore it here.
+	if c.Runtime.isZero() {
+		c.Runtime = DefaultRuntimeConfig
+		// Use the GOGC env var value if the runtime section is empty.
+		c.Runtime.GoGC = getGoGCEnv()
+	}
+
 	for _, rf := range c.RuleFiles {
 		if !patRulePath.MatchString(rf) {
 			return fmt.Errorf("invalid rule file path %q", rf)
@@ -397,6 +414,8 @@ type GlobalConfig struct {
 	ScrapeProtocols []ScrapeProtocol `yaml:"scrape_protocols,omitempty"`
 	// How frequently to evaluate rules by default.
 	EvaluationInterval model.Duration `yaml:"evaluation_interval,omitempty"`
+	// Offset the rule evaluation timestamp of this particular group by the specified duration into the past to ensure the underlying metrics have been received.
+	RuleQueryOffset model.Duration `yaml:"rule_query_offset,omitempty"`
 	// File to which PromQL queries are logged.
 	QueryLogFile string `yaml:"query_log_file,omitempty"`
 	// The labels to add to any timeseries that this Prometheus instance scrapes.
@@ -556,10 +575,22 @@ func (c *GlobalConfig) isZero() bool {
 		c.ScrapeInterval == 0 &&
 		c.ScrapeTimeout == 0 &&
 		c.EvaluationInterval == 0 &&
+		c.RuleQueryOffset == 0 &&
 		c.QueryLogFile == "" &&
 		c.ScrapeProtocols == nil
 }
 
+// RuntimeConfig configures the values for the process behavior.
+type RuntimeConfig struct {
+	// The Go garbage collection target percentage.
+	GoGC int `yaml:"gogc,omitempty"`
+}
+
+// isZero returns true iff the global config is the zero value.
+func (c *RuntimeConfig) isZero() bool {
+	return c.GoGC == 0
+}
+
 type ScrapeConfigs struct {
 	ScrapeConfigs []*ScrapeConfig `yaml:"scrape_configs,omitempty"`
 }
@@ -1025,6 +1056,49 @@ func CheckTargetAddress(address model.LabelValue) error {
 	return nil
 }
 
+// RemoteWriteProtoMsg represents the known protobuf message for the remote write
+// 1.0 and 2.0 specs.
+type RemoteWriteProtoMsg string
+
+// Validate returns error if the given reference for the protobuf message is not supported.
+func (s RemoteWriteProtoMsg) Validate() error {
+	switch s {
+	case RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1, RemoteWriteProtoMsgV2:
+		return nil
+	default:
+		return fmt.Errorf("unknown remote write protobuf message %v, supported: %v", s, RemoteWriteProtoMsgs{RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1, RemoteWriteProtoMsgV2}.String())
+	}
+}
+
+type RemoteWriteProtoMsgs []RemoteWriteProtoMsg
+
+func (m RemoteWriteProtoMsgs) Strings() []string {
+	ret := make([]string, 0, len(m))
+	for _, typ := range m {
+		ret = append(ret, string(typ))
+	}
+	return ret
+}
+
+func (m RemoteWriteProtoMsgs) String() string {
+	return strings.Join(m.Strings(), ", ")
+}
+
+var (
+	// RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1 represents the deprecated `prometheus.WriteRequest` protobuf
+	// message introduced in the https://prometheus.io/docs/specs/remote_write_spec/.
+	//
+	// NOTE: This string is used for both HTTP header values and config value, so don't change
+	// this reference.
+	RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1 RemoteWriteProtoMsg = "prometheus.WriteRequest"
+	// RemoteWriteProtoMsgV2 represents the `io.prometheus.write.v2.Request` protobuf
+	// message introduced in https://prometheus.io/docs/specs/remote_write_spec_2_0/
+	//
+	// NOTE: This string is used for both HTTP header values and config value, so don't change
+	// this reference.
+	RemoteWriteProtoMsgV2 RemoteWriteProtoMsg = "io.prometheus.write.v2.Request"
+)
+
 // RemoteWriteConfig is the configuration for writing to remote storage.
 type RemoteWriteConfig struct {
 	URL                  *config.URL       `yaml:"url"`
@@ -1034,6 +1108,9 @@ type RemoteWriteConfig struct {
 	Name                 string            `yaml:"name,omitempty"`
 	SendExemplars        bool              `yaml:"send_exemplars,omitempty"`
 	SendNativeHistograms bool              `yaml:"send_native_histograms,omitempty"`
+	// ProtobufMessage specifies the protobuf message to use against the remote
+	// receiver as specified in https://prometheus.io/docs/specs/remote_write_spec_2_0/
+	ProtobufMessage RemoteWriteProtoMsg `yaml:"protobuf_message,omitempty"`
 
 	// We cannot do proper Go type embedding below as the parser will then parse
 	// values arbitrarily into the overflow maps of further-down types.
@@ -1068,6 +1145,10 @@ func (c *RemoteWriteConfig) UnmarshalYAML(unmarshal func(interface{}) error) err
 		return err
 	}
 
+	if err := c.ProtobufMessage.Validate(); err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("invalid protobuf_message value: %w", err)
+	}
+
 	// The UnmarshalYAML method of HTTPClientConfig is not being called because it's not a pointer.
 	// We cannot make it a pointer as the parser panics for inlined pointer structs.
 	// Thus we just do its validation here.
@@ -1207,3 +1288,19 @@ func filePath(filename string) string {
 func fileErr(filename string, err error) error {
 	return fmt.Errorf("%q: %w", filePath(filename), err)
 }
+
+func getGoGCEnv() int {
+	goGCEnv := os.Getenv("GOGC")
+	// If the GOGC env var is set, use the same logic as upstream Go.
+	if goGCEnv != "" {
+		// Special case for GOGC=off.
+		if strings.ToLower(goGCEnv) == "off" {
+			return -1
+		}
+		i, err := strconv.Atoi(goGCEnv)
+		if err == nil {
+			return i
+		}
+	}
+	return DefaultRuntimeConfig.GoGC
+}
diff --git a/config/config_default_test.go b/config/config_default_test.go
index 26623590d9..31133f1e04 100644
--- a/config/config_default_test.go
+++ b/config/config_default_test.go
@@ -19,6 +19,7 @@ const ruleFilesConfigFile = "testdata/rules_abs_path.good.yml"
 
 var ruleFilesExpectedConf = &Config{
 	GlobalConfig: DefaultGlobalConfig,
+	Runtime:      DefaultRuntimeConfig,
 	RuleFiles: []string{
 		"testdata/first.rules",
 		"testdata/rules/second.rules",
diff --git a/config/config_test.go b/config/config_test.go
index 14981d25f0..3c4907a46c 100644
--- a/config/config_test.go
+++ b/config/config_test.go
@@ -76,6 +76,7 @@ const (
 	globLabelLimit            = 30
 	globLabelNameLengthLimit  = 200
 	globLabelValueLengthLimit = 200
+	globalGoGC                = 42
 )
 
 var expectedConf = &Config{
@@ -96,6 +97,10 @@ var expectedConf = &Config{
 		ScrapeProtocols:       DefaultGlobalConfig.ScrapeProtocols,
 	},
 
+	Runtime: RuntimeConfig{
+		GoGC: globalGoGC,
+	},
+
 	RuleFiles: []string{
 		filepath.FromSlash("testdata/first.rules"),
 		filepath.FromSlash("testdata/my/*.rules"),
@@ -103,9 +108,10 @@ var expectedConf = &Config{
 
 	RemoteWriteConfigs: []*RemoteWriteConfig{
 		{
-			URL:           mustParseURL("http://remote1/push"),
-			RemoteTimeout: model.Duration(30 * time.Second),
-			Name:          "drop_expensive",
+			URL:             mustParseURL("http://remote1/push"),
+			ProtobufMessage: RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1,
+			RemoteTimeout:   model.Duration(30 * time.Second),
+			Name:            "drop_expensive",
 			WriteRelabelConfigs: []*relabel.Config{
 				{
 					SourceLabels: model.LabelNames{"__name__"},
@@ -132,11 +138,12 @@ var expectedConf = &Config{
 			},
 		},
 		{
-			URL:            mustParseURL("http://remote2/push"),
-			RemoteTimeout:  model.Duration(30 * time.Second),
-			QueueConfig:    DefaultQueueConfig,
-			MetadataConfig: DefaultMetadataConfig,
-			Name:           "rw_tls",
+			URL:             mustParseURL("http://remote2/push"),
+			ProtobufMessage: RemoteWriteProtoMsgV2,
+			RemoteTimeout:   model.Duration(30 * time.Second),
+			QueueConfig:     DefaultQueueConfig,
+			MetadataConfig:  DefaultMetadataConfig,
+			Name:            "rw_tls",
 			HTTPClientConfig: config.HTTPClientConfig{
 				TLSConfig: config.TLSConfig{
 					CertFile: filepath.FromSlash("testdata/valid_cert_file"),
@@ -993,6 +1000,7 @@ var expectedConf = &Config{
 					HostNetworkingHost: "localhost",
 					RefreshInterval:    model.Duration(60 * time.Second),
 					HTTPClientConfig:   config.DefaultHTTPClientConfig,
+					MatchFirstNetwork:  true,
 				},
 			},
 		},
@@ -1794,6 +1802,10 @@ var expectedErrors = []struct {
 		filename: "remote_write_authorization_header.bad.yml",
 		errMsg:   `authorization header must be changed via the basic_auth, authorization, oauth2, sigv4, or azuread parameter`,
 	},
+	{
+		filename: "remote_write_wrong_msg.bad.yml",
+		errMsg:   `invalid protobuf_message value: unknown remote write protobuf message io.prometheus.writet.v2.Request, supported: prometheus.WriteRequest, io.prometheus.write.v2.Request`,
+	},
 	{
 		filename: "remote_write_url_missing.bad.yml",
 		errMsg:   `url for remote_write is empty`,
@@ -2081,6 +2093,7 @@ func TestEmptyGlobalBlock(t *testing.T) {
 	c, err := Load("global:\n", false, log.NewNopLogger())
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	exp := DefaultConfig
+	exp.Runtime = DefaultRuntimeConfig
 	require.Equal(t, exp, *c)
 }
 
diff --git a/config/config_windows_test.go b/config/config_windows_test.go
index 7fd1d46f6d..db4d46ef13 100644
--- a/config/config_windows_test.go
+++ b/config/config_windows_test.go
@@ -17,6 +17,7 @@ const ruleFilesConfigFile = "testdata/rules_abs_path_windows.good.yml"
 
 var ruleFilesExpectedConf = &Config{
 	GlobalConfig: DefaultGlobalConfig,
+	Runtime:      DefaultRuntimeConfig,
 	RuleFiles: []string{
 		"testdata\\first.rules",
 		"testdata\\rules\\second.rules",
diff --git a/config/testdata/conf.good.yml b/config/testdata/conf.good.yml
index b584301649..0e0aa2bd5d 100644
--- a/config/testdata/conf.good.yml
+++ b/config/testdata/conf.good.yml
@@ -14,6 +14,9 @@ global:
     monitor: codelab
     foo: bar
 
+runtime:
+  gogc: 42
+
 rule_files:
   - "first.rules"
   - "my/*.rules"
@@ -34,6 +37,7 @@ remote_write:
         key_file: valid_key_file
 
   - url: http://remote2/push
+    protobuf_message: io.prometheus.write.v2.Request
     name: rw_tls
     tls_config:
       cert_file: valid_cert_file
diff --git a/config/testdata/remote_write_wrong_msg.bad.yml b/config/testdata/remote_write_wrong_msg.bad.yml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..0918309540
--- /dev/null
+++ b/config/testdata/remote_write_wrong_msg.bad.yml
@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+remote_write:
+  - url: localhost:9090
+    protobuf_message: io.prometheus.writet.v2.Request # typo in 'write"
diff --git a/discovery/aws/ec2.go b/discovery/aws/ec2.go
index aa79fd9c62..a44912481a 100644
--- a/discovery/aws/ec2.go
+++ b/discovery/aws/ec2.go
@@ -18,6 +18,7 @@ import (
 	"errors"
 	"fmt"
 	"net"
+	"strconv"
 	"strings"
 	"time"
 
@@ -41,28 +42,29 @@ import (
 )
 
 const (
-	ec2Label                  = model.MetaLabelPrefix + "ec2_"
-	ec2LabelAMI               = ec2Label + "ami"
-	ec2LabelAZ                = ec2Label + "availability_zone"
-	ec2LabelAZID              = ec2Label + "availability_zone_id"
-	ec2LabelArch              = ec2Label + "architecture"
-	ec2LabelIPv6Addresses     = ec2Label + "ipv6_addresses"
-	ec2LabelInstanceID        = ec2Label + "instance_id"
-	ec2LabelInstanceLifecycle = ec2Label + "instance_lifecycle"
-	ec2LabelInstanceState     = ec2Label + "instance_state"
-	ec2LabelInstanceType      = ec2Label + "instance_type"
-	ec2LabelOwnerID           = ec2Label + "owner_id"
-	ec2LabelPlatform          = ec2Label + "platform"
-	ec2LabelPrimarySubnetID   = ec2Label + "primary_subnet_id"
-	ec2LabelPrivateDNS        = ec2Label + "private_dns_name"
-	ec2LabelPrivateIP         = ec2Label + "private_ip"
-	ec2LabelPublicDNS         = ec2Label + "public_dns_name"
-	ec2LabelPublicIP          = ec2Label + "public_ip"
-	ec2LabelRegion            = ec2Label + "region"
-	ec2LabelSubnetID          = ec2Label + "subnet_id"
-	ec2LabelTag               = ec2Label + "tag_"
-	ec2LabelVPCID             = ec2Label + "vpc_id"
-	ec2LabelSeparator         = ","
+	ec2Label                     = model.MetaLabelPrefix + "ec2_"
+	ec2LabelAMI                  = ec2Label + "ami"
+	ec2LabelAZ                   = ec2Label + "availability_zone"
+	ec2LabelAZID                 = ec2Label + "availability_zone_id"
+	ec2LabelArch                 = ec2Label + "architecture"
+	ec2LabelIPv6Addresses        = ec2Label + "ipv6_addresses"
+	ec2LabelInstanceID           = ec2Label + "instance_id"
+	ec2LabelInstanceLifecycle    = ec2Label + "instance_lifecycle"
+	ec2LabelInstanceState        = ec2Label + "instance_state"
+	ec2LabelInstanceType         = ec2Label + "instance_type"
+	ec2LabelOwnerID              = ec2Label + "owner_id"
+	ec2LabelPlatform             = ec2Label + "platform"
+	ec2LabelPrimaryIPv6Addresses = ec2Label + "primary_ipv6_addresses"
+	ec2LabelPrimarySubnetID      = ec2Label + "primary_subnet_id"
+	ec2LabelPrivateDNS           = ec2Label + "private_dns_name"
+	ec2LabelPrivateIP            = ec2Label + "private_ip"
+	ec2LabelPublicDNS            = ec2Label + "public_dns_name"
+	ec2LabelPublicIP             = ec2Label + "public_ip"
+	ec2LabelRegion               = ec2Label + "region"
+	ec2LabelSubnetID             = ec2Label + "subnet_id"
+	ec2LabelTag                  = ec2Label + "tag_"
+	ec2LabelVPCID                = ec2Label + "vpc_id"
+	ec2LabelSeparator            = ","
 )
 
 // DefaultEC2SDConfig is the default EC2 SD configuration.
@@ -279,7 +281,7 @@ func (d *EC2Discovery) refresh(ctx context.Context) ([]*targetgroup.Group, error
 				if inst.PrivateDnsName != nil {
 					labels[ec2LabelPrivateDNS] = model.LabelValue(*inst.PrivateDnsName)
 				}
-				addr := net.JoinHostPort(*inst.PrivateIpAddress, fmt.Sprintf("%d", d.cfg.Port))
+				addr := net.JoinHostPort(*inst.PrivateIpAddress, strconv.Itoa(d.cfg.Port))
 				labels[model.AddressLabel] = model.LabelValue(addr)
 
 				if inst.Platform != nil {
@@ -316,6 +318,7 @@ func (d *EC2Discovery) refresh(ctx context.Context) ([]*targetgroup.Group, error
 
 					var subnets []string
 					var ipv6addrs []string
+					var primaryipv6addrs []string
 					subnetsMap := make(map[string]struct{})
 					for _, eni := range inst.NetworkInterfaces {
 						if eni.SubnetId == nil {
@@ -329,6 +332,15 @@ func (d *EC2Discovery) refresh(ctx context.Context) ([]*targetgroup.Group, error
 
 						for _, ipv6addr := range eni.Ipv6Addresses {
 							ipv6addrs = append(ipv6addrs, *ipv6addr.Ipv6Address)
+							if *ipv6addr.IsPrimaryIpv6 {
+								// we might have to extend the slice with more than one element
+								// that could leave empty strings in the list which is intentional
+								// to keep the position/device index information
+								for int64(len(primaryipv6addrs)) <= *eni.Attachment.DeviceIndex {
+									primaryipv6addrs = append(primaryipv6addrs, "")
+								}
+								primaryipv6addrs[*eni.Attachment.DeviceIndex] = *ipv6addr.Ipv6Address
+							}
 						}
 					}
 					labels[ec2LabelSubnetID] = model.LabelValue(
@@ -341,6 +353,12 @@ func (d *EC2Discovery) refresh(ctx context.Context) ([]*targetgroup.Group, error
 								strings.Join(ipv6addrs, ec2LabelSeparator) +
 								ec2LabelSeparator)
 					}
+					if len(primaryipv6addrs) > 0 {
+						labels[ec2LabelPrimaryIPv6Addresses] = model.LabelValue(
+							ec2LabelSeparator +
+								strings.Join(primaryipv6addrs, ec2LabelSeparator) +
+								ec2LabelSeparator)
+					}
 				}
 
 				for _, t := range inst.Tags {
diff --git a/discovery/aws/lightsail.go b/discovery/aws/lightsail.go
index 86b138be55..0ad7f2d541 100644
--- a/discovery/aws/lightsail.go
+++ b/discovery/aws/lightsail.go
@@ -18,6 +18,7 @@ import (
 	"errors"
 	"fmt"
 	"net"
+	"strconv"
 	"strings"
 	"time"
 
@@ -229,7 +230,7 @@ func (d *LightsailDiscovery) refresh(ctx context.Context) ([]*targetgroup.Group,
 			lightsailLabelRegion:              model.LabelValue(d.cfg.Region),
 		}
 
-		addr := net.JoinHostPort(*inst.PrivateIpAddress, fmt.Sprintf("%d", d.cfg.Port))
+		addr := net.JoinHostPort(*inst.PrivateIpAddress, strconv.Itoa(d.cfg.Port))
 		labels[model.AddressLabel] = model.LabelValue(addr)
 
 		if inst.PublicIpAddress != nil {
diff --git a/discovery/azure/azure.go b/discovery/azure/azure.go
index 7c2ece2c7b..70d95b9f3a 100644
--- a/discovery/azure/azure.go
+++ b/discovery/azure/azure.go
@@ -20,6 +20,7 @@ import (
 	"math/rand"
 	"net"
 	"net/http"
+	"strconv"
 	"strings"
 	"sync"
 	"time"
@@ -492,7 +493,7 @@ func (d *Discovery) vmToLabelSet(ctx context.Context, client client, vm virtualM
 				}
 				if ip.Properties != nil && ip.Properties.PrivateIPAddress != nil {
 					labels[azureLabelMachinePrivateIP] = model.LabelValue(*ip.Properties.PrivateIPAddress)
-					address := net.JoinHostPort(*ip.Properties.PrivateIPAddress, fmt.Sprintf("%d", d.port))
+					address := net.JoinHostPort(*ip.Properties.PrivateIPAddress, strconv.Itoa(d.port))
 					labels[model.AddressLabel] = model.LabelValue(address)
 					return labels, nil
 				}
diff --git a/discovery/consul/consul.go b/discovery/consul/consul.go
index 40eed7697a..bdc1fc8dce 100644
--- a/discovery/consul/consul.go
+++ b/discovery/consul/consul.go
@@ -539,9 +539,9 @@ func (srv *consulService) watch(ctx context.Context, ch chan<- []*targetgroup.Gr
 		// since the service may be registered remotely through a different node.
 		var addr string
 		if serviceNode.Service.Address != "" {
-			addr = net.JoinHostPort(serviceNode.Service.Address, fmt.Sprintf("%d", serviceNode.Service.Port))
+			addr = net.JoinHostPort(serviceNode.Service.Address, strconv.Itoa(serviceNode.Service.Port))
 		} else {
-			addr = net.JoinHostPort(serviceNode.Node.Address, fmt.Sprintf("%d", serviceNode.Service.Port))
+			addr = net.JoinHostPort(serviceNode.Node.Address, strconv.Itoa(serviceNode.Service.Port))
 		}
 
 		labels := model.LabelSet{
diff --git a/discovery/digitalocean/digitalocean.go b/discovery/digitalocean/digitalocean.go
index 18380b7296..ecee60cb1f 100644
--- a/discovery/digitalocean/digitalocean.go
+++ b/discovery/digitalocean/digitalocean.go
@@ -177,7 +177,7 @@ func (d *Discovery) refresh(ctx context.Context) ([]*targetgroup.Group, error) {
 		}
 
 		labels := model.LabelSet{
-			doLabelID:          model.LabelValue(fmt.Sprintf("%d", droplet.ID)),
+			doLabelID:          model.LabelValue(strconv.Itoa(droplet.ID)),
 			doLabelName:        model.LabelValue(droplet.Name),
 			doLabelImage:       model.LabelValue(droplet.Image.Slug),
 			doLabelImageName:   model.LabelValue(droplet.Image.Name),
diff --git a/discovery/dns/dns.go b/discovery/dns/dns.go
index cf56a2ad02..314c3d38cd 100644
--- a/discovery/dns/dns.go
+++ b/discovery/dns/dns.go
@@ -18,6 +18,7 @@ import (
 	"errors"
 	"fmt"
 	"net"
+	"strconv"
 	"strings"
 	"sync"
 	"time"
@@ -200,7 +201,7 @@ func (d *Discovery) refreshOne(ctx context.Context, name string, ch chan<- *targ
 
 	tg := &targetgroup.Group{}
 	hostPort := func(a string, p int) model.LabelValue {
-		return model.LabelValue(net.JoinHostPort(a, fmt.Sprintf("%d", p)))
+		return model.LabelValue(net.JoinHostPort(a, strconv.Itoa(p)))
 	}
 
 	for _, record := range response.Answer {
@@ -209,7 +210,7 @@ func (d *Discovery) refreshOne(ctx context.Context, name string, ch chan<- *targ
 		switch addr := record.(type) {
 		case *dns.SRV:
 			dnsSrvRecordTarget = model.LabelValue(addr.Target)
-			dnsSrvRecordPort = model.LabelValue(fmt.Sprintf("%d", addr.Port))
+			dnsSrvRecordPort = model.LabelValue(strconv.Itoa(int(addr.Port)))
 
 			// Remove the final dot from rooted DNS names to make them look more usual.
 			addr.Target = strings.TrimRight(addr.Target, ".")
diff --git a/discovery/eureka/client.go b/discovery/eureka/client.go
index 52e8ce7b48..5a90968f1b 100644
--- a/discovery/eureka/client.go
+++ b/discovery/eureka/client.go
@@ -97,6 +97,7 @@ func fetchApps(ctx context.Context, server string, client *http.Client) (*Applic
 		resp.Body.Close()
 	}()
 
+	//nolint:usestdlibvars
 	if resp.StatusCode/100 != 2 {
 		return nil, fmt.Errorf("non 2xx status '%d' response during eureka service discovery", resp.StatusCode)
 	}
diff --git a/discovery/hetzner/hcloud.go b/discovery/hetzner/hcloud.go
index 6d0599dfa2..df56f94c5f 100644
--- a/discovery/hetzner/hcloud.go
+++ b/discovery/hetzner/hcloud.go
@@ -15,7 +15,6 @@ package hetzner
 
 import (
 	"context"
-	"fmt"
 	"net"
 	"net/http"
 	"strconv"
@@ -92,7 +91,7 @@ func (d *hcloudDiscovery) refresh(ctx context.Context) ([]*targetgroup.Group, er
 	for i, server := range servers {
 		labels := model.LabelSet{
 			hetznerLabelRole:              model.LabelValue(HetznerRoleHcloud),
-			hetznerLabelServerID:          model.LabelValue(fmt.Sprintf("%d", server.ID)),
+			hetznerLabelServerID:          model.LabelValue(strconv.FormatInt(server.ID, 10)),
 			hetznerLabelServerName:        model.LabelValue(server.Name),
 			hetznerLabelDatacenter:        model.LabelValue(server.Datacenter.Name),
 			hetznerLabelPublicIPv4:        model.LabelValue(server.PublicNet.IPv4.IP.String()),
@@ -102,10 +101,10 @@ func (d *hcloudDiscovery) refresh(ctx context.Context) ([]*targetgroup.Group, er
 			hetznerLabelHcloudDatacenterLocation:            model.LabelValue(server.Datacenter.Location.Name),
 			hetznerLabelHcloudDatacenterLocationNetworkZone: model.LabelValue(server.Datacenter.Location.NetworkZone),
 			hetznerLabelHcloudType:                          model.LabelValue(server.ServerType.Name),
-			hetznerLabelHcloudCPUCores:                      model.LabelValue(fmt.Sprintf("%d", server.ServerType.Cores)),
+			hetznerLabelHcloudCPUCores:                      model.LabelValue(strconv.Itoa(server.ServerType.Cores)),
 			hetznerLabelHcloudCPUType:                       model.LabelValue(server.ServerType.CPUType),
-			hetznerLabelHcloudMemoryGB:                      model.LabelValue(fmt.Sprintf("%d", int(server.ServerType.Memory))),
-			hetznerLabelHcloudDiskGB:                        model.LabelValue(fmt.Sprintf("%d", server.ServerType.Disk)),
+			hetznerLabelHcloudMemoryGB:                      model.LabelValue(strconv.Itoa(int(server.ServerType.Memory))),
+			hetznerLabelHcloudDiskGB:                        model.LabelValue(strconv.Itoa(server.ServerType.Disk)),
 
 			model.AddressLabel: model.LabelValue(net.JoinHostPort(server.PublicNet.IPv4.IP.String(), strconv.FormatUint(uint64(d.port), 10))),
 		}
diff --git a/discovery/hetzner/robot.go b/discovery/hetzner/robot.go
index b862c33f5b..64155bfaed 100644
--- a/discovery/hetzner/robot.go
+++ b/discovery/hetzner/robot.go
@@ -87,6 +87,7 @@ func (d *robotDiscovery) refresh(context.Context) ([]*targetgroup.Group, error)
 		resp.Body.Close()
 	}()
 
+	//nolint:usestdlibvars
 	if resp.StatusCode/100 != 2 {
 		return nil, fmt.Errorf("non 2xx status '%d' response during hetzner service discovery with role robot", resp.StatusCode)
 	}
@@ -112,7 +113,7 @@ func (d *robotDiscovery) refresh(context.Context) ([]*targetgroup.Group, error)
 			hetznerLabelPublicIPv4:     model.LabelValue(server.Server.ServerIP),
 			hetznerLabelServerStatus:   model.LabelValue(server.Server.Status),
 			hetznerLabelRobotProduct:   model.LabelValue(server.Server.Product),
-			hetznerLabelRobotCancelled: model.LabelValue(fmt.Sprintf("%t", server.Server.Canceled)),
+			hetznerLabelRobotCancelled: model.LabelValue(strconv.FormatBool(server.Server.Canceled)),
 
 			model.AddressLabel: model.LabelValue(net.JoinHostPort(server.Server.ServerIP, strconv.FormatUint(uint64(d.port), 10))),
 		}
diff --git a/discovery/legacymanager/manager_test.go b/discovery/legacymanager/manager_test.go
index 1ed699645d..a455a8e341 100644
--- a/discovery/legacymanager/manager_test.go
+++ b/discovery/legacymanager/manager_test.go
@@ -720,7 +720,7 @@ func staticConfig(addrs ...string) discovery.StaticConfig {
 	var cfg discovery.StaticConfig
 	for i, addr := range addrs {
 		cfg = append(cfg, &targetgroup.Group{
-			Source: fmt.Sprint(i),
+			Source: strconv.Itoa(i),
 			Targets: []model.LabelSet{
 				{model.AddressLabel: model.LabelValue(addr)},
 			},
diff --git a/discovery/linode/linode.go b/discovery/linode/linode.go
index 2a5475b854..634a6b1d4b 100644
--- a/discovery/linode/linode.go
+++ b/discovery/linode/linode.go
@@ -186,12 +186,12 @@ func (d *Discovery) refresh(ctx context.Context) ([]*targetgroup.Group, error) {
 
 	if d.lastResults != nil && d.eventPollingEnabled {
 		// Check to see if there have been any events. If so, refresh our data.
-		opts := linodego.ListOptions{
+		eventsOpts := linodego.ListOptions{
 			PageOptions: &linodego.PageOptions{Page: 1},
 			PageSize:    25,
 			Filter:      fmt.Sprintf(filterTemplate, d.lastRefreshTimestamp.Format("2006-01-02T15:04:05")),
 		}
-		events, err := d.client.ListEvents(ctx, &opts)
+		events, err := d.client.ListEvents(ctx, &eventsOpts)
 		if err != nil {
 			var e *linodego.Error
 			if errors.As(err, &e) && e.Code == http.StatusUnauthorized {
@@ -232,31 +232,40 @@ func (d *Discovery) refreshData(ctx context.Context) ([]*targetgroup.Group, erro
 	tg := &targetgroup.Group{
 		Source: "Linode",
 	}
-	opts := linodego.ListOptions{
+	// We need 3 of these because Linodego writes into the structure during pagination
+	listInstancesOpts := linodego.ListOptions{
+		PageSize: 500,
+	}
+	listIPAddressesOpts := linodego.ListOptions{
+		PageSize: 500,
+	}
+	listIPv6RangesOpts := linodego.ListOptions{
 		PageSize: 500,
 	}
 
 	// If region filter provided, use it to constrain results.
 	if d.region != "" {
-		opts.Filter = fmt.Sprintf(regionFilterTemplate, d.region)
+		listInstancesOpts.Filter = fmt.Sprintf(regionFilterTemplate, d.region)
+		listIPAddressesOpts.Filter = fmt.Sprintf(regionFilterTemplate, d.region)
+		listIPv6RangesOpts.Filter = fmt.Sprintf(regionFilterTemplate, d.region)
 	}
 
 	// Gather all linode instances.
-	instances, err := d.client.ListInstances(ctx, &opts)
+	instances, err := d.client.ListInstances(ctx, &listInstancesOpts)
 	if err != nil {
 		d.metrics.failuresCount.Inc()
 		return nil, err
 	}
 
 	// Gather detailed IP address info for all IPs on all linode instances.
-	detailedIPs, err := d.client.ListIPAddresses(ctx, &opts)
+	detailedIPs, err := d.client.ListIPAddresses(ctx, &listIPAddressesOpts)
 	if err != nil {
 		d.metrics.failuresCount.Inc()
 		return nil, err
 	}
 
 	// Gather detailed IPv6 Range info for all linode instances.
-	ipv6RangeList, err := d.client.ListIPv6Ranges(ctx, &opts)
+	ipv6RangeList, err := d.client.ListIPv6Ranges(ctx, &listIPv6RangesOpts)
 	if err != nil {
 		d.metrics.failuresCount.Inc()
 		return nil, err
@@ -325,7 +334,7 @@ func (d *Discovery) refreshData(ctx context.Context) ([]*targetgroup.Group, erro
 		}
 
 		labels := model.LabelSet{
-			linodeLabelID:                 model.LabelValue(fmt.Sprintf("%d", instance.ID)),
+			linodeLabelID:                 model.LabelValue(strconv.Itoa(instance.ID)),
 			linodeLabelName:               model.LabelValue(instance.Label),
 			linodeLabelImage:              model.LabelValue(instance.Image),
 			linodeLabelPrivateIPv4:        model.LabelValue(privateIPv4),
@@ -338,13 +347,13 @@ func (d *Discovery) refreshData(ctx context.Context) ([]*targetgroup.Group, erro
 			linodeLabelType:               model.LabelValue(instance.Type),
 			linodeLabelStatus:             model.LabelValue(instance.Status),
 			linodeLabelGroup:              model.LabelValue(instance.Group),
-			linodeLabelGPUs:               model.LabelValue(fmt.Sprintf("%d", instance.Specs.GPUs)),
+			linodeLabelGPUs:               model.LabelValue(strconv.Itoa(instance.Specs.GPUs)),
 			linodeLabelHypervisor:         model.LabelValue(instance.Hypervisor),
 			linodeLabelBackups:            model.LabelValue(backupsStatus),
-			linodeLabelSpecsDiskBytes:     model.LabelValue(fmt.Sprintf("%d", int64(instance.Specs.Disk)<<20)),
-			linodeLabelSpecsMemoryBytes:   model.LabelValue(fmt.Sprintf("%d", int64(instance.Specs.Memory)<<20)),
-			linodeLabelSpecsVCPUs:         model.LabelValue(fmt.Sprintf("%d", instance.Specs.VCPUs)),
-			linodeLabelSpecsTransferBytes: model.LabelValue(fmt.Sprintf("%d", int64(instance.Specs.Transfer)<<20)),
+			linodeLabelSpecsDiskBytes:     model.LabelValue(strconv.FormatInt(int64(instance.Specs.Disk)<<20, 10)),
+			linodeLabelSpecsMemoryBytes:   model.LabelValue(strconv.FormatInt(int64(instance.Specs.Memory)<<20, 10)),
+			linodeLabelSpecsVCPUs:         model.LabelValue(strconv.Itoa(instance.Specs.VCPUs)),
+			linodeLabelSpecsTransferBytes: model.LabelValue(strconv.FormatInt(int64(instance.Specs.Transfer)<<20, 10)),
 		}
 
 		addr := net.JoinHostPort(publicIPv4, strconv.FormatUint(uint64(d.port), 10))
diff --git a/discovery/manager.go b/discovery/manager.go
index f14071af30..897d7d151c 100644
--- a/discovery/manager.go
+++ b/discovery/manager.go
@@ -120,6 +120,16 @@ func Name(n string) func(*Manager) {
 	}
 }
 
+// Updatert sets the updatert of the manager.
+// Used to speed up tests.
+func Updatert(u time.Duration) func(*Manager) {
+	return func(m *Manager) {
+		m.mtx.Lock()
+		defer m.mtx.Unlock()
+		m.updatert = u
+	}
+}
+
 // HTTPClientOptions sets the list of HTTP client options to expose to
 // Discoverers. It is up to Discoverers to choose to use the options provided.
 func HTTPClientOptions(opts ...config.HTTPClientOption) func(*Manager) {
diff --git a/discovery/manager_test.go b/discovery/manager_test.go
index 656d7c3c66..be07edbdb4 100644
--- a/discovery/manager_test.go
+++ b/discovery/manager_test.go
@@ -720,7 +720,7 @@ func staticConfig(addrs ...string) StaticConfig {
 	var cfg StaticConfig
 	for i, addr := range addrs {
 		cfg = append(cfg, &targetgroup.Group{
-			Source: fmt.Sprint(i),
+			Source: strconv.Itoa(i),
 			Targets: []model.LabelSet{
 				{model.AddressLabel: model.LabelValue(addr)},
 			},
diff --git a/discovery/marathon/marathon.go b/discovery/marathon/marathon.go
index 3e9e15967f..38b47accff 100644
--- a/discovery/marathon/marathon.go
+++ b/discovery/marathon/marathon.go
@@ -505,7 +505,7 @@ func targetEndpoint(task *task, port uint32, containerNet bool) string {
 		host = task.Host
 	}
 
-	return net.JoinHostPort(host, fmt.Sprintf("%d", port))
+	return net.JoinHostPort(host, strconv.Itoa(int(port)))
 }
 
 // Get a list of ports and a list of labels from a PortMapping.
diff --git a/discovery/metrics.go b/discovery/metrics.go
index e738331a18..356be1ddcb 100644
--- a/discovery/metrics.go
+++ b/discovery/metrics.go
@@ -19,16 +19,6 @@ import (
 	"github.com/prometheus/client_golang/prometheus"
 )
 
-var (
-	clientGoRequestMetrics  = &clientGoRequestMetricAdapter{}
-	clientGoWorkloadMetrics = &clientGoWorkqueueMetricsProvider{}
-)
-
-func init() {
-	clientGoRequestMetrics.RegisterWithK8sGoClient()
-	clientGoWorkloadMetrics.RegisterWithK8sGoClient()
-}
-
 // Metrics to be used with a discovery manager.
 type Metrics struct {
 	FailedConfigs     prometheus.Gauge
diff --git a/discovery/metrics_k8s_client.go b/discovery/metrics_k8s_client.go
index f16245684b..c13ce53317 100644
--- a/discovery/metrics_k8s_client.go
+++ b/discovery/metrics_k8s_client.go
@@ -35,6 +35,11 @@ const (
 	workqueueMetricsNamespace  = KubernetesMetricsNamespace + "_workqueue"
 )
 
+var (
+	clientGoRequestMetrics  = &clientGoRequestMetricAdapter{}
+	clientGoWorkloadMetrics = &clientGoWorkqueueMetricsProvider{}
+)
+
 var (
 	// Metrics for client-go's HTTP requests.
 	clientGoRequestResultMetricVec = prometheus.NewCounterVec(
@@ -135,6 +140,9 @@ func clientGoMetrics() []prometheus.Collector {
 }
 
 func RegisterK8sClientMetricsWithPrometheus(registerer prometheus.Registerer) error {
+	clientGoRequestMetrics.RegisterWithK8sGoClient()
+	clientGoWorkloadMetrics.RegisterWithK8sGoClient()
+
 	for _, collector := range clientGoMetrics() {
 		err := registerer.Register(collector)
 		if err != nil {
diff --git a/discovery/moby/docker.go b/discovery/moby/docker.go
index 6a2b2d9302..11445092ee 100644
--- a/discovery/moby/docker.go
+++ b/discovery/moby/docker.go
@@ -22,8 +22,10 @@ import (
 	"strconv"
 	"time"
 
+	"github.com/docker/docker/api/types"
 	"github.com/docker/docker/api/types/container"
 	"github.com/docker/docker/api/types/filters"
+	"github.com/docker/docker/api/types/network"
 	"github.com/docker/docker/client"
 	"github.com/go-kit/log"
 	"github.com/prometheus/client_golang/prometheus"
@@ -58,6 +60,7 @@ var DefaultDockerSDConfig = DockerSDConfig{
 	Filters:            []Filter{},
 	HostNetworkingHost: "localhost",
 	HTTPClientConfig:   config.DefaultHTTPClientConfig,
+	MatchFirstNetwork:  true,
 }
 
 func init() {
@@ -73,7 +76,8 @@ type DockerSDConfig struct {
 	Filters            []Filter `yaml:"filters"`
 	HostNetworkingHost string   `yaml:"host_networking_host"`
 
-	RefreshInterval model.Duration `yaml:"refresh_interval"`
+	RefreshInterval   model.Duration `yaml:"refresh_interval"`
+	MatchFirstNetwork bool           `yaml:"match_first_network"`
 }
 
 // NewDiscovererMetrics implements discovery.Config.
@@ -119,6 +123,7 @@ type DockerDiscovery struct {
 	port               int
 	hostNetworkingHost string
 	filters            filters.Args
+	matchFirstNetwork  bool
 }
 
 // NewDockerDiscovery returns a new DockerDiscovery which periodically refreshes its targets.
@@ -131,6 +136,7 @@ func NewDockerDiscovery(conf *DockerSDConfig, logger log.Logger, metrics discove
 	d := &DockerDiscovery{
 		port:               conf.Port,
 		hostNetworkingHost: conf.HostNetworkingHost,
+		matchFirstNetwork:  conf.MatchFirstNetwork,
 	}
 
 	hostURL, err := url.Parse(conf.Host)
@@ -202,6 +208,11 @@ func (d *DockerDiscovery) refresh(ctx context.Context) ([]*targetgroup.Group, er
 		return nil, fmt.Errorf("error while computing network labels: %w", err)
 	}
 
+	allContainers := make(map[string]types.Container)
+	for _, c := range containers {
+		allContainers[c.ID] = c
+	}
+
 	for _, c := range containers {
 		if len(c.Names) == 0 {
 			continue
@@ -218,7 +229,50 @@ func (d *DockerDiscovery) refresh(ctx context.Context) ([]*targetgroup.Group, er
 			commonLabels[dockerLabelContainerLabelPrefix+ln] = v
 		}
 
-		for _, n := range c.NetworkSettings.Networks {
+		networks := c.NetworkSettings.Networks
+		containerNetworkMode := container.NetworkMode(c.HostConfig.NetworkMode)
+		if len(networks) == 0 {
+			// Try to lookup shared networks
+			for {
+				if containerNetworkMode.IsContainer() {
+					tmpContainer, exists := allContainers[containerNetworkMode.ConnectedContainer()]
+					if !exists {
+						break
+					}
+					networks = tmpContainer.NetworkSettings.Networks
+					containerNetworkMode = container.NetworkMode(tmpContainer.HostConfig.NetworkMode)
+					if len(networks) > 0 {
+						break
+					}
+				} else {
+					break
+				}
+			}
+		}
+
+		if d.matchFirstNetwork && len(networks) > 1 {
+			// Match user defined network
+			if containerNetworkMode.IsUserDefined() {
+				networkMode := string(containerNetworkMode)
+				networks = map[string]*network.EndpointSettings{networkMode: networks[networkMode]}
+			} else {
+				// Get first network if container network mode has "none" value.
+				// This case appears under certain condition:
+				// 1. Container created with network set to "--net=none".
+				// 2. Disconnect network "none".
+				// 3. Reconnect network with user defined networks.
+				var first string
+				for k, n := range networks {
+					if n != nil {
+						first = k
+						break
+					}
+				}
+				networks = map[string]*network.EndpointSettings{first: networks[first]}
+			}
+		}
+
+		for _, n := range networks {
 			var added bool
 
 			for _, p := range c.Ports {
diff --git a/discovery/moby/docker_test.go b/discovery/moby/docker_test.go
index fec56d3e5f..c108ddf582 100644
--- a/discovery/moby/docker_test.go
+++ b/discovery/moby/docker_test.go
@@ -16,6 +16,7 @@ package moby
 import (
 	"context"
 	"fmt"
+	"sort"
 	"testing"
 
 	"github.com/go-kit/log"
@@ -59,7 +60,7 @@ host: %s
 	tg := tgs[0]
 	require.NotNil(t, tg)
 	require.NotNil(t, tg.Targets)
-	require.Len(t, tg.Targets, 3)
+	require.Len(t, tg.Targets, 6)
 
 	for i, lbls := range []model.LabelSet{
 		{
@@ -113,9 +114,259 @@ host: %s
 			"__meta_docker_container_network_mode":                     "host",
 			"__meta_docker_network_ip":                                 "",
 		},
+		{
+			"__address__":                "172.20.0.2:3306",
+			"__meta_docker_container_id": "f9ade4b83199d6f83020b7c0bfd1e8281b19dbf9e6cef2cf89bc45c8f8d20fe8",
+			"__meta_docker_container_label_com_docker_compose_project": "dockersd",
+			"__meta_docker_container_label_com_docker_compose_service": "mysql",
+			"__meta_docker_container_label_com_docker_compose_version": "2.2.2",
+			"__meta_docker_container_name":                             "/dockersd_mysql",
+			"__meta_docker_container_network_mode":                     "dockersd_private",
+			"__meta_docker_network_id":                                 "e804771e55254a360fdb70dfdd78d3610fdde231b14ef2f837a00ac1eeb9e601",
+			"__meta_docker_network_ingress":                            "false",
+			"__meta_docker_network_internal":                           "false",
+			"__meta_docker_network_ip":                                 "172.20.0.2",
+			"__meta_docker_network_name":                               "dockersd_private",
+			"__meta_docker_network_scope":                              "local",
+			"__meta_docker_port_private":                               "3306",
+		},
+		{
+			"__address__":                "172.20.0.2:33060",
+			"__meta_docker_container_id": "f9ade4b83199d6f83020b7c0bfd1e8281b19dbf9e6cef2cf89bc45c8f8d20fe8",
+			"__meta_docker_container_label_com_docker_compose_project": "dockersd",
+			"__meta_docker_container_label_com_docker_compose_service": "mysql",
+			"__meta_docker_container_label_com_docker_compose_version": "2.2.2",
+			"__meta_docker_container_name":                             "/dockersd_mysql",
+			"__meta_docker_container_network_mode":                     "dockersd_private",
+			"__meta_docker_network_id":                                 "e804771e55254a360fdb70dfdd78d3610fdde231b14ef2f837a00ac1eeb9e601",
+			"__meta_docker_network_ingress":                            "false",
+			"__meta_docker_network_internal":                           "false",
+			"__meta_docker_network_ip":                                 "172.20.0.2",
+			"__meta_docker_network_name":                               "dockersd_private",
+			"__meta_docker_network_scope":                              "local",
+			"__meta_docker_port_private":                               "33060",
+		},
+		{
+			"__address__":                "172.20.0.2:9104",
+			"__meta_docker_container_id": "59bf76e8816af98856b90dd619c91027145ca501043b1c51756d03b085882e06",
+			"__meta_docker_container_label_com_docker_compose_project": "dockersd",
+			"__meta_docker_container_label_com_docker_compose_service": "mysqlexporter",
+			"__meta_docker_container_label_com_docker_compose_version": "2.2.2",
+			"__meta_docker_container_label_maintainer":                 "The Prometheus Authors <prometheus-developers@googlegroups.com>",
+			"__meta_docker_container_name":                             "/dockersd_mysql_exporter",
+			"__meta_docker_container_network_mode":                     "container:f9ade4b83199d6f83020b7c0bfd1e8281b19dbf9e6cef2cf89bc45c8f8d20fe8",
+			"__meta_docker_network_id":                                 "e804771e55254a360fdb70dfdd78d3610fdde231b14ef2f837a00ac1eeb9e601",
+			"__meta_docker_network_ingress":                            "false",
+			"__meta_docker_network_internal":                           "false",
+			"__meta_docker_network_ip":                                 "172.20.0.2",
+			"__meta_docker_network_name":                               "dockersd_private",
+			"__meta_docker_network_scope":                              "local",
+			"__meta_docker_port_private":                               "9104",
+		},
 	} {
 		t.Run(fmt.Sprintf("item %d", i), func(t *testing.T) {
 			require.Equal(t, lbls, tg.Targets[i])
 		})
 	}
 }
+
+func TestDockerSDRefreshMatchAllNetworks(t *testing.T) {
+	sdmock := NewSDMock(t, "dockerprom")
+	sdmock.Setup()
+
+	e := sdmock.Endpoint()
+	url := e[:len(e)-1]
+	cfgString := fmt.Sprintf(`
+---
+host: %s
+`, url)
+	var cfg DockerSDConfig
+	require.NoError(t, yaml.Unmarshal([]byte(cfgString), &cfg))
+
+	cfg.MatchFirstNetwork = false
+	reg := prometheus.NewRegistry()
+	refreshMetrics := discovery.NewRefreshMetrics(reg)
+	metrics := cfg.NewDiscovererMetrics(reg, refreshMetrics)
+	require.NoError(t, metrics.Register())
+	defer metrics.Unregister()
+	defer refreshMetrics.Unregister()
+	d, err := NewDockerDiscovery(&cfg, log.NewNopLogger(), metrics)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	ctx := context.Background()
+	tgs, err := d.refresh(ctx)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	require.Len(t, tgs, 1)
+
+	tg := tgs[0]
+	require.NotNil(t, tg)
+	require.NotNil(t, tg.Targets)
+	require.Len(t, tg.Targets, 9)
+
+	sortFunc := func(labelSets []model.LabelSet) {
+		sort.Slice(labelSets, func(i, j int) bool {
+			return labelSets[i]["__address__"] < labelSets[j]["__address__"]
+		})
+	}
+	expected := []model.LabelSet{
+		{
+			"__address__":                "172.19.0.2:9100",
+			"__meta_docker_container_id": "c301b928faceb1a18fe379f6bc178727ef920bb30b0f9b8592b32b36255a0eca",
+			"__meta_docker_container_label_com_docker_compose_project": "dockersd",
+			"__meta_docker_container_label_com_docker_compose_service": "node",
+			"__meta_docker_container_label_com_docker_compose_version": "1.25.0",
+			"__meta_docker_container_label_maintainer":                 "The Prometheus Authors <prometheus-developers@googlegroups.com>",
+			"__meta_docker_container_label_prometheus_job":             "node",
+			"__meta_docker_container_name":                             "/dockersd_node_1",
+			"__meta_docker_container_network_mode":                     "dockersd_default",
+			"__meta_docker_network_id":                                 "7189986ab399e144e52a71b7451b4e04e2158c044b4cd2f3ae26fc3a285d3798",
+			"__meta_docker_network_ingress":                            "false",
+			"__meta_docker_network_internal":                           "false",
+			"__meta_docker_network_ip":                                 "172.19.0.2",
+			"__meta_docker_network_label_com_docker_compose_network":   "default",
+			"__meta_docker_network_label_com_docker_compose_project":   "dockersd",
+			"__meta_docker_network_label_com_docker_compose_version":   "1.25.0",
+			"__meta_docker_network_name":                               "dockersd_default",
+			"__meta_docker_network_scope":                              "local",
+			"__meta_docker_port_private":                               "9100",
+		},
+		{
+			"__address__":                "172.19.0.3:80",
+			"__meta_docker_container_id": "c301b928faceb1a18fe379f6bc178727ef920bb30b0f9b8592b32b36255a0eca",
+			"__meta_docker_container_label_com_docker_compose_project": "dockersd",
+			"__meta_docker_container_label_com_docker_compose_service": "noport",
+			"__meta_docker_container_label_com_docker_compose_version": "1.25.0",
+			"__meta_docker_container_label_maintainer":                 "The Prometheus Authors <prometheus-developers@googlegroups.com>",
+			"__meta_docker_container_label_prometheus_job":             "noport",
+			"__meta_docker_container_name":                             "/dockersd_noport_1",
+			"__meta_docker_container_network_mode":                     "dockersd_default",
+			"__meta_docker_network_id":                                 "7189986ab399e144e52a71b7451b4e04e2158c044b4cd2f3ae26fc3a285d3798",
+			"__meta_docker_network_ingress":                            "false",
+			"__meta_docker_network_internal":                           "false",
+			"__meta_docker_network_ip":                                 "172.19.0.3",
+			"__meta_docker_network_label_com_docker_compose_network":   "default",
+			"__meta_docker_network_label_com_docker_compose_project":   "dockersd",
+			"__meta_docker_network_label_com_docker_compose_version":   "1.25.0",
+			"__meta_docker_network_name":                               "dockersd_default",
+			"__meta_docker_network_scope":                              "local",
+		},
+		{
+			"__address__":                "localhost",
+			"__meta_docker_container_id": "54ed6cc5c0988260436cb0e739b7b6c9cad6c439a93b4c4fdbe9753e1c94b189",
+			"__meta_docker_container_label_com_docker_compose_project": "dockersd",
+			"__meta_docker_container_label_com_docker_compose_service": "host_networking",
+			"__meta_docker_container_label_com_docker_compose_version": "1.25.0",
+			"__meta_docker_container_name":                             "/dockersd_host_networking_1",
+			"__meta_docker_container_network_mode":                     "host",
+			"__meta_docker_network_ip":                                 "",
+		},
+		{
+			"__address__":                "172.20.0.2:3306",
+			"__meta_docker_container_id": "f9ade4b83199d6f83020b7c0bfd1e8281b19dbf9e6cef2cf89bc45c8f8d20fe8",
+			"__meta_docker_container_label_com_docker_compose_project": "dockersd",
+			"__meta_docker_container_label_com_docker_compose_service": "mysql",
+			"__meta_docker_container_label_com_docker_compose_version": "2.2.2",
+			"__meta_docker_container_name":                             "/dockersd_mysql",
+			"__meta_docker_container_network_mode":                     "dockersd_private",
+			"__meta_docker_network_id":                                 "e804771e55254a360fdb70dfdd78d3610fdde231b14ef2f837a00ac1eeb9e601",
+			"__meta_docker_network_ingress":                            "false",
+			"__meta_docker_network_internal":                           "false",
+			"__meta_docker_network_ip":                                 "172.20.0.2",
+			"__meta_docker_network_name":                               "dockersd_private",
+			"__meta_docker_network_scope":                              "local",
+			"__meta_docker_port_private":                               "3306",
+		},
+		{
+			"__address__":                "172.20.0.2:33060",
+			"__meta_docker_container_id": "f9ade4b83199d6f83020b7c0bfd1e8281b19dbf9e6cef2cf89bc45c8f8d20fe8",
+			"__meta_docker_container_label_com_docker_compose_project": "dockersd",
+			"__meta_docker_container_label_com_docker_compose_service": "mysql",
+			"__meta_docker_container_label_com_docker_compose_version": "2.2.2",
+			"__meta_docker_container_name":                             "/dockersd_mysql",
+			"__meta_docker_container_network_mode":                     "dockersd_private",
+			"__meta_docker_network_id":                                 "e804771e55254a360fdb70dfdd78d3610fdde231b14ef2f837a00ac1eeb9e601",
+			"__meta_docker_network_ingress":                            "false",
+			"__meta_docker_network_internal":                           "false",
+			"__meta_docker_network_ip":                                 "172.20.0.2",
+			"__meta_docker_network_name":                               "dockersd_private",
+			"__meta_docker_network_scope":                              "local",
+			"__meta_docker_port_private":                               "33060",
+		},
+		{
+			"__address__":                "172.21.0.2:3306",
+			"__meta_docker_container_id": "f9ade4b83199d6f83020b7c0bfd1e8281b19dbf9e6cef2cf89bc45c8f8d20fe8",
+			"__meta_docker_container_label_com_docker_compose_project": "dockersd",
+			"__meta_docker_container_label_com_docker_compose_service": "mysql",
+			"__meta_docker_container_label_com_docker_compose_version": "2.2.2",
+			"__meta_docker_container_name":                             "/dockersd_mysql",
+			"__meta_docker_container_network_mode":                     "dockersd_private",
+			"__meta_docker_network_id":                                 "bfcf66a6b64f7d518f009e34290dc3f3c66a08164257ad1afc3bd31d75f656e8",
+			"__meta_docker_network_ingress":                            "false",
+			"__meta_docker_network_internal":                           "false",
+			"__meta_docker_network_ip":                                 "172.21.0.2",
+			"__meta_docker_network_name":                               "dockersd_private1",
+			"__meta_docker_network_scope":                              "local",
+			"__meta_docker_port_private":                               "3306",
+		},
+		{
+			"__address__":                "172.21.0.2:33060",
+			"__meta_docker_container_id": "f9ade4b83199d6f83020b7c0bfd1e8281b19dbf9e6cef2cf89bc45c8f8d20fe8",
+			"__meta_docker_container_label_com_docker_compose_project": "dockersd",
+			"__meta_docker_container_label_com_docker_compose_service": "mysql",
+			"__meta_docker_container_label_com_docker_compose_version": "2.2.2",
+			"__meta_docker_container_name":                             "/dockersd_mysql",
+			"__meta_docker_container_network_mode":                     "dockersd_private",
+			"__meta_docker_network_id":                                 "bfcf66a6b64f7d518f009e34290dc3f3c66a08164257ad1afc3bd31d75f656e8",
+			"__meta_docker_network_ingress":                            "false",
+			"__meta_docker_network_internal":                           "false",
+			"__meta_docker_network_ip":                                 "172.21.0.2",
+			"__meta_docker_network_name":                               "dockersd_private1",
+			"__meta_docker_network_scope":                              "local",
+			"__meta_docker_port_private":                               "33060",
+		},
+		{
+			"__address__":                "172.21.0.2:9104",
+			"__meta_docker_container_id": "59bf76e8816af98856b90dd619c91027145ca501043b1c51756d03b085882e06",
+			"__meta_docker_container_label_com_docker_compose_project": "dockersd",
+			"__meta_docker_container_label_com_docker_compose_service": "mysqlexporter",
+			"__meta_docker_container_label_com_docker_compose_version": "2.2.2",
+			"__meta_docker_container_label_maintainer":                 "The Prometheus Authors <prometheus-developers@googlegroups.com>",
+			"__meta_docker_container_name":                             "/dockersd_mysql_exporter",
+			"__meta_docker_container_network_mode":                     "container:f9ade4b83199d6f83020b7c0bfd1e8281b19dbf9e6cef2cf89bc45c8f8d20fe8",
+			"__meta_docker_network_id":                                 "bfcf66a6b64f7d518f009e34290dc3f3c66a08164257ad1afc3bd31d75f656e8",
+			"__meta_docker_network_ingress":                            "false",
+			"__meta_docker_network_internal":                           "false",
+			"__meta_docker_network_ip":                                 "172.21.0.2",
+			"__meta_docker_network_name":                               "dockersd_private1",
+			"__meta_docker_network_scope":                              "local",
+			"__meta_docker_port_private":                               "9104",
+		},
+		{
+			"__address__":                "172.20.0.2:9104",
+			"__meta_docker_container_id": "59bf76e8816af98856b90dd619c91027145ca501043b1c51756d03b085882e06",
+			"__meta_docker_container_label_com_docker_compose_project": "dockersd",
+			"__meta_docker_container_label_com_docker_compose_service": "mysqlexporter",
+			"__meta_docker_container_label_com_docker_compose_version": "2.2.2",
+			"__meta_docker_container_label_maintainer":                 "The Prometheus Authors <prometheus-developers@googlegroups.com>",
+			"__meta_docker_container_name":                             "/dockersd_mysql_exporter",
+			"__meta_docker_container_network_mode":                     "container:f9ade4b83199d6f83020b7c0bfd1e8281b19dbf9e6cef2cf89bc45c8f8d20fe8",
+			"__meta_docker_network_id":                                 "e804771e55254a360fdb70dfdd78d3610fdde231b14ef2f837a00ac1eeb9e601",
+			"__meta_docker_network_ingress":                            "false",
+			"__meta_docker_network_internal":                           "false",
+			"__meta_docker_network_ip":                                 "172.20.0.2",
+			"__meta_docker_network_name":                               "dockersd_private",
+			"__meta_docker_network_scope":                              "local",
+			"__meta_docker_port_private":                               "9104",
+		},
+	}
+
+	sortFunc(expected)
+	sortFunc(tg.Targets)
+
+	for i, lbls := range expected {
+		t.Run(fmt.Sprintf("item %d", i), func(t *testing.T) {
+			require.Equal(t, lbls, tg.Targets[i])
+		})
+	}
+}
diff --git a/discovery/moby/network.go b/discovery/moby/network.go
index 0e0d0041de..794d2e607d 100644
--- a/discovery/moby/network.go
+++ b/discovery/moby/network.go
@@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ package moby
 
 import (
 	"context"
-	"fmt"
+	"strconv"
 
 	"github.com/docker/docker/api/types"
 	"github.com/docker/docker/client"
@@ -44,8 +44,8 @@ func getNetworksLabels(ctx context.Context, client *client.Client, labelPrefix s
 			labelPrefix + labelNetworkID:       network.ID,
 			labelPrefix + labelNetworkName:     network.Name,
 			labelPrefix + labelNetworkScope:    network.Scope,
-			labelPrefix + labelNetworkInternal: fmt.Sprintf("%t", network.Internal),
-			labelPrefix + labelNetworkIngress:  fmt.Sprintf("%t", network.Ingress),
+			labelPrefix + labelNetworkInternal: strconv.FormatBool(network.Internal),
+			labelPrefix + labelNetworkIngress:  strconv.FormatBool(network.Ingress),
 		}
 		for k, v := range network.Labels {
 			ln := strutil.SanitizeLabelName(k)
diff --git a/discovery/moby/nodes.go b/discovery/moby/nodes.go
index a7c5551c02..b5be844eda 100644
--- a/discovery/moby/nodes.go
+++ b/discovery/moby/nodes.go
@@ -66,7 +66,7 @@ func (d *Discovery) refreshNodes(ctx context.Context) ([]*targetgroup.Group, err
 			swarmLabelNodeAddress:              model.LabelValue(n.Status.Addr),
 		}
 		if n.ManagerStatus != nil {
-			labels[swarmLabelNodeManagerLeader] = model.LabelValue(fmt.Sprintf("%t", n.ManagerStatus.Leader))
+			labels[swarmLabelNodeManagerLeader] = model.LabelValue(strconv.FormatBool(n.ManagerStatus.Leader))
 			labels[swarmLabelNodeManagerReachability] = model.LabelValue(n.ManagerStatus.Reachability)
 			labels[swarmLabelNodeManagerAddr] = model.LabelValue(n.ManagerStatus.Addr)
 		}
diff --git a/discovery/moby/services.go b/discovery/moby/services.go
index 1d472b5c00..c61b499259 100644
--- a/discovery/moby/services.go
+++ b/discovery/moby/services.go
@@ -116,7 +116,7 @@ func (d *Discovery) refreshServices(ctx context.Context) ([]*targetgroup.Group,
 					labels[model.LabelName(k)] = model.LabelValue(v)
 				}
 
-				addr := net.JoinHostPort(ip.String(), fmt.Sprintf("%d", d.port))
+				addr := net.JoinHostPort(ip.String(), strconv.Itoa(d.port))
 				labels[model.AddressLabel] = model.LabelValue(addr)
 
 				tg.Targets = append(tg.Targets, labels)
diff --git a/discovery/moby/tasks.go b/discovery/moby/tasks.go
index 2505a7b07a..38b9d33de2 100644
--- a/discovery/moby/tasks.go
+++ b/discovery/moby/tasks.go
@@ -150,7 +150,7 @@ func (d *Discovery) refreshTasks(ctx context.Context) ([]*targetgroup.Group, err
 						labels[model.LabelName(k)] = model.LabelValue(v)
 					}
 
-					addr := net.JoinHostPort(ip.String(), fmt.Sprintf("%d", d.port))
+					addr := net.JoinHostPort(ip.String(), strconv.Itoa(d.port))
 					labels[model.AddressLabel] = model.LabelValue(addr)
 
 					tg.Targets = append(tg.Targets, labels)
diff --git a/discovery/moby/testdata/dockerprom/containers/json.json b/discovery/moby/testdata/dockerprom/containers/json.json
index 37f575d22c..ebfc56b6d5 100644
--- a/discovery/moby/testdata/dockerprom/containers/json.json
+++ b/discovery/moby/testdata/dockerprom/containers/json.json
@@ -128,5 +128,105 @@
       }
     },
     "Mounts": []
+  },
+  {
+    "Id": "f9ade4b83199d6f83020b7c0bfd1e8281b19dbf9e6cef2cf89bc45c8f8d20fe8",
+    "Names": [
+      "/dockersd_mysql"
+    ],
+    "Image": "mysql:5.7.29",
+    "ImageID": "sha256:5d9483f9a7b21c87e0f5b9776c3e06567603c28c0062013eda127c968175f5e8",
+    "Command": "mysqld",
+    "Created": 1616273136,
+    "Ports": [
+      {
+        "PrivatePort": 3306,
+        "Type": "tcp"
+      },
+      {
+        "PrivatePort": 33060,
+        "Type": "tcp"
+      }
+    ],
+    "Labels": {
+      "com.docker.compose.project": "dockersd",
+      "com.docker.compose.service": "mysql",
+      "com.docker.compose.version": "2.2.2"
+    },
+    "State": "running",
+    "Status": "Up 40 seconds",
+    "HostConfig": {
+      "NetworkMode": "dockersd_private"
+    },
+    "NetworkSettings": {
+      "Networks": {
+        "dockersd_private": {
+          "IPAMConfig": null,
+          "Links": null,
+          "Aliases": null,
+          "NetworkID": "e804771e55254a360fdb70dfdd78d3610fdde231b14ef2f837a00ac1eeb9e601",
+          "EndpointID": "80f8a61b37701a9991bb98c75ddd23fd9b7c16b5575ca81343f6b44ff4a2a9d9",
+          "Gateway": "172.20.0.1",
+          "IPAddress": "172.20.0.2",
+          "IPPrefixLen": 16,
+          "IPv6Gateway": "",
+          "GlobalIPv6Address": "",
+          "GlobalIPv6PrefixLen": 0,
+          "MacAddress": "02:42:ac:14:00:0a",
+          "DriverOpts": null
+        },
+        "dockersd_private1": {
+          "IPAMConfig": {},
+          "Links": null,
+          "Aliases": [
+            "mysql",
+            "mysql",
+            "f9ade4b83199"
+          ],
+          "NetworkID": "bfcf66a6b64f7d518f009e34290dc3f3c66a08164257ad1afc3bd31d75f656e8",
+          "EndpointID": "f80921d10e78c99a5907705aae75befea40c3d3e9f820e66ab392f7274be16b8",
+          "Gateway": "172.21.0.1",
+          "IPAddress": "172.21.0.2",
+          "IPPrefixLen": 24,
+          "IPv6Gateway": "",
+          "GlobalIPv6Address": "",
+          "GlobalIPv6PrefixLen": 0,
+          "MacAddress": "02:42:ac:15:00:02",
+          "DriverOpts": null
+        }
+      }
+    },
+    "Mounts": []
+  },
+  {
+    "Id": "59bf76e8816af98856b90dd619c91027145ca501043b1c51756d03b085882e06",
+    "Names": [
+      "/dockersd_mysql_exporter"
+    ],
+    "Image": "prom/mysqld-exporter:latest",
+    "ImageID": "sha256:121b8a7cd0525dd89aaec58ad7d34c3bb3714740e5a67daf6510ccf71ab219a9",
+    "Command": "/bin/mysqld_exporter",
+    "Created": 1616273136,
+    "Ports": [
+      {
+        "PrivatePort": 9104,
+        "Type": "tcp"
+      }
+    ],
+    "Labels": {
+      "com.docker.compose.project": "dockersd",
+      "com.docker.compose.service": "mysqlexporter",
+      "com.docker.compose.version": "2.2.2",
+      "maintainer": "The Prometheus Authors <prometheus-developers@googlegroups.com>"
+    },
+    "State": "running",
+    "Status": "Up 40 seconds",
+    "HostConfig": {
+      "NetworkMode": "container:f9ade4b83199d6f83020b7c0bfd1e8281b19dbf9e6cef2cf89bc45c8f8d20fe8"
+    },
+    "NetworkSettings": {
+      "Networks": {}
+    },
+    "Mounts": []
   }
 ]
diff --git a/discovery/moby/testdata/dockerprom/networks.json b/discovery/moby/testdata/dockerprom/networks.json
index 35facd3bb9..75d4442df8 100644
--- a/discovery/moby/testdata/dockerprom/networks.json
+++ b/discovery/moby/testdata/dockerprom/networks.json
@@ -111,5 +111,59 @@
     "Containers": {},
     "Options": {},
     "Labels": {}
+  },
+  {
+    "Name": "dockersd_private",
+    "Id": "e804771e55254a360fdb70dfdd78d3610fdde231b14ef2f837a00ac1eeb9e601",
+    "Created": "2022-03-25T09:21:17.718370976+08:00",
+    "Scope": "local",
+    "Driver": "bridge",
+    "EnableIPv6": false,
+    "IPAM": {
+      "Driver": "default",
+      "Options": null,
+      "Config": [
+        {
+          "Subnet": "172.20.0.1/16"
+        }
+      ]
+    },
+    "Internal": false,
+    "Attachable": false,
+    "Ingress": false,
+    "ConfigFrom": {
+      "Network": ""
+    },
+    "ConfigOnly": false,
+    "Containers": {},
+    "Options": {},
+    "Labels": {}
+  },
+  {
+    "Name": "dockersd_private1",
+    "Id": "bfcf66a6b64f7d518f009e34290dc3f3c66a08164257ad1afc3bd31d75f656e8",
+    "Created": "2022-03-25T09:21:17.718370976+08:00",
+    "Scope": "local",
+    "Driver": "bridge",
+    "EnableIPv6": false,
+    "IPAM": {
+      "Driver": "default",
+      "Options": null,
+      "Config": [
+        {
+          "Subnet": "172.21.0.1/16"
+        }
+      ]
+    },
+    "Internal": false,
+    "Attachable": false,
+    "Ingress": false,
+    "ConfigFrom": {
+      "Network": ""
+    },
+    "ConfigOnly": false,
+    "Containers": {},
+    "Options": {},
+    "Labels": {}
   }
 ]
diff --git a/discovery/openstack/hypervisor.go b/discovery/openstack/hypervisor.go
index 16964cfb62..8964da9294 100644
--- a/discovery/openstack/hypervisor.go
+++ b/discovery/openstack/hypervisor.go
@@ -17,6 +17,7 @@ import (
 	"context"
 	"fmt"
 	"net"
+	"strconv"
 
 	"github.com/go-kit/log"
 	"github.com/gophercloud/gophercloud"
@@ -72,7 +73,7 @@ func (h *HypervisorDiscovery) refresh(ctx context.Context) ([]*targetgroup.Group
 	}
 
 	tg := &targetgroup.Group{
-		Source: fmt.Sprintf("OS_" + h.region),
+		Source: "OS_" + h.region,
 	}
 	// OpenStack API reference
 	// https://developer.openstack.org/api-ref/compute/#list-hypervisors-details
@@ -84,7 +85,7 @@ func (h *HypervisorDiscovery) refresh(ctx context.Context) ([]*targetgroup.Group
 		}
 		for _, hypervisor := range hypervisorList {
 			labels := model.LabelSet{}
-			addr := net.JoinHostPort(hypervisor.HostIP, fmt.Sprintf("%d", h.port))
+			addr := net.JoinHostPort(hypervisor.HostIP, strconv.Itoa(h.port))
 			labels[model.AddressLabel] = model.LabelValue(addr)
 			labels[openstackLabelHypervisorID] = model.LabelValue(hypervisor.ID)
 			labels[openstackLabelHypervisorHostName] = model.LabelValue(hypervisor.HypervisorHostname)
diff --git a/discovery/openstack/instance.go b/discovery/openstack/instance.go
index 9b28c1d6e1..78c669e6f7 100644
--- a/discovery/openstack/instance.go
+++ b/discovery/openstack/instance.go
@@ -17,6 +17,7 @@ import (
 	"context"
 	"fmt"
 	"net"
+	"strconv"
 
 	"github.com/go-kit/log"
 	"github.com/go-kit/log/level"
@@ -120,7 +121,7 @@ func (i *InstanceDiscovery) refresh(ctx context.Context) ([]*targetgroup.Group,
 	}
 	pager := servers.List(client, opts)
 	tg := &targetgroup.Group{
-		Source: fmt.Sprintf("OS_" + i.region),
+		Source: "OS_" + i.region,
 	}
 	err = pager.EachPage(func(page pagination.Page) (bool, error) {
 		if ctx.Err() != nil {
@@ -145,12 +146,18 @@ func (i *InstanceDiscovery) refresh(ctx context.Context) ([]*targetgroup.Group,
 				openstackLabelUserID:         model.LabelValue(s.UserID),
 			}
 
-			flavorID, ok := s.Flavor["id"].(string)
-			if !ok {
-				level.Warn(i.logger).Log("msg", "Invalid type for flavor id, expected string")
-				continue
+			flavorName, nameOk := s.Flavor["original_name"].(string)
+			// "original_name" is only available for microversion >= 2.47. It was added in favor of "id".
+			if !nameOk {
+				flavorID, idOk := s.Flavor["id"].(string)
+				if !idOk {
+					level.Warn(i.logger).Log("msg", "Invalid type for both flavor original_name and flavor id, expected string")
+					continue
+				}
+				labels[openstackLabelInstanceFlavor] = model.LabelValue(flavorID)
+			} else {
+				labels[openstackLabelInstanceFlavor] = model.LabelValue(flavorName)
 			}
-			labels[openstackLabelInstanceFlavor] = model.LabelValue(flavorID)
 
 			imageID, ok := s.Image["id"].(string)
 			if ok {
@@ -194,7 +201,7 @@ func (i *InstanceDiscovery) refresh(ctx context.Context) ([]*targetgroup.Group,
 					if val, ok := floatingIPList[floatingIPKey{id: s.ID, fixed: addr}]; ok {
 						lbls[openstackLabelPublicIP] = model.LabelValue(val)
 					}
-					addr = net.JoinHostPort(addr, fmt.Sprintf("%d", i.port))
+					addr = net.JoinHostPort(addr, strconv.Itoa(i.port))
 					lbls[model.AddressLabel] = model.LabelValue(addr)
 
 					tg.Targets = append(tg.Targets, lbls)
diff --git a/discovery/openstack/instance_test.go b/discovery/openstack/instance_test.go
index 9e124b6053..2b5ac1b89e 100644
--- a/discovery/openstack/instance_test.go
+++ b/discovery/openstack/instance_test.go
@@ -84,7 +84,7 @@ func TestOpenstackSDInstanceRefresh(t *testing.T) {
 		},
 		{
 			"__address__":                      model.LabelValue("10.0.0.31:0"),
-			"__meta_openstack_instance_flavor": model.LabelValue("1"),
+			"__meta_openstack_instance_flavor": model.LabelValue("m1.medium"),
 			"__meta_openstack_instance_id":     model.LabelValue("9e5476bd-a4ec-4653-93d6-72c93aa682ba"),
 			"__meta_openstack_instance_image":  model.LabelValue("f90f6034-2570-4974-8351-6b49732ef2eb"),
 			"__meta_openstack_instance_status": model.LabelValue("ACTIVE"),
@@ -96,7 +96,7 @@ func TestOpenstackSDInstanceRefresh(t *testing.T) {
 		},
 		{
 			"__address__":                      model.LabelValue("10.0.0.33:0"),
-			"__meta_openstack_instance_flavor": model.LabelValue("4"),
+			"__meta_openstack_instance_flavor": model.LabelValue("m1.small"),
 			"__meta_openstack_instance_id":     model.LabelValue("9e5476bd-a4ec-4653-93d6-72c93aa682bb"),
 			"__meta_openstack_instance_status": model.LabelValue("ACTIVE"),
 			"__meta_openstack_instance_name":   model.LabelValue("merp"),
@@ -108,7 +108,7 @@ func TestOpenstackSDInstanceRefresh(t *testing.T) {
 		},
 		{
 			"__address__":                      model.LabelValue("10.0.0.34:0"),
-			"__meta_openstack_instance_flavor": model.LabelValue("4"),
+			"__meta_openstack_instance_flavor": model.LabelValue("m1.small"),
 			"__meta_openstack_instance_id":     model.LabelValue("9e5476bd-a4ec-4653-93d6-72c93aa682bb"),
 			"__meta_openstack_instance_status": model.LabelValue("ACTIVE"),
 			"__meta_openstack_instance_name":   model.LabelValue("merp"),
diff --git a/discovery/openstack/mock_test.go b/discovery/openstack/mock_test.go
index b1267db90e..4518f41166 100644
--- a/discovery/openstack/mock_test.go
+++ b/discovery/openstack/mock_test.go
@@ -427,13 +427,17 @@ const serverListBody = `
 			"OS-SRV-USG:launched_at": "2014-09-25T13:04:49.000000",
 			"OS-EXT-SRV-ATTR:hypervisor_hostname": "devstack",
 			"flavor": {
-				"id": "1",
-				"links": [
-					{
-						"href": "http://104.130.131.164:8774/fcad67a6189847c4aecfa3c81a05783b/flavors/1",
-						"rel": "bookmark"
-					}
-				]
+				"vcpus": 2,
+				"ram": 4096,
+				"disk": 0,
+				"ephemeral": 0,
+				"swap": 0,
+				"original_name": "m1.medium",
+				"extra_specs": {
+					"aggregate_instance_extra_specs:general": "true",
+					"hw:mem_page_size": "large",
+					"hw:vif_multiqueue_enabled": "true"
+				}
 			},
 			"id": "9e5476bd-a4ec-4653-93d6-72c93aa682ba",
 			"security_groups": [
@@ -498,13 +502,17 @@ const serverListBody = `
 		"OS-SRV-USG:launched_at": "2014-09-25T13:04:49.000000",
 		"OS-EXT-SRV-ATTR:hypervisor_hostname": "devstack",
 		"flavor": {
-			"id": "4",
-			"links": [
-				{
-					"href": "http://104.130.131.164:8774/fcad67a6189847c4aecfa3c81a05783b/flavors/1",
-					"rel": "bookmark"
-				}
-			]
+			"vcpus": 2,
+			"ram": 4096,
+			"disk": 0,
+			"ephemeral": 0,
+			"swap": 0,
+			"original_name": "m1.small",
+			"extra_specs": {
+			  "aggregate_instance_extra_specs:general": "true",
+			  "hw:mem_page_size": "large",
+			  "hw:vif_multiqueue_enabled": "true"
+			}
 		},
 		"id": "9e5476bd-a4ec-4653-93d6-72c93aa682bb",
 		"security_groups": [
diff --git a/discovery/ovhcloud/dedicated_server.go b/discovery/ovhcloud/dedicated_server.go
index bb5dadcd7b..a70857a08b 100644
--- a/discovery/ovhcloud/dedicated_server.go
+++ b/discovery/ovhcloud/dedicated_server.go
@@ -144,12 +144,12 @@ func (d *dedicatedServerDiscovery) refresh(context.Context) ([]*targetgroup.Grou
 			model.InstanceLabel:                             model.LabelValue(server.Name),
 			dedicatedServerLabelPrefix + "state":            model.LabelValue(server.State),
 			dedicatedServerLabelPrefix + "commercial_range": model.LabelValue(server.CommercialRange),
-			dedicatedServerLabelPrefix + "link_speed":       model.LabelValue(fmt.Sprintf("%d", server.LinkSpeed)),
+			dedicatedServerLabelPrefix + "link_speed":       model.LabelValue(strconv.Itoa(server.LinkSpeed)),
 			dedicatedServerLabelPrefix + "rack":             model.LabelValue(server.Rack),
 			dedicatedServerLabelPrefix + "no_intervention":  model.LabelValue(strconv.FormatBool(server.NoIntervention)),
 			dedicatedServerLabelPrefix + "os":               model.LabelValue(server.Os),
 			dedicatedServerLabelPrefix + "support_level":    model.LabelValue(server.SupportLevel),
-			dedicatedServerLabelPrefix + "server_id":        model.LabelValue(fmt.Sprintf("%d", server.ServerID)),
+			dedicatedServerLabelPrefix + "server_id":        model.LabelValue(strconv.FormatInt(server.ServerID, 10)),
 			dedicatedServerLabelPrefix + "reverse":          model.LabelValue(server.Reverse),
 			dedicatedServerLabelPrefix + "datacenter":       model.LabelValue(server.Datacenter),
 			dedicatedServerLabelPrefix + "name":             model.LabelValue(server.Name),
diff --git a/discovery/ovhcloud/ovhcloud_test.go b/discovery/ovhcloud/ovhcloud_test.go
index 53ec9b4459..9c95bf90e6 100644
--- a/discovery/ovhcloud/ovhcloud_test.go
+++ b/discovery/ovhcloud/ovhcloud_test.go
@@ -66,7 +66,7 @@ endpoint: %s
 
 	_, err := createClient(&conf)
 
-	require.ErrorContains(t, err, "missing application key")
+	require.ErrorContains(t, err, "missing authentication information")
 }
 
 func TestParseIPs(t *testing.T) {
diff --git a/discovery/ovhcloud/vps.go b/discovery/ovhcloud/vps.go
index e2d1dee364..58ceeabd87 100644
--- a/discovery/ovhcloud/vps.go
+++ b/discovery/ovhcloud/vps.go
@@ -19,6 +19,7 @@ import (
 	"net/netip"
 	"net/url"
 	"path"
+	"strconv"
 
 	"github.com/go-kit/log"
 	"github.com/go-kit/log/level"
@@ -161,21 +162,21 @@ func (d *vpsDiscovery) refresh(context.Context) ([]*targetgroup.Group, error) {
 			model.InstanceLabel:                      model.LabelValue(server.Name),
 			vpsLabelPrefix + "offer":                 model.LabelValue(server.Model.Offer),
 			vpsLabelPrefix + "datacenter":            model.LabelValue(fmt.Sprintf("%+v", server.Model.Datacenter)),
-			vpsLabelPrefix + "model_vcore":           model.LabelValue(fmt.Sprintf("%d", server.Model.Vcore)),
-			vpsLabelPrefix + "maximum_additional_ip": model.LabelValue(fmt.Sprintf("%d", server.Model.MaximumAdditionalIP)),
+			vpsLabelPrefix + "model_vcore":           model.LabelValue(strconv.Itoa(server.Model.Vcore)),
+			vpsLabelPrefix + "maximum_additional_ip": model.LabelValue(strconv.Itoa(server.Model.MaximumAdditionalIP)),
 			vpsLabelPrefix + "version":               model.LabelValue(server.Model.Version),
 			vpsLabelPrefix + "model_name":            model.LabelValue(server.Model.Name),
-			vpsLabelPrefix + "disk":                  model.LabelValue(fmt.Sprintf("%d", server.Model.Disk)),
-			vpsLabelPrefix + "memory":                model.LabelValue(fmt.Sprintf("%d", server.Model.Memory)),
+			vpsLabelPrefix + "disk":                  model.LabelValue(strconv.Itoa(server.Model.Disk)),
+			vpsLabelPrefix + "memory":                model.LabelValue(strconv.Itoa(server.Model.Memory)),
 			vpsLabelPrefix + "zone":                  model.LabelValue(server.Zone),
 			vpsLabelPrefix + "display_name":          model.LabelValue(server.DisplayName),
 			vpsLabelPrefix + "cluster":               model.LabelValue(server.Cluster),
 			vpsLabelPrefix + "state":                 model.LabelValue(server.State),
 			vpsLabelPrefix + "name":                  model.LabelValue(server.Name),
 			vpsLabelPrefix + "netboot_mode":          model.LabelValue(server.NetbootMode),
-			vpsLabelPrefix + "memory_limit":          model.LabelValue(fmt.Sprintf("%d", server.MemoryLimit)),
+			vpsLabelPrefix + "memory_limit":          model.LabelValue(strconv.Itoa(server.MemoryLimit)),
 			vpsLabelPrefix + "offer_type":            model.LabelValue(server.OfferType),
-			vpsLabelPrefix + "vcore":                 model.LabelValue(fmt.Sprintf("%d", server.Vcore)),
+			vpsLabelPrefix + "vcore":                 model.LabelValue(strconv.Itoa(server.Vcore)),
 			vpsLabelPrefix + "ipv4":                  model.LabelValue(ipv4),
 			vpsLabelPrefix + "ipv6":                  model.LabelValue(ipv6),
 		}
diff --git a/discovery/puppetdb/puppetdb.go b/discovery/puppetdb/puppetdb.go
index 8c9ccde0a4..8f89acbf93 100644
--- a/discovery/puppetdb/puppetdb.go
+++ b/discovery/puppetdb/puppetdb.go
@@ -237,7 +237,7 @@ func (d *Discovery) refresh(ctx context.Context) ([]*targetgroup.Group, error) {
 			pdbLabelResource:    model.LabelValue(resource.Resource),
 			pdbLabelType:        model.LabelValue(resource.Type),
 			pdbLabelTitle:       model.LabelValue(resource.Title),
-			pdbLabelExported:    model.LabelValue(fmt.Sprintf("%t", resource.Exported)),
+			pdbLabelExported:    model.LabelValue(strconv.FormatBool(resource.Exported)),
 			pdbLabelFile:        model.LabelValue(resource.File),
 			pdbLabelEnvironment: model.LabelValue(resource.Environment),
 		}
diff --git a/discovery/scaleway/instance.go b/discovery/scaleway/instance.go
index 9dd786c804..2542c63253 100644
--- a/discovery/scaleway/instance.go
+++ b/discovery/scaleway/instance.go
@@ -174,20 +174,25 @@ func (d *instanceDiscovery) refresh(ctx context.Context) ([]*targetgroup.Group,
 			labels[instanceTagsLabel] = model.LabelValue(tags)
 		}
 
-		if server.IPv6 != nil {
-			labels[instancePublicIPv6Label] = model.LabelValue(server.IPv6.Address.String())
+		addr := ""
+		if server.IPv6 != nil { //nolint:staticcheck
+			labels[instancePublicIPv6Label] = model.LabelValue(server.IPv6.Address.String()) //nolint:staticcheck
+			addr = server.IPv6.Address.String()                                              //nolint:staticcheck
 		}
 
-		if server.PublicIP != nil {
-			labels[instancePublicIPv4Label] = model.LabelValue(server.PublicIP.Address.String())
+		if server.PublicIP != nil { //nolint:staticcheck
+			labels[instancePublicIPv4Label] = model.LabelValue(server.PublicIP.Address.String()) //nolint:staticcheck
+			addr = server.PublicIP.Address.String()                                              //nolint:staticcheck
 		}
 
 		if server.PrivateIP != nil {
 			labels[instancePrivateIPv4Label] = model.LabelValue(*server.PrivateIP)
+			addr = *server.PrivateIP
+		}
 
-			addr := net.JoinHostPort(*server.PrivateIP, strconv.FormatUint(uint64(d.port), 10))
+		if addr != "" {
+			addr := net.JoinHostPort(addr, strconv.FormatUint(uint64(d.port), 10))
 			labels[model.AddressLabel] = model.LabelValue(addr)
-
 			targets = append(targets, labels)
 		}
 	}
diff --git a/discovery/scaleway/instance_test.go b/discovery/scaleway/instance_test.go
index d2449d00c9..ae70a9ed25 100644
--- a/discovery/scaleway/instance_test.go
+++ b/discovery/scaleway/instance_test.go
@@ -60,7 +60,7 @@ api_url: %s
 	tg := tgs[0]
 	require.NotNil(t, tg)
 	require.NotNil(t, tg.Targets)
-	require.Len(t, tg.Targets, 2)
+	require.Len(t, tg.Targets, 3)
 
 	for i, lbls := range []model.LabelSet{
 		{
@@ -110,6 +110,28 @@ api_url: %s
 			"__meta_scaleway_instance_type":                   "DEV1-S",
 			"__meta_scaleway_instance_zone":                   "fr-par-1",
 		},
+		{
+			"__address__":                                     "51.158.183.115:80",
+			"__meta_scaleway_instance_boot_type":              "local",
+			"__meta_scaleway_instance_hostname":               "routed-dualstack",
+			"__meta_scaleway_instance_id":                     "4904366a-7e26-4b65-b97b-6392c761247a",
+			"__meta_scaleway_instance_image_arch":             "x86_64",
+			"__meta_scaleway_instance_image_id":               "3e0a5b84-1d69-4993-8fa4-0d7df52d5160",
+			"__meta_scaleway_instance_image_name":             "Ubuntu 22.04 Jammy Jellyfish",
+			"__meta_scaleway_instance_location_cluster_id":    "19",
+			"__meta_scaleway_instance_location_hypervisor_id": "1201",
+			"__meta_scaleway_instance_location_node_id":       "24",
+			"__meta_scaleway_instance_name":                   "routed-dualstack",
+			"__meta_scaleway_instance_organization_id":        "20b3d507-96ac-454c-a795-bc731b46b12f",
+			"__meta_scaleway_instance_project_id":             "20b3d507-96ac-454c-a795-bc731b46b12f",
+			"__meta_scaleway_instance_public_ipv4":            "51.158.183.115",
+			"__meta_scaleway_instance_region":                 "nl-ams",
+			"__meta_scaleway_instance_security_group_id":      "984414da-9fc2-49c0-a925-fed6266fe092",
+			"__meta_scaleway_instance_security_group_name":    "Default security group",
+			"__meta_scaleway_instance_status":                 "running",
+			"__meta_scaleway_instance_type":                   "DEV1-S",
+			"__meta_scaleway_instance_zone":                   "nl-ams-1",
+		},
 	} {
 		t.Run(fmt.Sprintf("item %d", i), func(t *testing.T) {
 			require.Equal(t, lbls, tg.Targets[i])
diff --git a/discovery/scaleway/testdata/instance.json b/discovery/scaleway/testdata/instance.json
index f8d35b215c..b433f7598e 100644
--- a/discovery/scaleway/testdata/instance.json
+++ b/discovery/scaleway/testdata/instance.json
@@ -216,6 +216,146 @@
       "placement_group": null,
       "private_nics": [],
       "zone": "fr-par-1"
+    },
+    {
+      "id": "4904366a-7e26-4b65-b97b-6392c761247a",
+      "name": "routed-dualstack",
+      "arch": "x86_64",
+      "commercial_type": "DEV1-S",
+      "boot_type": "local",
+      "organization": "20b3d507-96ac-454c-a795-bc731b46b12f",
+      "project": "20b3d507-96ac-454c-a795-bc731b46b12f",
+      "hostname": "routed-dualstack",
+      "image": {
+        "id": "3e0a5b84-1d69-4993-8fa4-0d7df52d5160",
+        "name": "Ubuntu 22.04 Jammy Jellyfish",
+        "organization": "51b656e3-4865-41e8-adbc-0c45bdd780db",
+        "project": "51b656e3-4865-41e8-adbc-0c45bdd780db",
+        "root_volume": {
+          "id": "13d945b9-5e78-4f9d-8ac4-c4bc2fa7c31a",
+          "name": "Ubuntu 22.04 Jammy Jellyfish",
+          "volume_type": "unified",
+          "size": 10000000000
+        },
+        "extra_volumes": {},
+        "public": true,
+        "arch": "x86_64",
+        "creation_date": "2024-02-22T15:52:56.037007+00:00",
+        "modification_date": "2024-02-22T15:52:56.037007+00:00",
+        "default_bootscript": null,
+        "from_server": null,
+        "state": "available",
+        "tags": [],
+        "zone": "nl-ams-1"
+      },
+      "volumes": {
+        "0": {
+          "boot": false,
+          "id": "fe85c817-e67e-4e24-8f13-bde3e9f42620",
+          "name": "Ubuntu 22.04 Jammy Jellyfish",
+          "volume_type": "l_ssd",
+          "export_uri": null,
+          "organization": "20b3d507-96ac-454c-a795-bc731b46b12f",
+          "project": "20b3d507-96ac-454c-a795-bc731b46b12f",
+          "server": {
+            "id": "4904366a-7e26-4b65-b97b-6392c761247a",
+            "name": "routed-dualstack"
+          },
+          "size": 20000000000,
+          "state": "available",
+          "creation_date": "2024-04-19T14:50:14.019739+00:00",
+          "modification_date": "2024-04-19T14:50:14.019739+00:00",
+          "tags": [],
+          "zone": "nl-ams-1"
+        }
+      },
+      "tags": [],
+      "state": "running",
+      "protected": false,
+      "state_detail": "booted",
+      "public_ip": {
+        "id": "53f8f861-7a11-4b16-a4bc-fb8f4b4a11d0",
+        "address": "51.158.183.115",
+        "dynamic": false,
+        "gateway": "62.210.0.1",
+        "netmask": "32",
+        "family": "inet",
+        "provisioning_mode": "dhcp",
+        "tags": [],
+        "state": "attached",
+        "ipam_id": "ec3499ff-a664-49b7-818a-9fe4b95aee5e"
+      },
+      "public_ips": [
+        {
+          "id": "53f8f861-7a11-4b16-a4bc-fb8f4b4a11d0",
+          "address": "51.158.183.115",
+          "dynamic": false,
+          "gateway": "62.210.0.1",
+          "netmask": "32",
+          "family": "inet",
+          "provisioning_mode": "dhcp",
+          "tags": [],
+          "state": "attached",
+          "ipam_id": "ec3499ff-a664-49b7-818a-9fe4b95aee5e"
+        },
+        {
+          "id": "f52a8c81-0875-4aee-b96e-eccfc6bec367",
+          "address": "2001:bc8:1640:1568:dc00:ff:fe21:91b",
+          "dynamic": false,
+          "gateway": "fe80::dc00:ff:fe21:91c",
+          "netmask": "64",
+          "family": "inet6",
+          "provisioning_mode": "slaac",
+          "tags": [],
+          "state": "attached",
+          "ipam_id": "40d1e6ea-e932-42f9-8acb-55398bec7ad6"
+        }
+      ],
+      "mac_address": "de:00:00:21:09:1b",
+      "routed_ip_enabled": true,
+      "ipv6": null,
+      "extra_networks": [],
+      "dynamic_ip_required": false,
+      "enable_ipv6": false,
+      "private_ip": null,
+      "creation_date": "2024-04-19T14:50:14.019739+00:00",
+      "modification_date": "2024-04-19T14:52:21.181670+00:00",
+      "bootscript": {
+        "id": "5a520dda-96d6-4ed2-acd1-1d526b6859fe",
+        "public": true,
+        "title": "x86_64 mainline 4.4.182 rev1",
+        "architecture": "x86_64",
+        "organization": "11111111-1111-4111-8111-111111111111",
+        "project": "11111111-1111-4111-8111-111111111111",
+        "kernel": "http://10.196.2.9/kernel/x86_64-mainline-lts-4.4-4.4.182-rev1/vmlinuz-4.4.182",
+        "dtb": "",
+        "initrd": "http://10.196.2.9/initrd/initrd-Linux-x86_64-v3.14.6.gz",
+        "bootcmdargs": "LINUX_COMMON scaleway boot=local nbd.max_part=16",
+        "default": true,
+        "zone": "nl-ams-1"
+      },
+      "security_group": {
+        "id": "984414da-9fc2-49c0-a925-fed6266fe092",
+        "name": "Default security group"
+      },
+      "location": {
+        "zone_id": "ams1",
+        "platform_id": "23",
+        "cluster_id": "19",
+        "hypervisor_id": "1201",
+        "node_id": "24"
+      },
+      "maintenances": [],
+      "allowed_actions": [
+        "poweroff",
+        "terminate",
+        "reboot",
+        "stop_in_place",
+        "backup"
+      ],
+      "placement_group": null,
+      "private_nics": [],
+      "zone": "nl-ams-1"
     }
   ]
-}
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/discovery/uyuni/uyuni.go b/discovery/uyuni/uyuni.go
index e885ef2e80..c8af2f1587 100644
--- a/discovery/uyuni/uyuni.go
+++ b/discovery/uyuni/uyuni.go
@@ -20,6 +20,7 @@ import (
 	"net/http"
 	"net/url"
 	"path"
+	"strconv"
 	"strings"
 	"time"
 
@@ -269,7 +270,7 @@ func (d *Discovery) getEndpointLabels(
 		model.AddressLabel:       model.LabelValue(addr),
 		uyuniLabelMinionHostname: model.LabelValue(networkInfo.Hostname),
 		uyuniLabelPrimaryFQDN:    model.LabelValue(networkInfo.PrimaryFQDN),
-		uyuniLablelSystemID:      model.LabelValue(fmt.Sprintf("%d", endpoint.SystemID)),
+		uyuniLablelSystemID:      model.LabelValue(strconv.Itoa(endpoint.SystemID)),
 		uyuniLablelGroups:        model.LabelValue(strings.Join(managedGroupNames, d.separator)),
 		uyuniLablelEndpointName:  model.LabelValue(endpoint.EndpointName),
 		uyuniLablelExporter:      model.LabelValue(endpoint.ExporterName),
diff --git a/discovery/zookeeper/zookeeper.go b/discovery/zookeeper/zookeeper.go
index 303c7ca6d0..92904dd71c 100644
--- a/discovery/zookeeper/zookeeper.go
+++ b/discovery/zookeeper/zookeeper.go
@@ -280,17 +280,17 @@ func parseServersetMember(data []byte, path string) (model.LabelSet, error) {
 	labels := model.LabelSet{}
 	labels[serversetPathLabel] = model.LabelValue(path)
 	labels[model.AddressLabel] = model.LabelValue(
-		net.JoinHostPort(member.ServiceEndpoint.Host, fmt.Sprintf("%d", member.ServiceEndpoint.Port)))
+		net.JoinHostPort(member.ServiceEndpoint.Host, strconv.Itoa(member.ServiceEndpoint.Port)))
 
 	labels[serversetEndpointLabelPrefix+"_host"] = model.LabelValue(member.ServiceEndpoint.Host)
-	labels[serversetEndpointLabelPrefix+"_port"] = model.LabelValue(fmt.Sprintf("%d", member.ServiceEndpoint.Port))
+	labels[serversetEndpointLabelPrefix+"_port"] = model.LabelValue(strconv.Itoa(member.ServiceEndpoint.Port))
 
 	for name, endpoint := range member.AdditionalEndpoints {
 		cleanName := model.LabelName(strutil.SanitizeLabelName(name))
 		labels[serversetEndpointLabelPrefix+"_host_"+cleanName] = model.LabelValue(
 			endpoint.Host)
 		labels[serversetEndpointLabelPrefix+"_port_"+cleanName] = model.LabelValue(
-			fmt.Sprintf("%d", endpoint.Port))
+			strconv.Itoa(endpoint.Port))
 	}
 
 	labels[serversetStatusLabel] = model.LabelValue(member.Status)
@@ -321,10 +321,10 @@ func parseNerveMember(data []byte, path string) (model.LabelSet, error) {
 	labels := model.LabelSet{}
 	labels[nervePathLabel] = model.LabelValue(path)
 	labels[model.AddressLabel] = model.LabelValue(
-		net.JoinHostPort(member.Host, fmt.Sprintf("%d", member.Port)))
+		net.JoinHostPort(member.Host, strconv.Itoa(member.Port)))
 
 	labels[nerveEndpointLabelPrefix+"_host"] = model.LabelValue(member.Host)
-	labels[nerveEndpointLabelPrefix+"_port"] = model.LabelValue(fmt.Sprintf("%d", member.Port))
+	labels[nerveEndpointLabelPrefix+"_port"] = model.LabelValue(strconv.Itoa(member.Port))
 	labels[nerveEndpointLabelPrefix+"_name"] = model.LabelValue(member.Name)
 
 	return labels, nil
diff --git a/docs/command-line/prometheus.md b/docs/command-line/prometheus.md
index b1b9d29858..2bc5b15ef2 100644
--- a/docs/command-line/prometheus.md
+++ b/docs/command-line/prometheus.md
@@ -26,6 +26,7 @@ The Prometheus monitoring server
 | <code class="text-nowrap">--web.enable-lifecycle</code> | Enable shutdown and reload via HTTP request. | `false` |
 | <code class="text-nowrap">--web.enable-admin-api</code> | Enable API endpoints for admin control actions. | `false` |
 | <code class="text-nowrap">--web.enable-remote-write-receiver</code> | Enable API endpoint accepting remote write requests. | `false` |
+| <code class="text-nowrap">--web.remote-write-receiver.accepted-protobuf-messages</code> | List of the remote write protobuf messages to accept when receiving the remote writes. Supported values: prometheus.WriteRequest, io.prometheus.write.v2.Request | `prometheus.WriteRequest` |
 | <code class="text-nowrap">--web.console.templates</code> | Path to the console template directory, available at /consoles. | `consoles` |
 | <code class="text-nowrap">--web.console.libraries</code> | Path to the console library directory. | `console_libraries` |
 | <code class="text-nowrap">--web.page-title</code> | Document title of Prometheus instance. | `Prometheus Time Series Collection and Processing Server` |
@@ -48,8 +49,9 @@ The Prometheus monitoring server
 | <code class="text-nowrap">--rules.alert.for-outage-tolerance</code> | Max time to tolerate prometheus outage for restoring "for" state of alert. Use with server mode only. | `1h` |
 | <code class="text-nowrap">--rules.alert.for-grace-period</code> | Minimum duration between alert and restored "for" state. This is maintained only for alerts with configured "for" time greater than grace period. Use with server mode only. | `10m` |
 | <code class="text-nowrap">--rules.alert.resend-delay</code> | Minimum amount of time to wait before resending an alert to Alertmanager. Use with server mode only. | `1m` |
-| <code class="text-nowrap">--rules.max-concurrent-evals</code> | Global concurrency limit for independent rules that can run concurrently. Use with server mode only. | `4` |
+| <code class="text-nowrap">--rules.max-concurrent-evals</code> | Global concurrency limit for independent rules that can run concurrently. When set, "query.max-concurrency" may need to be adjusted accordingly. Use with server mode only. | `4` |
 | <code class="text-nowrap">--alertmanager.notification-queue-capacity</code> | The capacity of the queue for pending Alertmanager notifications. Use with server mode only. | `10000` |
+| <code class="text-nowrap">--alertmanager.drain-notification-queue-on-shutdown</code> | Send any outstanding Alertmanager notifications when shutting down. If false, any outstanding Alertmanager notifications will be dropped when shutting down. Use with server mode only. | `true` |
 | <code class="text-nowrap">--query.lookback-delta</code> | The maximum lookback duration for retrieving metrics during expression evaluations and federation. Use with server mode only. | `5m` |
 | <code class="text-nowrap">--query.timeout</code> | Maximum time a query may take before being aborted. Use with server mode only. | `2m` |
 | <code class="text-nowrap">--query.max-concurrency</code> | Maximum number of queries executed concurrently. Use with server mode only. | `20` |
diff --git a/docs/command-line/promtool.md b/docs/command-line/promtool.md
index 3eceed48f2..443cd3f0cb 100644
--- a/docs/command-line/promtool.md
+++ b/docs/command-line/promtool.md
@@ -566,6 +566,7 @@ Dump samples from a TSDB.
 
 | Flag | Description | Default |
 | --- | --- | --- |
+| <code class="text-nowrap">--sandbox-dir-root</code> | Root directory where a sandbox directory would be created in case WAL replay generates chunks. The sandbox directory is cleaned up at the end. | `data/` |
 | <code class="text-nowrap">--min-time</code> | Minimum timestamp to dump. | `-9223372036854775808` |
 | <code class="text-nowrap">--max-time</code> | Maximum timestamp to dump. | `9223372036854775807` |
 | <code class="text-nowrap">--match</code> | Series selector. Can be specified multiple times. | `{__name__=~'(?s:.*)'}` |
@@ -584,7 +585,7 @@ Dump samples from a TSDB.
 
 ##### `promtool tsdb dump-openmetrics`
 
-[Experimental] Dump samples from a TSDB into OpenMetrics format. Native histograms are not dumped.
+[Experimental] Dump samples from a TSDB into OpenMetrics text format, excluding native histograms and staleness markers, which are not representable in OpenMetrics.
 
 
 
@@ -592,6 +593,7 @@ Dump samples from a TSDB.
 
 | Flag | Description | Default |
 | --- | --- | --- |
+| <code class="text-nowrap">--sandbox-dir-root</code> | Root directory where a sandbox directory would be created in case WAL replay generates chunks. The sandbox directory is cleaned up at the end. | `data/` |
 | <code class="text-nowrap">--min-time</code> | Minimum timestamp to dump. | `-9223372036854775808` |
 | <code class="text-nowrap">--max-time</code> | Maximum timestamp to dump. | `9223372036854775807` |
 | <code class="text-nowrap">--match</code> | Series selector. Can be specified multiple times. | `{__name__=~'(?s:.*)'}` |
diff --git a/docs/configuration/configuration.md b/docs/configuration/configuration.md
index 2f2e07a0c2..35976871b9 100644
--- a/docs/configuration/configuration.md
+++ b/docs/configuration/configuration.md
@@ -70,6 +70,10 @@ global:
 
   # How frequently to evaluate rules.
   [ evaluation_interval: <duration> | default = 1m ]
+                        
+  # Offset the rule evaluation timestamp of this particular group by the specified duration into the past to ensure the underlying metrics have been received.
+  # Metric availability delays are more likely to occur when Prometheus is running as a remote write target, but can also occur when there's anomalies with scraping.
+  [ rule_query_offset: <duration> | default = 0s ]
 
   # The labels to add to any time series or alerts when communicating with
   # external systems (federation, remote storage, Alertmanager).
@@ -117,6 +121,12 @@ global:
   # that will be kept in memory. 0 means no limit.
   [ keep_dropped_targets: <int> | default = 0 ]
 
+runtime:
+  # Configure the Go garbage collector GOGC parameter
+  # See: https://tip.golang.org/doc/gc-guide#GOGC
+  # Lowering this number increases CPU usage.
+  [ gogc: <int> | default = 75 ]
+
 # Rule files specifies a list of globs. Rules and alerts are read from
 # all matching files.
 rule_files:
@@ -931,6 +941,9 @@ tls_config:
 # The host to use if the container is in host networking mode.
 [ host_networking_host: <string> | default = "localhost" ]
 
+# Match the first network if the container has multiple networks defined, thus avoiding collecting duplicate targets.
+[ match_first_network: <boolean> | default = true ]
+
 # Optional filters to limit the discovery process to a subset of available
 # resources.
 # The available filters are listed in the upstream documentation:
@@ -1219,6 +1232,7 @@ The following meta labels are available on targets during [relabeling](#relabel_
 * `__meta_ec2_ipv6_addresses`: comma separated list of IPv6 addresses assigned to the instance's network interfaces, if present
 * `__meta_ec2_owner_id`: the ID of the AWS account that owns the EC2 instance
 * `__meta_ec2_platform`: the Operating System platform, set to 'windows' on Windows servers, absent otherwise
+* `__meta_ec2_primary_ipv6_addresses`: comma separated list of the Primary IPv6 addresses of the instance, if present. The list is ordered based on the position of each corresponding network interface in the attachment order.
 * `__meta_ec2_primary_subnet_id`: the subnet ID of the primary network interface, if available
 * `__meta_ec2_private_dns_name`: the private DNS name of the instance, if available
 * `__meta_ec2_private_ip`: the private IP address of the instance, if present
@@ -1349,7 +1363,7 @@ interface.
 The following meta labels are available on targets during [relabeling](#relabel_config):
 
 * `__meta_openstack_address_pool`: the pool of the private IP.
-* `__meta_openstack_instance_flavor`: the flavor of the OpenStack instance.
+* `__meta_openstack_instance_flavor`: the flavor name of the OpenStack instance, or the flavor ID if the flavor name isn't available.
 * `__meta_openstack_instance_id`: the OpenStack instance ID.
 * `__meta_openstack_instance_image`: the ID of the image the OpenStack instance is using.
 * `__meta_openstack_instance_name`: the OpenStack instance name.
@@ -1357,7 +1371,7 @@ The following meta labels are available on targets during [relabeling](#relabel_
 * `__meta_openstack_private_ip`: the private IP of the OpenStack instance.
 * `__meta_openstack_project_id`: the project (tenant) owning this instance.
 * `__meta_openstack_public_ip`: the public IP of the OpenStack instance.
-* `__meta_openstack_tag_<tagkey>`: each tag value of the instance.
+* `__meta_openstack_tag_<key>`: each metadata item of the instance, with any unsupported characters converted to an underscore.
 * `__meta_openstack_user_id`: the user account owning the tenant.
 
 See below for the configuration options for OpenStack discovery:
@@ -1467,6 +1481,7 @@ For OVHcloud's [public cloud instances](https://www.ovhcloud.com/en/public-cloud
 * `__meta_ovhcloud_dedicated_server_ipv6`: the IPv6 of the server
 * `__meta_ovhcloud_dedicated_server_link_speed`: the link speed of the server
 * `__meta_ovhcloud_dedicated_server_name`: the name of the server
+* `__meta_ovhcloud_dedicated_server_no_intervention`: whether datacenter intervention is disabled for the server
 * `__meta_ovhcloud_dedicated_server_os`: the operating system of the server
 * `__meta_ovhcloud_dedicated_server_rack`: the rack of the server
 * `__meta_ovhcloud_dedicated_server_reverse`: the reverse DNS name of the server
@@ -1597,7 +1612,16 @@ and serves as an interface to plug in custom service discovery mechanisms.
 
 It reads a set of files containing a list of zero or more
 `<static_config>`s. Changes to all defined files are detected via disk watches
-and applied immediately. Files may be provided in YAML or JSON format. Only
+and applied immediately. 
+
+While those individual files are watched for changes,
+the parent directory is also watched implicitly. This is to handle [atomic
+renaming](https://github.com/fsnotify/fsnotify/blob/c1467c02fba575afdb5f4201072ab8403bbf00f4/README.md?plain=1#L128) efficiently and to detect new files that match the configured globs.
+This may cause issues if the parent directory contains a large number of other files,
+as each of these files will be watched too, even though the events related
+to them are not relevant.
+
+Files may be provided in YAML or JSON format. Only
 changes resulting in well-formed target groups are applied.
 
 Files must contain a list of static configs, using these formats:
@@ -2952,9 +2976,10 @@ The following meta labels are available on targets during [relabeling](#relabel_
 * `__meta_scaleway_instance_type`: commercial type of the server
 * `__meta_scaleway_instance_zone`: the zone of the server (ex: `fr-par-1`, complete list [here](https://developers.scaleway.com/en/products/instance/api/#introduction))
 
-This role uses the private IPv4 address by default. This can be
+This role uses the first address it finds in the following order: private IPv4, public IPv4, public IPv6. This can be
 changed with relabeling, as demonstrated in [the Prometheus scaleway-sd
 configuration file](/documentation/examples/prometheus-scaleway.yml).
+Should an instance have no address before relabeling, it will not be added to the target list and you will not be able to relabel it.
 
 #### Baremetal role
 
@@ -3550,6 +3575,17 @@ this functionality.
 # The URL of the endpoint to send samples to.
 url: <string>
 
+# protobuf message to use when writing to the remote write endpoint.
+#
+# * The `prometheus.WriteRequest` represents the message introduced in Remote Write 1.0, which
+# will be deprecated eventually.
+# * The `io.prometheus.write.v2.Request` was introduced in Remote Write 2.0 and replaces the former,
+# by improving efficiency and sending metadata, created timestamp and native histograms by default.
+#
+# Before changing this value, consult with your remote storage provider (or test) what message it supports.
+# Read more on https://prometheus.io/docs/specs/remote_write_spec_2_0/#io-prometheus-write-v2-request
+[ protobuf_message: <prometheus.WriteRequest | io.prometheus.write.v2.Request> | default = prometheus.WriteRequest ]
+
 # Timeout for requests to the remote write endpoint.
 [ remote_timeout: <duration> | default = 30s ]
 
@@ -3571,6 +3607,7 @@ write_relabel_configs:
 [ send_exemplars: <boolean> | default = false ]
 
 # Enables sending of native histograms, also known as sparse histograms, over remote write.
+# For the `io.prometheus.write.v2.Request` message, this option is noop (always true).
 [ send_native_histograms: <boolean> | default = false ]
 
 # Sets the `Authorization` header on every remote write request with the
@@ -3584,7 +3621,7 @@ basic_auth:
 # Optional `Authorization` header configuration.
 authorization:
   # Sets the authentication type.
-  [ type: <string> | default: Bearer ]
+  [ type: <string> | default = Bearer ]
   # Sets the credentials. It is mutually exclusive with
   # `credentials_file`.
   [ credentials: <secret> ]
@@ -3648,7 +3685,7 @@ tls_config:
 # contain port numbers.
 [ no_proxy: <string> ]
 # Use proxy URL indicated by environment variables (HTTP_PROXY, https_proxy, HTTPs_PROXY, https_proxy, and no_proxy)
-[ proxy_from_environment: <boolean> | default: false ]
+[ proxy_from_environment: <boolean> | default = false ]
 # Specifies headers to send to proxies during CONNECT requests.
 [ proxy_connect_header:
   [ <string>: [<secret>, ...] ] ]
@@ -3657,7 +3694,7 @@ tls_config:
 [ follow_redirects: <boolean> | default = true ]
 
 # Whether to enable HTTP2.
-[ enable_http2: <boolean> | default: true ]
+[ enable_http2: <boolean> | default = true ]
 
 # Configures the queue used to write to remote storage.
 queue_config:
@@ -3672,7 +3709,8 @@ queue_config:
   [ min_shards: <int> | default = 1 ]
   # Maximum number of samples per send.
   [ max_samples_per_send: <int> | default = 2000]
-  # Maximum time a sample will wait in buffer.
+  # Maximum time a sample will wait for a send. The sample might wait less
+  # if the buffer is full. Further time might pass due to potential retries.
   [ batch_send_deadline: <duration> | default = 5s ]
   # Initial retry delay. Gets doubled for every retry.
   [ min_backoff: <duration> | default = 30ms ]
@@ -3686,7 +3724,10 @@ queue_config:
   # which means that all samples are sent.
   [ sample_age_limit: <duration> | default = 0s ]
 
-# Configures the sending of series metadata to remote storage.
+# Configures the sending of series metadata to remote storage
+# if the `prometheus.WriteRequest` message was chosen. When
+# `io.prometheus.write.v2.Request` is used, metadata is always sent.
+#
 # Metadata configuration is subject to change at any point
 # or be removed in future releases.
 metadata_config:
@@ -3800,6 +3841,10 @@ NOTE: Out-of-order ingestion is an experimental feature, but you do not need any
 # into the TSDB, i.e. it is an in-order sample or an out-of-order/out-of-bounds sample
 # that is within the out-of-order window, or (b) too-old, i.e. not in-order
 # and before the out-of-order window.
+#
+# When out_of_order_time_window is greater than 0, it also affects experimental agent. It allows 
+# the agent's WAL to accept out-of-order samples that fall within the specified time window relative 
+# to the timestamp of the last appended sample for the same series.
 [ out_of_order_time_window: <duration> | default = 0s ]
 ```
 
diff --git a/docs/configuration/recording_rules.md b/docs/configuration/recording_rules.md
index 48ab951f94..9aa226bbc0 100644
--- a/docs/configuration/recording_rules.md
+++ b/docs/configuration/recording_rules.md
@@ -86,6 +86,9 @@ name: <string>
 # rule can produce. 0 is no limit.
 [ limit: <int> | default = 0 ]
 
+# Offset the rule evaluation timestamp of this particular group by the specified duration into the past.
+[ query_offset: <duration> | default = global.rule_query_offset ]
+
 rules:
   [ - <rule> ... ]
 ```
@@ -148,6 +151,9 @@ the rule, active, pending, or inactive, are cleared as well. The event will be
 recorded as an error in the evaluation, and as such no stale markers are
 written.
 
+# Rule query offset
+This is useful to ensure the underlying metrics have been received and stored in Prometheus. Metric availability delays are more likely to occur when Prometheus is running as a remote write target due to the nature of distributed systems, but can also occur when there's anomalies with scraping and/or short evaluation intervals.
+
 # Failed rule evaluations due to slow evaluation
 
 If a rule group hasn't finished evaluating before its next evaluation is supposed to start (as defined by the `evaluation_interval`), the next evaluation will be skipped. Subsequent evaluations of the rule group will continue to be skipped until the initial evaluation either completes or times out. When this happens, there will be a gap in the metric produced by the recording rule. The `rule_group_iterations_missed_total` metric will be incremented for each missed iteration of the rule group. 
diff --git a/docs/feature_flags.md b/docs/feature_flags.md
index b6b201e5b6..2c0ebd8c20 100644
--- a/docs/feature_flags.md
+++ b/docs/feature_flags.md
@@ -230,3 +230,13 @@ The number of concurrent rule evaluations can be configured with `--rules.max-co
 Enables the new experimental web UI instead of the old and stable web UI. The new UI is a complete rewrite and aims to be cleaner, less cluttered, and more modern under the hood. It is not feature complete yet and is still under active development.
 
 `--enable-feature=new-ui`
+
+## Metadata WAL Records
+
+`--enable-feature=metadata-wal-records`
+
+When enabled, Prometheus will store metadata in-memory and keep track of
+metadata changes as WAL records on a per-series basis.
+
+This must be used if
+you are also using remote write 2.0 as it will only gather metadata from the WAL.
diff --git a/docs/installation.md b/docs/installation.md
index 28f64c0f95..c8e359e780 100644
--- a/docs/installation.md
+++ b/docs/installation.md
@@ -31,11 +31,19 @@ production deployments it is highly recommended to use a
 [named volume](https://docs.docker.com/storage/volumes/)
 to ease managing the data on Prometheus upgrades.
 
-To provide your own configuration, there are several options. Here are
-two examples.
+### Setting command line parameters
+
+The Docker image is started with a number of default command line parameters, which
+can be found in the [Dockerfile](https://github.com/prometheus/prometheus/blob/main/Dockerfile) (adjust the link to correspond with the version in use).
+
+If you want to add extra command line parameters to the `docker run` command,
+you will need to re-add these yourself as they will be overwritten.
 
 ### Volumes & bind-mount
 
+To provide your own configuration, there are several options. Here are
+two examples.
+
 Bind-mount your `prometheus.yml` from the host by running:
 
 ```bash
diff --git a/docs/querying/api.md b/docs/querying/api.md
index 46e79181ed..f71bfc1586 100644
--- a/docs/querying/api.md
+++ b/docs/querying/api.md
@@ -25,8 +25,10 @@ Other non-`2xx` codes may be returned for errors occurring before the API
 endpoint is reached.
 
 An array of warnings may be returned if there are errors that do
-not inhibit the request execution. All of the data that was successfully
-collected will be returned in the data field.
+not inhibit the request execution. An additional array of info-level
+annotations may be returned for potential query issues that may or may
+not be false positives. All of the data that was successfully collected
+will be returned in the data field.
 
 The JSON response envelope format is as follows:
 
@@ -40,9 +42,11 @@ The JSON response envelope format is as follows:
   "errorType": "<string>",
   "error": "<string>",
 
-  // Only if there were warnings while executing the request.
+  // Only set if there were warnings while executing the request.
   // There will still be data in the data field.
-  "warnings": ["<string>"]
+  "warnings": ["<string>"],
+  // Only set if there were info-level annnotations while executing the request.
+  "infos": ["<string>"]
 }
 ```
 
@@ -452,7 +456,7 @@ raw numbers.
 
 The keys `"histogram"` and `"histograms"` only show up if the experimental
 native histograms are present in the response. Their placeholder `<histogram>`
-is explained in detail in its own section below. 
+is explained in detail in its own section below.
 
 ### Range vectors
 
@@ -470,9 +474,12 @@ Range vectors are returned as result type `matrix`. The corresponding
 ]
 ```
 
-Each series could have the `"values"` key, or the `"histograms"` key, or both. 
+Each series could have the `"values"` key, or the `"histograms"` key, or both.
 For a given timestamp, there will only be one sample of either float or histogram type.
 
+Series are returned sorted by `metric`. Functions such as [`sort`](functions.md#sort)
+and [`sort_by_label`](functions.md#sort_by_label) have no effect for range vectors.
+
 ### Instant vectors
 
 Instant vectors are returned as result type `vector`. The corresponding
@@ -491,6 +498,10 @@ Instant vectors are returned as result type `vector`. The corresponding
 
 Each series could have the `"value"` key, or the `"histogram"` key, but not both.
 
+Series are not guaranteed to be returned in any particular order unless a function
+such as [`sort`](functions.md#sort) or [`sort_by_label`](functions.md#sort_by_label)`
+is used.
+
 ### Scalars
 
 Scalar results are returned as result type `scalar`. The corresponding
@@ -682,7 +693,8 @@ URL query parameters:
 - `rule_name[]=<string>`: only return rules with the given rule name. If the parameter is repeated, rules with any of the provided names are returned. If we've filtered out all the rules of a group, the group is not returned. When the parameter is absent or empty, no filtering is done.
 - `rule_group[]=<string>`: only return rules with the given rule group name. If the parameter is repeated, rules with any of the provided rule group names are returned. When the parameter is absent or empty, no filtering is done.
 - `file[]=<string>`: only return rules with the given filepath. If the parameter is repeated, rules with any of the provided filepaths are returned. When the parameter is absent or empty, no filtering is done.
-- `exclude_alerts=<bool>`: only return rules, do not return active alerts.
+- `exclude_alerts=<bool>`: only return rules, do not return active alerts. 
+- `match[]=<label_selector>`: only return rules that have configured labels that satisfy the label selectors. If the parameter is repeated, rules that match any of the sets of label selectors are returned. Note that matching is on the labels in the definition of each rule, not on the values after template expansion (for alerting rules). Optional.
 
 ```json
 $ curl http://localhost:9090/api/v1/rules
@@ -1302,7 +1314,7 @@ endpoint is `/api/v1/write`. Find more details [here](../storage.md#overview).
 
 ## OTLP Receiver
 
-Prometheus can be configured as a receiver for the OTLP Metrics protocol. This 
+Prometheus can be configured as a receiver for the OTLP Metrics protocol. This
 is not considered an efficient way of ingesting samples. Use it
 with caution for specific low-volume use cases. It is not suitable for
 replacing the ingestion via scraping.
diff --git a/docs/querying/examples.md b/docs/querying/examples.md
index 957c2f5f98..8287ff6f62 100644
--- a/docs/querying/examples.md
+++ b/docs/querying/examples.md
@@ -95,3 +95,13 @@ Assuming this metric contains one time series per running instance, you could
 count the number of running instances per application like this:
 
     count by (app) (instance_cpu_time_ns)
+
+If we are exploring some metrics for their labels, to e.g. be able to aggregate
+over some of them, we could use the following:
+
+    limitk(10, app_foo_metric_bar)
+
+Alternatively, if we wanted the returned timeseries to be more evenly sampled,
+we could use the following to get approximately 10% of them:
+
+    limit_ratio(0.1, app_foo_metric_bar)
diff --git a/docs/querying/functions.md b/docs/querying/functions.md
index c9e65fe6cc..9a552f697a 100644
--- a/docs/querying/functions.md
+++ b/docs/querying/functions.md
@@ -79,7 +79,12 @@ labels of the 1-element output vector from the input vector.
 ## `ceil()`
 
 `ceil(v instant-vector)` rounds the sample values of all elements in `v` up to
-the nearest integer.
+the nearest integer value greater than or equal to v.
+
+* `ceil(+Inf) = +Inf`
+* `ceil(±0) = ±0`
+* `ceil(1.49) = 2.0`
+* `ceil(1.78) = 2.0`
 
 ## `changes()`
 
@@ -173,7 +178,12 @@ Special cases are:
 ## `floor()`
 
 `floor(v instant-vector)` rounds the sample values of all elements in `v` down
-to the nearest integer.
+to the nearest integer value smaller than or equal to v.
+
+* `floor(+Inf) = +Inf`
+* `floor(±0) = ±0`
+* `floor(1.49) = 1.0`
+* `floor(1.78) = 1.0`
 
 ## `histogram_avg()`
 
@@ -596,10 +606,14 @@ have exactly one element, `scalar` will return `NaN`.
 `sort(v instant-vector)` returns vector elements sorted by their sample values,
 in ascending order. Native histograms are sorted by their sum of observations.
 
+Please note that `sort` only affects the results of instant queries, as range query results always have a fixed output ordering.
+
 ## `sort_desc()`
 
 Same as `sort`, but sorts in descending order.
 
+Like `sort`, `sort_desc` only affects the results of instant queries, as range query results always have a fixed output ordering.
+
 ## `sort_by_label()`
 
 **This function has to be enabled via the [feature flag](../feature_flags/) `--enable-feature=promql-experimental-functions`.**
diff --git a/docs/querying/operators.md b/docs/querying/operators.md
index b92bdd94ac..f5f217ff63 100644
--- a/docs/querying/operators.md
+++ b/docs/querying/operators.md
@@ -230,6 +230,8 @@ vector of fewer elements with aggregated values:
 * `bottomk` (smallest k elements by sample value)
 * `topk` (largest k elements by sample value)
 * `quantile` (calculate φ-quantile (0 ≤ φ ≤ 1) over dimensions)
+* `limitk` (sample n elements)
+* `limit_ratio` (sample elements with approximately 𝑟 ratio if `𝑟 > 0`, and the complement of such samples if `𝑟 = -(1.0 - 𝑟)`)
 
 These operators can either be used to aggregate over **all** label dimensions
 or preserve distinct dimensions by including a `without` or `by` clause. These
@@ -249,8 +251,8 @@ all other labels are preserved in the output. `by` does the opposite and drops
 labels that are not listed in the `by` clause, even if their label values are
 identical between all elements of the vector.
 
-`parameter` is only required for `count_values`, `quantile`, `topk` and
-`bottomk`.
+`parameter` is only required for `count_values`, `quantile`, `topk`,
+`bottomk`, `limitk` and `limit_ratio`.
 
 `count_values` outputs one time series per unique sample value. Each series has
 an additional label. The name of that label is given by the aggregation
@@ -261,11 +263,16 @@ time series is the number of times that sample value was present.
 the input samples, including the original labels, are returned in the result
 vector. `by` and `without` are only used to bucket the input vector.
 
+`limitk` and `limit_ratio` also return a subset of the input samples,
+including the original labels in the result vector, these are experimental
+operators that must be enabled with `--enable-feature=promql-experimental-functions`.
+
 `quantile` calculates the φ-quantile, the value that ranks at number φ*N among
 the N metric values of the dimensions aggregated over. φ is provided as the
 aggregation parameter. For example, `quantile(0.5, ...)` calculates the median,
 `quantile(0.95, ...)` the 95th percentile. For φ = `NaN`, `NaN` is returned. For φ < 0, `-Inf` is returned. For φ > 1, `+Inf` is returned.
 
+
 Example:
 
 If the metric `http_requests_total` had time series that fan out by
@@ -291,6 +298,33 @@ To get the 5 largest HTTP requests counts across all instances we could write:
 
     topk(5, http_requests_total)
 
+To sample 10 timeseries, for example to inspect labels and their values, we
+could write:
+
+    limitk(10, http_requests_total)
+
+To deterministically sample approximately 10% of timeseries we could write:
+
+    limit_ratio(0.1, http_requests_total)
+
+Given that `limit_ratio()` implements a deterministic sampling algorithm (based
+on labels' hash), you can get the _complement_ of the above samples, i.e.
+approximately 90%, but precisely those not returned by `limit_ratio(0.1, ...)`
+with:
+
+    limit_ratio(-0.9, http_requests_total)
+
+You can also use this feature to e.g. verify that `avg()` is a representative
+aggregation for your samples' values, by checking that the difference between
+averaging two samples' subsets is "small" when compared to the standard
+deviation.
+
+    abs(
+      avg(limit_ratio(0.5, http_requests_total))
+      -
+      avg(limit_ratio(-0.5, http_requests_total))
+    ) <= bool stddev(http_requests_total)
+
 ## Binary operator precedence
 
 The following list shows the precedence of binary operators in Prometheus, from
diff --git a/docs/querying/remote_read_api.md b/docs/querying/remote_read_api.md
index e3dd133069..efbd08e984 100644
--- a/docs/querying/remote_read_api.md
+++ b/docs/querying/remote_read_api.md
@@ -5,63 +5,7 @@ sort_rank: 7
 
 # Remote Read API
 
-This is not currently considered part of the stable API and is subject to change
-even between non-major version releases of Prometheus.
-
-## Format overview
-
-The API response format is JSON. Every successful API request returns a `2xx`
-status code.
-
-Invalid requests that reach the API handlers return a JSON error object
-and one of the following HTTP response codes:
-
-- `400 Bad Request` when parameters are missing or incorrect.
-- `422 Unprocessable Entity` when an expression can't be executed
-  ([RFC4918](https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4918#page-78)).
-- `503 Service Unavailable` when queries time out or abort.
-
-Other non-`2xx` codes may be returned for errors occurring before the API
-endpoint is reached.
-
-An array of warnings may be returned if there are errors that do
-not inhibit the request execution. All of the data that was successfully
-collected will be returned in the data field.
-
-The JSON response envelope format is as follows:
-
-```
-{
-  "status": "success" | "error",
-  "data": <data>,
-
-  // Only set if status is "error". The data field may still hold
-  // additional data.
-  "errorType": "<string>",
-  "error": "<string>",
-
-  // Only if there were warnings while executing the request.
-  // There will still be data in the data field.
-  "warnings": ["<string>"]
-}
-```
-
-Generic placeholders are defined as follows:
-
-* `<rfc3339 | unix_timestamp>`: Input timestamps may be provided either in
-[RFC3339](https://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc3339.txt) format or as a Unix timestamp
-in seconds, with optional decimal places for sub-second precision. Output
-timestamps are always represented as Unix timestamps in seconds.
-* `<series_selector>`: Prometheus [time series
-selectors](basics.md#time-series-selectors) like `http_requests_total` or
-`http_requests_total{method=~"(GET|POST)"}` and need to be URL-encoded.
-* `<duration>`: [Prometheus duration strings](basics.md#time_durations).
-For example, `5m` refers to a duration of 5 minutes.
-* `<bool>`: boolean values (strings `true` and `false`).
-
-Note: Names of query parameters that may be repeated end with `[]`.
-
-## Remote Read API
+> This is not currently considered part of the stable API and is subject to change even between non-major version releases of Prometheus.
 
 This API provides data read functionality from Prometheus. This interface expects [snappy](https://github.com/google/snappy) compression.
 The API definition is located [here](https://github.com/prometheus/prometheus/blob/master/prompb/remote.proto).
@@ -79,5 +23,3 @@ This returns a message that includes a list of raw samples.
 
 These streamed chunks utilize an XOR algorithm inspired by the [Gorilla](http://www.vldb.org/pvldb/vol8/p1816-teller.pdf)
 compression to encode the chunks. However, it provides resolution to the millisecond instead of to the second.
-
-
diff --git a/docs/storage.md b/docs/storage.md
index b4c5b6adad..947960fe12 100644
--- a/docs/storage.md
+++ b/docs/storage.md
@@ -61,8 +61,11 @@ A Prometheus server's data directory looks something like this:
 Note that a limitation of local storage is that it is not clustered or
 replicated. Thus, it is not arbitrarily scalable or durable in the face of
 drive or node outages and should be managed like any other single node
-database. The use of RAID is suggested for storage availability, and
-[snapshots](querying/api.md#snapshot) are recommended for backups. With proper
+database. 
+
+[Snapshots](querying/api.md#snapshot) are recommended for backups. Backups 
+made without snapshots run the risk of losing data that was recorded since 
+the last WAL sync, which typically happens every two hours. With proper
 architecture, it is possible to retain years of data in local storage.
 
 Alternatively, external storage may be used via the
@@ -84,8 +87,10 @@ or 31 days, whichever is smaller.
 Prometheus has several flags that configure local storage. The most important are:
 
 - `--storage.tsdb.path`: Where Prometheus writes its database. Defaults to `data/`.
-- `--storage.tsdb.retention.time`: When to remove old data. Defaults to `15d`.
-  Overrides `storage.tsdb.retention` if this flag is set to anything other than default.
+- `--storage.tsdb.retention.time`: How long to retain samples in storage. When this flag is
+  set, it overrides `storage.tsdb.retention`. If neither this flag nor `storage.tsdb.retention`
+  nor `storage.tsdb.retention.size` is set, the retention time defaults to `15d`.
+  Supported units: y, w, d, h, m, s, ms.
 - `--storage.tsdb.retention.size`: The maximum number of bytes of storage blocks to retain.
   The oldest data will be removed first. Defaults to `0` or disabled. Units supported:
   B, KB, MB, GB, TB, PB, EB. Ex: "512MB". Based on powers-of-2, so 1KB is 1024B. Only
@@ -195,6 +200,9 @@ or time-series database to Prometheus. To do so, the user must first convert the
 source data into [OpenMetrics](https://openmetrics.io/) format, which is the
 input format for the backfilling as described below.
 
+Note that native histograms and staleness markers are not supported by this
+procedure, as they cannot be represented in the OpenMetrics format.
+
 ### Usage
 
 Backfilling can be used via the Promtool command line. Promtool will write the blocks
diff --git a/documentation/examples/custom-sd/adapter-usage/main.go b/documentation/examples/custom-sd/adapter-usage/main.go
index bfbca7b70c..8ccbafe6f1 100644
--- a/documentation/examples/custom-sd/adapter-usage/main.go
+++ b/documentation/examples/custom-sd/adapter-usage/main.go
@@ -127,9 +127,9 @@ func (d *discovery) parseServiceNodes(resp *http.Response, name string) (*target
 		// since the service may be registered remotely through a different node.
 		var addr string
 		if node.ServiceAddress != "" {
-			addr = net.JoinHostPort(node.ServiceAddress, fmt.Sprintf("%d", node.ServicePort))
+			addr = net.JoinHostPort(node.ServiceAddress, strconv.Itoa(node.ServicePort))
 		} else {
-			addr = net.JoinHostPort(node.Address, fmt.Sprintf("%d", node.ServicePort))
+			addr = net.JoinHostPort(node.Address, strconv.Itoa(node.ServicePort))
 		}
 
 		target := model.LabelSet{model.AddressLabel: model.LabelValue(addr)}
diff --git a/documentation/examples/remote_storage/example_write_adapter/README.md b/documentation/examples/remote_storage/example_write_adapter/README.md
index 9748c448db..739cf3be36 100644
--- a/documentation/examples/remote_storage/example_write_adapter/README.md
+++ b/documentation/examples/remote_storage/example_write_adapter/README.md
@@ -7,6 +7,7 @@ To use it:
 
 ```
 go build
+
 ./example_write_adapter
 ```
 
@@ -15,10 +16,19 @@ go build
 ```yaml
 remote_write:
   - url: "http://localhost:1234/receive"
+    protobuf_message: "io.prometheus.write.v2.Request"
 ```
 
-Then start Prometheus:
+or for deprecated Remote Write 1.0 message:
+
+```yaml
+remote_write:
+  - url: "http://localhost:1234/receive"
+    protobuf_message: "prometheus.WriteRequest"
+```
+
+Then start Prometheus (in separate terminal):
 
 ```
-./prometheus
+./prometheus --enable-feature=metadata-wal-records
 ```
diff --git a/documentation/examples/remote_storage/example_write_adapter/server.go b/documentation/examples/remote_storage/example_write_adapter/server.go
index 48c0a9571f..727a3056d3 100644
--- a/documentation/examples/remote_storage/example_write_adapter/server.go
+++ b/documentation/examples/remote_storage/example_write_adapter/server.go
@@ -18,44 +18,103 @@ import (
 	"log"
 	"net/http"
 
-	"github.com/prometheus/common/model"
-
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/labels"
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/prompb"
+	writev2 "github.com/prometheus/prometheus/prompb/io/prometheus/write/v2"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/storage/remote"
 )
 
 func main() {
 	http.HandleFunc("/receive", func(w http.ResponseWriter, r *http.Request) {
-		req, err := remote.DecodeWriteRequest(r.Body)
-		if err != nil {
-			http.Error(w, err.Error(), http.StatusBadRequest)
+		enc := r.Header.Get("Content-Encoding")
+		if enc == "" {
+			http.Error(w, "missing Content-Encoding header", http.StatusUnsupportedMediaType)
+			return
+		}
+		if enc != "snappy" {
+			http.Error(w, "unknown encoding, only snappy supported", http.StatusUnsupportedMediaType)
 			return
 		}
 
-		for _, ts := range req.Timeseries {
-			m := make(model.Metric, len(ts.Labels))
-			for _, l := range ts.Labels {
-				m[model.LabelName(l.Name)] = model.LabelValue(l.Value)
-			}
-			fmt.Println(m)
+		contentType := r.Header.Get("Content-Type")
+		if contentType == "" {
+			http.Error(w, "missing Content-Type header", http.StatusUnsupportedMediaType)
+		}
 
-			for _, s := range ts.Samples {
-				fmt.Printf("\tSample:  %f %d\n", s.Value, s.Timestamp)
-			}
+		defer func() { _ = r.Body.Close() }()
 
-			for _, e := range ts.Exemplars {
-				m := make(model.Metric, len(e.Labels))
-				for _, l := range e.Labels {
-					m[model.LabelName(l.Name)] = model.LabelValue(l.Value)
-				}
-				fmt.Printf("\tExemplar:  %+v %f %d\n", m, e.Value, e.Timestamp)
+		// Very simplistic content parsing, see
+		// storage/remote/write_handler.go#WriteHandler.ServeHTTP for production example.
+		switch contentType {
+		case "application/x-protobuf", "application/x-protobuf;proto=prometheus.WriteRequest":
+			req, err := remote.DecodeWriteRequest(r.Body)
+			if err != nil {
+				http.Error(w, err.Error(), http.StatusBadRequest)
+				return
 			}
-
-			for _, hp := range ts.Histograms {
-				h := remote.HistogramProtoToHistogram(hp)
-				fmt.Printf("\tHistogram:  %s\n", h.String())
+			printV1(req)
+		case "application/x-protobuf;proto=io.prometheus.write.v2.Request":
+			req, err := remote.DecodeWriteV2Request(r.Body)
+			if err != nil {
+				http.Error(w, err.Error(), http.StatusBadRequest)
+				return
 			}
+			printV2(req)
+		default:
+			msg := fmt.Sprintf("Unknown remote write content type: %s", contentType)
+			fmt.Println(msg)
+			http.Error(w, msg, http.StatusBadRequest)
 		}
 	})
-
 	log.Fatal(http.ListenAndServe(":1234", nil))
 }
+
+func printV1(req *prompb.WriteRequest) {
+	b := labels.NewScratchBuilder(0)
+	for _, ts := range req.Timeseries {
+		fmt.Println(ts.ToLabels(&b, nil))
+
+		for _, s := range ts.Samples {
+			fmt.Printf("\tSample:  %f %d\n", s.Value, s.Timestamp)
+		}
+		for _, ep := range ts.Exemplars {
+			e := ep.ToExemplar(&b, nil)
+			fmt.Printf("\tExemplar:  %+v %f %d\n", e.Labels, e.Value, ep.Timestamp)
+		}
+		for _, hp := range ts.Histograms {
+			if hp.IsFloatHistogram() {
+				h := hp.ToFloatHistogram()
+				fmt.Printf("\tHistogram:  %s\n", h.String())
+				continue
+			}
+			h := hp.ToIntHistogram()
+			fmt.Printf("\tHistogram:  %s\n", h.String())
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+func printV2(req *writev2.Request) {
+	b := labels.NewScratchBuilder(0)
+	for _, ts := range req.Timeseries {
+		l := ts.ToLabels(&b, req.Symbols)
+		m := ts.ToMetadata(req.Symbols)
+		fmt.Println(l, m)
+
+		for _, s := range ts.Samples {
+			fmt.Printf("\tSample:  %f %d\n", s.Value, s.Timestamp)
+		}
+		for _, ep := range ts.Exemplars {
+			e := ep.ToExemplar(&b, req.Symbols)
+			fmt.Printf("\tExemplar:  %+v %f %d\n", e.Labels, e.Value, ep.Timestamp)
+		}
+		for _, hp := range ts.Histograms {
+			if hp.IsFloatHistogram() {
+				h := hp.ToFloatHistogram()
+				fmt.Printf("\tHistogram:  %s\n", h.String())
+				continue
+			}
+			h := hp.ToIntHistogram()
+			fmt.Printf("\tHistogram:  %s\n", h.String())
+		}
+	}
+}
diff --git a/documentation/examples/remote_storage/go.mod b/documentation/examples/remote_storage/go.mod
index dff988131b..2491bbe2db 100644
--- a/documentation/examples/remote_storage/go.mod
+++ b/documentation/examples/remote_storage/go.mod
@@ -8,70 +8,67 @@ require (
 	github.com/gogo/protobuf v1.3.2
 	github.com/golang/snappy v0.0.4
 	github.com/influxdata/influxdb v1.11.5
-	github.com/prometheus/client_golang v1.19.0
-	github.com/prometheus/common v0.53.0
-	github.com/prometheus/prometheus v0.51.1
+	github.com/prometheus/client_golang v1.19.1
+	github.com/prometheus/common v0.55.0
+	github.com/prometheus/prometheus v0.52.1
 	github.com/stretchr/testify v1.9.0
 )
 
 require (
-	github.com/Azure/azure-sdk-for-go/sdk/azcore v1.10.0 // indirect
-	github.com/Azure/azure-sdk-for-go/sdk/azidentity v1.5.1 // indirect
-	github.com/Azure/azure-sdk-for-go/sdk/internal v1.5.2 // indirect
-	github.com/AzureAD/microsoft-authentication-library-for-go v1.2.1 // indirect
+	github.com/Azure/azure-sdk-for-go/sdk/azcore v1.11.1 // indirect
+	github.com/Azure/azure-sdk-for-go/sdk/azidentity v1.5.2 // indirect
+	github.com/Azure/azure-sdk-for-go/sdk/internal v1.6.0 // indirect
+	github.com/AzureAD/microsoft-authentication-library-for-go v1.2.2 // indirect
 	github.com/alecthomas/units v0.0.0-20231202071711-9a357b53e9c9 // indirect
-	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go v1.50.32 // indirect
+	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go v1.53.16 // indirect
 	github.com/beorn7/perks v1.0.1 // indirect
-	github.com/cespare/xxhash/v2 v2.2.0 // indirect
+	github.com/cespare/xxhash/v2 v2.3.0 // indirect
 	github.com/davecgh/go-spew v1.1.2-0.20180830191138-d8f796af33cc // indirect
 	github.com/dennwc/varint v1.0.0 // indirect
 	github.com/felixge/httpsnoop v1.0.4 // indirect
 	github.com/go-logfmt/logfmt v0.6.0 // indirect
 	github.com/go-logr/logr v1.4.1 // indirect
 	github.com/go-logr/stdr v1.2.2 // indirect
-	github.com/golang-jwt/jwt/v5 v5.2.0 // indirect
-	github.com/golang/protobuf v1.5.3 // indirect
+	github.com/golang-jwt/jwt/v5 v5.2.1 // indirect
 	github.com/google/uuid v1.6.0 // indirect
-	github.com/grafana/regexp v0.0.0-20221122212121-6b5c0a4cb7fd // indirect
-	github.com/hashicorp/go-version v1.6.0 // indirect
+	github.com/grafana/regexp v0.0.0-20240518133315-a468a5bfb3bc // indirect
 	github.com/jmespath/go-jmespath v0.4.0 // indirect
 	github.com/jpillora/backoff v1.0.0 // indirect
 	github.com/json-iterator/go v1.1.12 // indirect
-	github.com/klauspost/compress v1.17.7 // indirect
+	github.com/klauspost/compress v1.17.8 // indirect
 	github.com/kr/text v0.2.0 // indirect
 	github.com/kylelemons/godebug v1.1.0 // indirect
 	github.com/modern-go/concurrent v0.0.0-20180306012644-bacd9c7ef1dd // indirect
 	github.com/modern-go/reflect2 v1.0.2 // indirect
+	github.com/munnerz/goautoneg v0.0.0-20191010083416-a7dc8b61c822 // indirect
 	github.com/mwitkow/go-conntrack v0.0.0-20190716064945-2f068394615f // indirect
 	github.com/pkg/browser v0.0.0-20240102092130-5ac0b6a4141c // indirect
 	github.com/pmezard/go-difflib v1.0.1-0.20181226105442-5d4384ee4fb2 // indirect
-	github.com/prometheus/client_model v0.6.0 // indirect
+	github.com/prometheus/client_model v0.6.1 // indirect
 	github.com/prometheus/common/sigv4 v0.1.0 // indirect
-	github.com/prometheus/procfs v0.12.0 // indirect
+	github.com/prometheus/procfs v0.15.1 // indirect
 	github.com/xhit/go-str2duration/v2 v2.1.0 // indirect
-	go.opentelemetry.io/collector/featuregate v1.3.0 // indirect
-	go.opentelemetry.io/collector/pdata v1.3.0 // indirect
-	go.opentelemetry.io/collector/semconv v0.96.0 // indirect
-	go.opentelemetry.io/contrib/instrumentation/net/http/otelhttp v0.49.0 // indirect
-	go.opentelemetry.io/otel v1.24.0 // indirect
-	go.opentelemetry.io/otel/metric v1.24.0 // indirect
-	go.opentelemetry.io/otel/trace v1.24.0 // indirect
+	go.opentelemetry.io/collector/pdata v1.8.0 // indirect
+	go.opentelemetry.io/collector/semconv v0.101.0 // indirect
+	go.opentelemetry.io/contrib/instrumentation/net/http/otelhttp v0.52.0 // indirect
+	go.opentelemetry.io/otel v1.27.0 // indirect
+	go.opentelemetry.io/otel/metric v1.27.0 // indirect
+	go.opentelemetry.io/otel/trace v1.27.0 // indirect
 	go.uber.org/atomic v1.11.0 // indirect
 	go.uber.org/multierr v1.11.0 // indirect
-	golang.org/x/crypto v0.21.0 // indirect
-	golang.org/x/net v0.22.0 // indirect
-	golang.org/x/oauth2 v0.18.0 // indirect
-	golang.org/x/sys v0.18.0 // indirect
-	golang.org/x/text v0.14.0 // indirect
+	golang.org/x/crypto v0.24.0 // indirect
+	golang.org/x/net v0.26.0 // indirect
+	golang.org/x/oauth2 v0.21.0 // indirect
+	golang.org/x/sys v0.21.0 // indirect
+	golang.org/x/text v0.16.0 // indirect
 	golang.org/x/time v0.5.0 // indirect
-	google.golang.org/appengine v1.6.8 // indirect
-	google.golang.org/genproto/googleapis/rpc v0.0.0-20240304161311-37d4d3c04a78 // indirect
-	google.golang.org/grpc v1.62.1 // indirect
-	google.golang.org/protobuf v1.33.0 // indirect
+	google.golang.org/genproto/googleapis/rpc v0.0.0-20240528184218-531527333157 // indirect
+	google.golang.org/grpc v1.64.0 // indirect
+	google.golang.org/protobuf v1.34.2 // indirect
 	gopkg.in/yaml.v2 v2.4.0 // indirect
 	gopkg.in/yaml.v3 v3.0.1 // indirect
-	k8s.io/apimachinery v0.29.2 // indirect
-	k8s.io/client-go v0.29.2 // indirect
+	k8s.io/apimachinery v0.29.3 // indirect
+	k8s.io/client-go v0.29.3 // indirect
 	k8s.io/klog/v2 v2.120.1 // indirect
 	k8s.io/utils v0.0.0-20230726121419-3b25d923346b // indirect
 )
@@ -83,4 +80,10 @@ exclude (
 	cloud.google.com/go v0.34.0
 	cloud.google.com/go v0.65.0
 	cloud.google.com/go v0.82.0
+
+	// Fixing ambiguous import: found package google.golang.org/genproto/googleapis/api/annotations in multiple modules.
+	google.golang.org/genproto v0.0.0-20230410155749-daa745c078e1
 )
+
+// TODO(bwplotka): Move to main branch commit or perhaps released version.
+replace github.com/prometheus/prometheus => github.com/prometheus/prometheus v0.53.1-0.20240704074759-c137febfcf8c
diff --git a/documentation/examples/remote_storage/go.sum b/documentation/examples/remote_storage/go.sum
index b145f362f4..9898d75d70 100644
--- a/documentation/examples/remote_storage/go.sum
+++ b/documentation/examples/remote_storage/go.sum
@@ -1,17 +1,17 @@
-github.com/Azure/azure-sdk-for-go/sdk/azcore v1.10.0 h1:n1DH8TPV4qqPTje2RcUBYwtrTWlabVp4n46+74X2pn4=
-github.com/Azure/azure-sdk-for-go/sdk/azcore v1.10.0/go.mod h1:HDcZnuGbiyppErN6lB+idp4CKhjbc8gwjto6OPpyggM=
-github.com/Azure/azure-sdk-for-go/sdk/azidentity v1.5.1 h1:sO0/P7g68FrryJzljemN+6GTssUXdANk6aJ7T1ZxnsQ=
-github.com/Azure/azure-sdk-for-go/sdk/azidentity v1.5.1/go.mod h1:h8hyGFDsU5HMivxiS2iYFZsgDbU9OnnJ163x5UGVKYo=
-github.com/Azure/azure-sdk-for-go/sdk/internal v1.5.2 h1:LqbJ/WzJUwBf8UiaSzgX7aMclParm9/5Vgp+TY51uBQ=
-github.com/Azure/azure-sdk-for-go/sdk/internal v1.5.2/go.mod h1:yInRyqWXAuaPrgI7p70+lDDgh3mlBohis29jGMISnmc=
-github.com/Azure/azure-sdk-for-go/sdk/resourcemanager/compute/armcompute/v5 v5.5.0 h1:MxA59PGoCFb+vCwRQi3PhQEwHj4+r2dhuv9HG+vM7iM=
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@@ -26,8 +26,8 @@ github.com/alecthomas/units v0.0.0-20231202071711-9a357b53e9c9/go.mod h1:OMCwj8V
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@@ -35,10 +35,10 @@ github.com/beorn7/perks v1.0.0/go.mod h1:KWe93zE9D1o94FZ5RNwFwVgaQK1VOXiVxmqh+Ce
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@@ -46,14 +46,14 @@ github.com/davecgh/go-spew v1.1.2-0.20180830191138-d8f796af33cc h1:U9qPSI2PIWSS1
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@@ -68,8 +68,8 @@ github.com/envoyproxy/protoc-gen-validate v1.0.4 h1:gVPz/FMfvh57HdSJQyvBtF00j8JU
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@@ -95,16 +95,16 @@ github.com/go-openapi/jsonreference v0.20.4 h1:bKlDxQxQJgwpUSgOENiMPzCTBVuc7vTdX
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@@ -115,10 +115,8 @@ github.com/golang/protobuf v1.4.0-rc.4.0.20200313231945-b860323f09d0/go.mod h1:W
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@@ -137,40 +135,38 @@ github.com/google/gofuzz v1.2.0 h1:xRy4A+RhZaiKjJ1bPfwQ8sedCA+YS2YcCHW6ec7JMi0=
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@@ -194,8 +190,8 @@ github.com/julienschmidt/httprouter v1.2.0/go.mod h1:SYymIcj16QtmaHHD7aYtjjsJG7V
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@@ -243,8 +241,8 @@ github.com/opencontainers/go-digest v1.0.0 h1:apOUWs51W5PlhuyGyz9FCeeBIOUDA/6nW8
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@@ -258,33 +256,33 @@ github.com/prometheus/client_golang v0.9.1/go.mod h1:7SWBe2y4D6OKWSNQJUaRYU/AaXP
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@@ -306,21 +304,18 @@ github.com/xhit/go-str2duration/v2 v2.1.0 h1:lxklc02Drh6ynqX+DdPyp5pCKLUQpRT8bp8
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 github.com/yuin/goldmark v1.1.27/go.mod h1:3hX8gzYuyVAZsxl0MRgGTJEmQBFcNTphYh9decYSb74=
 github.com/yuin/goldmark v1.2.1/go.mod h1:3hX8gzYuyVAZsxl0MRgGTJEmQBFcNTphYh9decYSb74=
-github.com/yuin/goldmark v1.4.13/go.mod h1:6yULJ656Px+3vBD8DxQVa3kxgyrAnzto9xy5taEt/CY=
-go.opentelemetry.io/collector/featuregate v1.3.0 h1:nrFSx+zfjdisjE9oCx25Aep3nJ9RaUjeE1qFL6eovoU=
-go.opentelemetry.io/collector/featuregate v1.3.0/go.mod h1:mm8+xyQfgDmqhyegZRNIQmoKsNnDTwWKFLsdMoXAb7A=
-go.opentelemetry.io/collector/pdata v1.3.0 h1:JRYN7tVHYFwmtQhIYbxWeiKSa2L1nCohyAs8sYqKFZo=
-go.opentelemetry.io/collector/pdata v1.3.0/go.mod h1:t7W0Undtes53HODPdSujPLTnfSR5fzT+WpL+RTaaayo=
-go.opentelemetry.io/collector/semconv v0.96.0 h1:DrZy8BpzJDnN2zFxXRj6BhfGYxNlqpFHBqyuS9fVHRY=
-go.opentelemetry.io/collector/semconv v0.96.0/go.mod h1:zOm/U3pgMIWcvrcnPbR9Xx2HinoXj46ERMK8PUV9wrs=
-go.opentelemetry.io/contrib/instrumentation/net/http/otelhttp v0.49.0 h1:jq9TW8u3so/bN+JPT166wjOI6/vQPF6Xe7nMNIltagk=
-go.opentelemetry.io/contrib/instrumentation/net/http/otelhttp v0.49.0/go.mod h1:p8pYQP+m5XfbZm9fxtSKAbM6oIllS7s2AfxrChvc7iw=
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 go.uber.org/goleak v1.3.0 h1:2K3zAYmnTNqV73imy9J1T3WC+gmCePx2hEGkimedGto=
@@ -331,16 +326,14 @@ golang.org/x/crypto v0.0.0-20180904163835-0709b304e793/go.mod h1:6SG95UA2DQfeDnf
 golang.org/x/crypto v0.0.0-20190308221718-c2843e01d9a2/go.mod h1:djNgcEr1/C05ACkg1iLfiJU5Ep61QUkGW8qpdssI0+w=
 golang.org/x/crypto v0.0.0-20191011191535-87dc89f01550/go.mod h1:yigFU9vqHzYiE8UmvKecakEJjdnWj3jj499lnFckfCI=
 golang.org/x/crypto v0.0.0-20200622213623-75b288015ac9/go.mod h1:LzIPMQfyMNhhGPhUkYOs5KpL4U8rLKemX1yGLhDgUto=
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-golang.org/x/crypto v0.21.0 h1:X31++rzVUdKhX5sWmSOFZxx8UW/ldWx55cbf08iNAMA=
-golang.org/x/crypto v0.21.0/go.mod h1:0BP7YvVV9gBbVKyeTG0Gyn+gZm94bibOW5BjDEYAOMs=
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-golang.org/x/mod v0.16.0 h1:QX4fJ0Rr5cPQCF7O9lh9Se4pmwfwskqZfq5moyldzic=
-golang.org/x/mod v0.16.0/go.mod h1:hTbmBsO62+eylJbnUtE2MGJUyE7QWk4xUqPFrRgJ+7c=
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 golang.org/x/net v0.0.0-20180724234803-3673e40ba225/go.mod h1:mL1N/T3taQHkDXs73rZJwtUhF3w3ftmwwsq0BUmARs4=
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@@ -353,24 +346,21 @@ golang.org/x/net v0.0.0-20200625001655-4c5254603344/go.mod h1:/O7V0waA8r7cgGh81R
 golang.org/x/net v0.0.0-20200822124328-c89045814202/go.mod h1:/O7V0waA8r7cgGh81Ro3o1hOxt32SMVPicZroKQ2sZA=
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@@ -385,48 +375,38 @@ golang.org/x/sys v0.0.0-20201119102817-f84b799fce68/go.mod h1:h1NjWce9XRLGQEsW7w
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 google.golang.org/appengine v1.6.6/go.mod h1:8WjMMxjGQR8xUklV/ARdw2HLXBOI7O7uCIDZVag1xfc=
-google.golang.org/appengine v1.6.8 h1:IhEN5q69dyKagZPYMSdIjS2HqprW324FRQZJcGqPAsM=
-google.golang.org/appengine v1.6.8/go.mod h1:1jJ3jBArFh5pcgW8gCtRJnepW8FzD1V44FJffLiz/Ds=
-google.golang.org/genproto v0.0.0-20240123012728-ef4313101c80 h1:KAeGQVN3M9nD0/bQXnr/ClcEMJ968gUXJQ9pwfSynuQ=
-google.golang.org/genproto/googleapis/api v0.0.0-20240304212257-790db918fca8 h1:8eadJkXbwDEMNwcB5O0s5Y5eCfyuCLdvaiOIaGTrWmQ=
-google.golang.org/genproto/googleapis/api v0.0.0-20240304212257-790db918fca8/go.mod h1:O1cOfN1Cy6QEYr7VxtjOyP5AdAuR0aJ/MYZaaof623Y=
-google.golang.org/genproto/googleapis/rpc v0.0.0-20240304161311-37d4d3c04a78 h1:Xs9lu+tLXxLIfuci70nG4cpwaRC+mRQPUL7LoIeDJC4=
-google.golang.org/genproto/googleapis/rpc v0.0.0-20240304161311-37d4d3c04a78/go.mod h1:UCOku4NytXMJuLQE5VuqA5lX3PcHCBo8pxNyvkf4xBs=
-google.golang.org/grpc v1.62.1 h1:B4n+nfKzOICUXMgyrNd19h/I9oH0L1pizfk1d4zSgTk=
-google.golang.org/grpc v1.62.1/go.mod h1:IWTG0VlJLCh1SkC58F7np9ka9mx/WNkjl4PGJaiq+QE=
+google.golang.org/genproto/googleapis/api v0.0.0-20240528184218-531527333157 h1:7whR9kGa5LUwFtpLm2ArCEejtnxlGeLbAyjFY8sGNFw=
+google.golang.org/genproto/googleapis/api v0.0.0-20240528184218-531527333157/go.mod h1:99sLkeliLXfdj2J75X3Ho+rrVCaJze0uwN7zDDkjPVU=
+google.golang.org/genproto/googleapis/rpc v0.0.0-20240528184218-531527333157 h1:Zy9XzmMEflZ/MAaA7vNcoebnRAld7FsPW1EeBB7V0m8=
+google.golang.org/genproto/googleapis/rpc v0.0.0-20240528184218-531527333157/go.mod h1:EfXuqaE1J41VCDicxHzUDm+8rk+7ZdXzHV0IhO/I6s0=
+google.golang.org/grpc v1.64.0 h1:KH3VH9y/MgNQg1dE7b3XfVK0GsPSIzJwdF617gUSbvY=
+google.golang.org/grpc v1.64.0/go.mod h1:oxjF8E3FBnjp+/gVFYdWacaLDx9na1aqy9oovLpxQYg=
 google.golang.org/protobuf v0.0.0-20200109180630-ec00e32a8dfd/go.mod h1:DFci5gLYBciE7Vtevhsrf46CRTquxDuWsQurQQe4oz8=
 google.golang.org/protobuf v0.0.0-20200221191635-4d8936d0db64/go.mod h1:kwYJMbMJ01Woi6D6+Kah6886xMZcty6N08ah7+eCXa0=
 google.golang.org/protobuf v0.0.0-20200228230310-ab0ca4ff8a60/go.mod h1:cfTl7dwQJ+fmap5saPgwCLgHXTUD7jkjRqWcaiX5VyM=
@@ -434,9 +414,8 @@ google.golang.org/protobuf v1.20.1-0.20200309200217-e05f789c0967/go.mod h1:A+miE
 google.golang.org/protobuf v1.21.0/go.mod h1:47Nbq4nVaFHyn7ilMalzfO3qCViNmqZ2kzikPIcrTAo=
 google.golang.org/protobuf v1.23.0/go.mod h1:EGpADcykh3NcUnDUJcl1+ZksZNG86OlYog2l/sGQquU=
 google.golang.org/protobuf v1.26.0-rc.1/go.mod h1:jlhhOSvTdKEhbULTjvd4ARK9grFBp09yW+WbY/TyQbw=
-google.golang.org/protobuf v1.26.0/go.mod h1:9q0QmTI4eRPtz6boOQmLYwt+qCgq0jsYwAQnmE0givc=
-google.golang.org/protobuf v1.33.0 h1:uNO2rsAINq/JlFpSdYEKIZ0uKD/R9cpdv0T+yoGwGmI=
-google.golang.org/protobuf v1.33.0/go.mod h1:c6P6GXX6sHbq/GpV6MGZEdwhWPcYBgnhAHhKbcUYpos=
+google.golang.org/protobuf v1.34.2 h1:6xV6lTsCfpGD21XK49h7MhtcApnLqkfYgPcdHftf6hg=
+google.golang.org/protobuf v1.34.2/go.mod h1:qYOHts0dSfpeUzUFpOMr/WGzszTmLH+DiWniOlNbLDw=
 gopkg.in/alecthomas/kingpin.v2 v2.2.6/go.mod h1:FMv+mEhP44yOT+4EoQTLFTRgOQ1FBLkstjWtayDeSgw=
 gopkg.in/check.v1 v0.0.0-20161208181325-20d25e280405/go.mod h1:Co6ibVJAznAaIkqp8huTwlJQCZ016jof/cbN4VW5Yz0=
 gopkg.in/check.v1 v1.0.0-20190902080502-41f04d3bba15/go.mod h1:Co6ibVJAznAaIkqp8huTwlJQCZ016jof/cbN4VW5Yz0=
@@ -457,16 +436,16 @@ gopkg.in/yaml.v2 v2.4.0/go.mod h1:RDklbk79AGWmwhnvt/jBztapEOGDOx6ZbXqjP6csGnQ=
 gopkg.in/yaml.v3 v3.0.0-20200313102051-9f266ea9e77c/go.mod h1:K4uyk7z7BCEPqu6E+C64Yfv1cQ7kz7rIZviUmN+EgEM=
 gopkg.in/yaml.v3 v3.0.1 h1:fxVm/GzAzEWqLHuvctI91KS9hhNmmWOoWu0XTYJS7CA=
 gopkg.in/yaml.v3 v3.0.1/go.mod h1:K4uyk7z7BCEPqu6E+C64Yfv1cQ7kz7rIZviUmN+EgEM=
-k8s.io/api v0.29.2 h1:hBC7B9+MU+ptchxEqTNW2DkUosJpp1P+Wn6YncZ474A=
-k8s.io/api v0.29.2/go.mod h1:sdIaaKuU7P44aoyyLlikSLayT6Vb7bvJNCX105xZXY0=
-k8s.io/apimachinery v0.29.2 h1:EWGpfJ856oj11C52NRCHuU7rFDwxev48z+6DSlGNsV8=
-k8s.io/apimachinery v0.29.2/go.mod h1:6HVkd1FwxIagpYrHSwJlQqZI3G9LfYWRPAkUvLnXTKU=
-k8s.io/client-go v0.29.2 h1:FEg85el1TeZp+/vYJM7hkDlSTFZ+c5nnK44DJ4FyoRg=
-k8s.io/client-go v0.29.2/go.mod h1:knlvFZE58VpqbQpJNbCbctTVXcd35mMyAAwBdpt4jrA=
+k8s.io/api v0.29.3 h1:2ORfZ7+bGC3YJqGpV0KSDDEVf8hdGQ6A03/50vj8pmw=
+k8s.io/api v0.29.3/go.mod h1:y2yg2NTyHUUkIoTC+phinTnEa3KFM6RZ3szxt014a80=
+k8s.io/apimachinery v0.29.3 h1:2tbx+5L7RNvqJjn7RIuIKu9XTsIZ9Z5wX2G22XAa5EU=
+k8s.io/apimachinery v0.29.3/go.mod h1:hx/S4V2PNW4OMg3WizRrHutyB5la0iCUbZym+W0EQIU=
+k8s.io/client-go v0.29.3 h1:R/zaZbEAxqComZ9FHeQwOh3Y1ZUs7FaHKZdQtIc2WZg=
+k8s.io/client-go v0.29.3/go.mod h1:tkDisCvgPfiRpxGnOORfkljmS+UrW+WtXAy2fTvXJB0=
 k8s.io/klog/v2 v2.120.1 h1:QXU6cPEOIslTGvZaXvFWiP9VKyeet3sawzTOvdXb4Vw=
 k8s.io/klog/v2 v2.120.1/go.mod h1:3Jpz1GvMt720eyJH1ckRHK1EDfpxISzJ7I9OYgaDtPE=
-k8s.io/kube-openapi v0.0.0-20231010175941-2dd684a91f00 h1:aVUu9fTY98ivBPKR9Y5w/AuzbMm96cd3YHRTU83I780=
-k8s.io/kube-openapi v0.0.0-20231010175941-2dd684a91f00/go.mod h1:AsvuZPBlUDVuCdzJ87iajxtXuR9oktsTctW/R9wwouA=
+k8s.io/kube-openapi v0.0.0-20240228011516-70dd3763d340 h1:BZqlfIlq5YbRMFko6/PM7FjZpUb45WallggurYhKGag=
+k8s.io/kube-openapi v0.0.0-20240228011516-70dd3763d340/go.mod h1:yD4MZYeKMBwQKVht279WycxKyM84kkAx2DPrTXaeb98=
 k8s.io/utils v0.0.0-20230726121419-3b25d923346b h1:sgn3ZU783SCgtaSJjpcVVlRqd6GSnlTLKgpAAttJvpI=
 k8s.io/utils v0.0.0-20230726121419-3b25d923346b/go.mod h1:OLgZIPagt7ERELqWJFomSt595RzquPNLL48iOWgYOg0=
 sigs.k8s.io/json v0.0.0-20221116044647-bc3834ca7abd h1:EDPBXCAspyGV4jQlpZSudPeMmr1bNJefnuqLsRAsHZo=
diff --git a/documentation/prometheus-mixin/alerts.libsonnet b/documentation/prometheus-mixin/alerts.libsonnet
index 508d89c244..563daab801 100644
--- a/documentation/prometheus-mixin/alerts.libsonnet
+++ b/documentation/prometheus-mixin/alerts.libsonnet
@@ -34,6 +34,20 @@
               description: 'Prometheus %(prometheusName)s has failed to refresh SD with mechanism {{$labels.mechanism}}.' % $._config,
             },
           },
+          {
+            alert: 'PrometheusKubernetesListWatchFailures',
+            expr: |||
+              increase(prometheus_sd_kubernetes_failures_total{%(prometheusSelector)s}[5m]) > 0
+            ||| % $._config,
+            'for': '15m',
+            labels: {
+              severity: 'warning',
+            },
+            annotations: {
+              summary: 'Requests in Kubernetes SD are failing.',
+              description: 'Kubernetes service discovery of Prometheus %(prometheusName)s is experiencing {{ printf "%%.0f" $value }} failures with LIST/WATCH requests to the Kubernetes API in the last 5 minutes.' % $._config,
+            },
+          },
           {
             alert: 'PrometheusNotificationQueueRunningFull',
             expr: |||
diff --git a/documentation/prometheus-mixin/config.libsonnet b/documentation/prometheus-mixin/config.libsonnet
index ab9079a5e3..70d46a2212 100644
--- a/documentation/prometheus-mixin/config.libsonnet
+++ b/documentation/prometheus-mixin/config.libsonnet
@@ -44,5 +44,10 @@
       // The default refresh time for all dashboards, default to 60s
       refresh: '60s',
     },
+
+    // Opt-out of multi-cluster dashboards by overriding this.
+    showMultiCluster: true,
+    // The cluster label to infer the cluster name from.
+    clusterLabel: 'cluster',
   },
 }
diff --git a/documentation/prometheus-mixin/dashboards.libsonnet b/documentation/prometheus-mixin/dashboards.libsonnet
index efe53dbac9..2bdd168cc9 100644
--- a/documentation/prometheus-mixin/dashboards.libsonnet
+++ b/documentation/prometheus-mixin/dashboards.libsonnet
@@ -10,21 +10,32 @@ local template = grafana.template;
 {
   grafanaDashboards+:: {
     'prometheus.json':
-      g.dashboard(
+      local showMultiCluster = $._config.showMultiCluster;
+      local dashboard = g.dashboard(
         '%(prefix)sOverview' % $._config.grafanaPrometheus
-      )
-      .addMultiTemplate('cluster', 'prometheus_build_info{%(prometheusSelector)s}' % $._config, 'cluster')
-      .addMultiTemplate('job', 'prometheus_build_info{cluster=~"$cluster"}', 'job')
-      .addMultiTemplate('instance', 'prometheus_build_info{cluster=~"$cluster", job=~"$job"}', 'instance')
+      );
+      local templatedDashboard = if showMultiCluster then
+        dashboard
+        .addMultiTemplate('cluster', 'prometheus_build_info{%(prometheusSelector)s}' % $._config, $._config.clusterLabel)
+        .addMultiTemplate('job', 'prometheus_build_info{cluster=~"$cluster"}', 'job')
+        .addMultiTemplate('instance', 'prometheus_build_info{cluster=~"$cluster", job=~"$job"}', 'instance')
+      else
+        dashboard
+        .addMultiTemplate('job', 'prometheus_build_info{%(prometheusSelector)s}' % $._config, 'job')
+        .addMultiTemplate('instance', 'prometheus_build_info{job=~"$job"}', 'instance');
+      templatedDashboard
       .addRow(
         g.row('Prometheus Stats')
         .addPanel(
           g.panel('Prometheus Stats') +
-          g.tablePanel([
+          g.tablePanel(if showMultiCluster then [
             'count by (cluster, job, instance, version) (prometheus_build_info{cluster=~"$cluster", job=~"$job", instance=~"$instance"})',
             'max by (cluster, job, instance) (time() - process_start_time_seconds{cluster=~"$cluster", job=~"$job", instance=~"$instance"})',
+          ] else [
+            'count by (job, instance, version) (prometheus_build_info{job=~"$job", instance=~"$instance"})',
+            'max by (job, instance) (time() - process_start_time_seconds{job=~"$job", instance=~"$instance"})',
           ], {
-            cluster: { alias: 'Cluster' },
+            cluster: { alias: if showMultiCluster then 'Cluster' else '' },
             job: { alias: 'Job' },
             instance: { alias: 'Instance' },
             version: { alias: 'Version' },
@@ -37,12 +48,18 @@ local template = grafana.template;
         g.row('Discovery')
         .addPanel(
           g.panel('Target Sync') +
-          g.queryPanel('sum(rate(prometheus_target_sync_length_seconds_sum{cluster=~"$cluster",job=~"$job",instance=~"$instance"}[5m])) by (cluster, job, scrape_job, instance) * 1e3', '{{cluster}}:{{job}}:{{instance}}:{{scrape_job}}') +
+          g.queryPanel(if showMultiCluster then 'sum(rate(prometheus_target_sync_length_seconds_sum{cluster=~"$cluster",job=~"$job",instance=~"$instance"}[5m])) by (cluster, job, scrape_job, instance) * 1e3'
+                       else 'sum(rate(prometheus_target_sync_length_seconds_sum{job=~"$job",instance=~"$instance"}[5m])) by (scrape_job) * 1e3',
+                       if showMultiCluster then '{{cluster}}:{{job}}:{{instance}}:{{scrape_job}}'
+                       else '{{scrape_job}}') +
           { yaxes: g.yaxes('ms') }
         )
         .addPanel(
           g.panel('Targets') +
-          g.queryPanel('sum by (cluster, job, instance) (prometheus_sd_discovered_targets{cluster=~"$cluster", job=~"$job",instance=~"$instance"})', '{{cluster}}:{{job}}:{{instance}}') +
+          g.queryPanel(if showMultiCluster then 'sum by (cluster, job, instance) (prometheus_sd_discovered_targets{cluster=~"$cluster", job=~"$job",instance=~"$instance"})'
+                       else 'sum(prometheus_sd_discovered_targets{job=~"$job",instance=~"$instance"})',
+                       if showMultiCluster then '{{cluster}}:{{job}}:{{instance}}'
+                       else 'Targets') +
           g.stack
         )
       )
@@ -50,29 +67,47 @@ local template = grafana.template;
         g.row('Retrieval')
         .addPanel(
           g.panel('Average Scrape Interval Duration') +
-          g.queryPanel('rate(prometheus_target_interval_length_seconds_sum{cluster=~"$cluster", job=~"$job",instance=~"$instance"}[5m]) / rate(prometheus_target_interval_length_seconds_count{cluster=~"$cluster", job=~"$job",instance=~"$instance"}[5m]) * 1e3', '{{cluster}}:{{job}}:{{instance}} {{interval}} configured') +
+          g.queryPanel(if showMultiCluster then 'rate(prometheus_target_interval_length_seconds_sum{cluster=~"$cluster", job=~"$job",instance=~"$instance"}[5m]) / rate(prometheus_target_interval_length_seconds_count{cluster=~"$cluster", job=~"$job",instance=~"$instance"}[5m]) * 1e3'
+                       else 'rate(prometheus_target_interval_length_seconds_sum{job=~"$job",instance=~"$instance"}[5m]) / rate(prometheus_target_interval_length_seconds_count{job=~"$job",instance=~"$instance"}[5m]) * 1e3',
+                       if showMultiCluster then '{{cluster}}:{{job}}:{{instance}} {{interval}} configured'
+                       else '{{interval}} configured') +
           { yaxes: g.yaxes('ms') }
         )
         .addPanel(
           g.panel('Scrape failures') +
-          g.queryPanel([
+          g.queryPanel(if showMultiCluster then [
             'sum by (cluster, job, instance) (rate(prometheus_target_scrapes_exceeded_body_size_limit_total{cluster=~"$cluster",job=~"$job",instance=~"$instance"}[1m]))',
             'sum by (cluster, job, instance) (rate(prometheus_target_scrapes_exceeded_sample_limit_total{cluster=~"$cluster",job=~"$job",instance=~"$instance"}[1m]))',
             'sum by (cluster, job, instance) (rate(prometheus_target_scrapes_sample_duplicate_timestamp_total{cluster=~"$cluster",job=~"$job",instance=~"$instance"}[1m]))',
             'sum by (cluster, job, instance) (rate(prometheus_target_scrapes_sample_out_of_bounds_total{cluster=~"$cluster",job=~"$job",instance=~"$instance"}[1m]))',
             'sum by (cluster, job, instance) (rate(prometheus_target_scrapes_sample_out_of_order_total{cluster=~"$cluster",job=~"$job",instance=~"$instance"}[1m]))',
-          ], [
+          ] else [
+            'sum by (job) (rate(prometheus_target_scrapes_exceeded_body_size_limit_total[1m]))',
+            'sum by (job) (rate(prometheus_target_scrapes_exceeded_sample_limit_total[1m]))',
+            'sum by (job) (rate(prometheus_target_scrapes_sample_duplicate_timestamp_total[1m]))',
+            'sum by (job) (rate(prometheus_target_scrapes_sample_out_of_bounds_total[1m]))',
+            'sum by (job) (rate(prometheus_target_scrapes_sample_out_of_order_total[1m]))',
+          ], if showMultiCluster then [
             'exceeded body size limit: {{cluster}} {{job}} {{instance}}',
             'exceeded sample limit: {{cluster}} {{job}} {{instance}}',
             'duplicate timestamp: {{cluster}} {{job}} {{instance}}',
             'out of bounds: {{cluster}} {{job}} {{instance}}',
             'out of order: {{cluster}} {{job}} {{instance}}',
+          ] else [
+            'exceeded body size limit: {{job}}',
+            'exceeded sample limit: {{job}}',
+            'duplicate timestamp: {{job}}',
+            'out of bounds: {{job}}',
+            'out of order: {{job}}',
           ]) +
           g.stack
         )
         .addPanel(
           g.panel('Appended Samples') +
-          g.queryPanel('rate(prometheus_tsdb_head_samples_appended_total{cluster=~"$cluster", job=~"$job",instance=~"$instance"}[5m])', '{{cluster}} {{job}} {{instance}}') +
+          g.queryPanel(if showMultiCluster then 'rate(prometheus_tsdb_head_samples_appended_total{cluster=~"$cluster", job=~"$job",instance=~"$instance"}[5m])'
+                       else 'rate(prometheus_tsdb_head_samples_appended_total{job=~"$job",instance=~"$instance"}[5m])',
+                       if showMultiCluster then '{{cluster}} {{job}} {{instance}}'
+                       else '{{job}} {{instance}}') +
           g.stack
         )
       )
@@ -80,12 +115,18 @@ local template = grafana.template;
         g.row('Storage')
         .addPanel(
           g.panel('Head Series') +
-          g.queryPanel('prometheus_tsdb_head_series{cluster=~"$cluster",job=~"$job",instance=~"$instance"}', '{{cluster}} {{job}} {{instance}} head series') +
+          g.queryPanel(if showMultiCluster then 'prometheus_tsdb_head_series{cluster=~"$cluster",job=~"$job",instance=~"$instance"}'
+                       else 'prometheus_tsdb_head_series{job=~"$job",instance=~"$instance"}',
+                       if showMultiCluster then '{{cluster}} {{job}} {{instance}} head series'
+                       else '{{job}} {{instance}} head series') +
           g.stack
         )
         .addPanel(
           g.panel('Head Chunks') +
-          g.queryPanel('prometheus_tsdb_head_chunks{cluster=~"$cluster",job=~"$job",instance=~"$instance"}', '{{cluster}} {{job}} {{instance}} head chunks') +
+          g.queryPanel(if showMultiCluster then 'prometheus_tsdb_head_chunks{cluster=~"$cluster",job=~"$job",instance=~"$instance"}'
+                       else 'prometheus_tsdb_head_chunks{job=~"$job",instance=~"$instance"}',
+                       if showMultiCluster then '{{cluster}} {{job}} {{instance}} head chunks'
+                       else '{{job}} {{instance}} head chunks') +
           g.stack
         )
       )
@@ -93,12 +134,18 @@ local template = grafana.template;
         g.row('Query')
         .addPanel(
           g.panel('Query Rate') +
-          g.queryPanel('rate(prometheus_engine_query_duration_seconds_count{cluster=~"$cluster",job=~"$job",instance=~"$instance",slice="inner_eval"}[5m])', '{{cluster}} {{job}} {{instance}}') +
+          g.queryPanel(if showMultiCluster then 'rate(prometheus_engine_query_duration_seconds_count{cluster=~"$cluster",job=~"$job",instance=~"$instance",slice="inner_eval"}[5m])'
+                       else 'rate(prometheus_engine_query_duration_seconds_count{job=~"$job",instance=~"$instance",slice="inner_eval"}[5m])',
+                       if showMultiCluster then '{{cluster}} {{job}} {{instance}}'
+                       else '{{job}} {{instance}}') +
           g.stack,
         )
         .addPanel(
           g.panel('Stage Duration') +
-          g.queryPanel('max by (slice) (prometheus_engine_query_duration_seconds{quantile="0.9",cluster=~"$cluster", job=~"$job",instance=~"$instance"}) * 1e3', '{{slice}}') +
+          g.queryPanel(if showMultiCluster then 'max by (slice) (prometheus_engine_query_duration_seconds{quantile="0.9",cluster=~"$cluster", job=~"$job",instance=~"$instance"}) * 1e3'
+                       else 'max by (slice) (prometheus_engine_query_duration_seconds{quantile="0.9",job=~"$job",instance=~"$instance"}) * 1e3',
+                       if showMultiCluster then '{{slice}}'
+                       else '{{slice}}') +
           { yaxes: g.yaxes('ms') } +
           g.stack,
         )
diff --git a/go.mod b/go.mod
index 8136dbc7af..ce2f0714a0 100644
--- a/go.mod
+++ b/go.mod
@@ -3,20 +3,20 @@ module github.com/prometheus/prometheus
 go 1.21
 
 require (
-	github.com/Azure/azure-sdk-for-go/sdk/azcore v1.10.0
-	github.com/Azure/azure-sdk-for-go/sdk/azidentity v1.5.1
-	github.com/Azure/azure-sdk-for-go/sdk/resourcemanager/compute/armcompute/v5 v5.6.0
+	github.com/Azure/azure-sdk-for-go/sdk/azcore v1.11.1
+	github.com/Azure/azure-sdk-for-go/sdk/azidentity v1.5.2
+	github.com/Azure/azure-sdk-for-go/sdk/resourcemanager/compute/armcompute/v5 v5.7.0
 	github.com/Azure/azure-sdk-for-go/sdk/resourcemanager/network/armnetwork/v4 v4.3.0
-	github.com/Code-Hex/go-generics-cache v1.3.1
-	github.com/KimMachineGun/automemlimit v0.5.0
+	github.com/Code-Hex/go-generics-cache v1.5.1
+	github.com/KimMachineGun/automemlimit v0.6.1
 	github.com/alecthomas/kingpin/v2 v2.4.0
 	github.com/alecthomas/units v0.0.0-20231202071711-9a357b53e9c9
-	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go v1.50.32
+	github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go v1.53.16
 	github.com/bboreham/go-loser v0.0.0-20230920113527-fcc2c21820a3
-	github.com/cespare/xxhash/v2 v2.2.0
+	github.com/cespare/xxhash/v2 v2.3.0
 	github.com/dennwc/varint v1.0.0
-	github.com/digitalocean/godo v1.109.0
-	github.com/docker/docker v25.0.3+incompatible
+	github.com/digitalocean/godo v1.117.0
+	github.com/docker/docker v26.1.3+incompatible
 	github.com/edsrzf/mmap-go v1.1.0
 	github.com/envoyproxy/go-control-plane v0.12.0
 	github.com/envoyproxy/protoc-gen-validate v1.0.4
@@ -24,66 +24,66 @@ require (
 	github.com/fsnotify/fsnotify v1.7.0
 	github.com/go-kit/log v0.2.1
 	github.com/go-logfmt/logfmt v0.6.0
-	github.com/go-openapi/strfmt v0.22.2
+	github.com/go-openapi/strfmt v0.23.0
 	github.com/go-zookeeper/zk v1.0.3
 	github.com/gogo/protobuf v1.3.2
 	github.com/golang/snappy v0.0.4
 	github.com/google/go-cmp v0.6.0
-	github.com/google/pprof v0.0.0-20240227163752-401108e1b7e7
+	github.com/google/pprof v0.0.0-20240528025155-186aa0362fba
 	github.com/google/uuid v1.6.0
-	github.com/gophercloud/gophercloud v1.8.0
-	github.com/grafana/regexp v0.0.0-20221122212121-6b5c0a4cb7fd
+	github.com/gophercloud/gophercloud v1.12.0
+	github.com/grafana/regexp v0.0.0-20240518133315-a468a5bfb3bc
 	github.com/grpc-ecosystem/grpc-gateway v1.16.0
-	github.com/hashicorp/consul/api v1.28.2
-	github.com/hashicorp/nomad/api v0.0.0-20240306004928-3e7191ccb702
-	github.com/hetznercloud/hcloud-go/v2 v2.6.0
+	github.com/hashicorp/consul/api v1.29.1
+	github.com/hashicorp/nomad/api v0.0.0-20240604134157-e73d8bb1140d
+	github.com/hetznercloud/hcloud-go/v2 v2.9.0
 	github.com/ionos-cloud/sdk-go/v6 v6.1.11
 	github.com/json-iterator/go v1.1.12
-	github.com/klauspost/compress v1.17.7
+	github.com/klauspost/compress v1.17.8
 	github.com/kolo/xmlrpc v0.0.0-20220921171641-a4b6fa1dd06b
-	github.com/linode/linodego v1.30.0
-	github.com/miekg/dns v1.1.58
+	github.com/linode/linodego v1.35.0
+	github.com/miekg/dns v1.1.59
 	github.com/munnerz/goautoneg v0.0.0-20191010083416-a7dc8b61c822
 	github.com/mwitkow/go-conntrack v0.0.0-20190716064945-2f068394615f
 	github.com/nsf/jsondiff v0.0.0-20230430225905-43f6cf3098c1
 	github.com/oklog/run v1.1.0
 	github.com/oklog/ulid v1.3.1
-	github.com/ovh/go-ovh v1.4.3
+	github.com/ovh/go-ovh v1.5.1
 	github.com/prometheus/alertmanager v0.27.0
-	github.com/prometheus/client_golang v1.19.0
-	github.com/prometheus/client_model v0.6.0
-	github.com/prometheus/common v0.49.1-0.20240306132007-4199f18c3e92
+	github.com/prometheus/client_golang v1.19.1
+	github.com/prometheus/client_model v0.6.1
+	github.com/prometheus/common v0.54.0
 	github.com/prometheus/common/assets v0.2.0
 	github.com/prometheus/common/sigv4 v0.1.0
 	github.com/prometheus/exporter-toolkit v0.11.0
-	github.com/scaleway/scaleway-sdk-go v1.0.0-beta.25
+	github.com/scaleway/scaleway-sdk-go v1.0.0-beta.27
 	github.com/shurcooL/httpfs v0.0.0-20230704072500-f1e31cf0ba5c
 	github.com/stretchr/testify v1.9.0
 	github.com/vultr/govultr/v2 v2.17.2
-	go.opentelemetry.io/collector/featuregate v1.4.0
-	go.opentelemetry.io/collector/pdata v1.4.0
-	go.opentelemetry.io/collector/semconv v0.97.0
-	go.opentelemetry.io/contrib/instrumentation/net/http/otelhttp v0.49.0
-	go.opentelemetry.io/otel v1.24.0
-	go.opentelemetry.io/otel/exporters/otlp/otlptrace v1.24.0
-	go.opentelemetry.io/otel/exporters/otlp/otlptrace/otlptracegrpc v1.24.0
-	go.opentelemetry.io/otel/exporters/otlp/otlptrace/otlptracehttp v1.24.0
-	go.opentelemetry.io/otel/sdk v1.24.0
-	go.opentelemetry.io/otel/trace v1.24.0
+	go.opentelemetry.io/collector/pdata v1.8.0
+	go.opentelemetry.io/collector/semconv v0.101.0
+	go.opentelemetry.io/contrib/instrumentation/net/http/otelhttp v0.52.0
+	go.opentelemetry.io/otel v1.27.0
+	go.opentelemetry.io/otel/exporters/otlp/otlptrace v1.27.0
+	go.opentelemetry.io/otel/exporters/otlp/otlptrace/otlptracegrpc v1.27.0
+	go.opentelemetry.io/otel/exporters/otlp/otlptrace/otlptracehttp v1.27.0
+	go.opentelemetry.io/otel/sdk v1.27.0
+	go.opentelemetry.io/otel/trace v1.27.0
 	go.uber.org/atomic v1.11.0
 	go.uber.org/automaxprocs v1.5.3
 	go.uber.org/goleak v1.3.0
 	go.uber.org/multierr v1.11.0
-	golang.org/x/net v0.22.0
-	golang.org/x/oauth2 v0.18.0
-	golang.org/x/sync v0.6.0
-	golang.org/x/sys v0.18.0
+	golang.org/x/net v0.26.0
+	golang.org/x/oauth2 v0.21.0
+	golang.org/x/sync v0.7.0
+	golang.org/x/sys v0.21.0
+	golang.org/x/text v0.16.0
 	golang.org/x/time v0.5.0
-	golang.org/x/tools v0.19.0
-	google.golang.org/api v0.168.0
-	google.golang.org/genproto/googleapis/api v0.0.0-20240304212257-790db918fca8
-	google.golang.org/grpc v1.62.1
-	google.golang.org/protobuf v1.33.0
+	golang.org/x/tools v0.22.0
+	google.golang.org/api v0.183.0
+	google.golang.org/genproto/googleapis/api v0.0.0-20240528184218-531527333157
+	google.golang.org/grpc v1.64.0
+	google.golang.org/protobuf v1.34.1
 	gopkg.in/yaml.v2 v2.4.0
 	gopkg.in/yaml.v3 v3.0.1
 	k8s.io/api v0.29.3
@@ -94,17 +94,18 @@ require (
 )
 
 require (
-	cloud.google.com/go/compute v1.23.4 // indirect
-	cloud.google.com/go/compute/metadata v0.2.3 // indirect
-	github.com/Azure/azure-sdk-for-go/sdk/internal v1.5.2 // indirect
-	github.com/AzureAD/microsoft-authentication-library-for-go v1.2.1 // indirect
+	cloud.google.com/go/auth v0.5.1 // indirect
+	cloud.google.com/go/auth/oauth2adapt v0.2.2 // indirect
+	cloud.google.com/go/compute/metadata v0.3.0 // indirect
+	github.com/Azure/azure-sdk-for-go/sdk/internal v1.6.0 // indirect
+	github.com/AzureAD/microsoft-authentication-library-for-go v1.2.2 // indirect
 	github.com/Microsoft/go-winio v0.6.1 // indirect
 	github.com/armon/go-metrics v0.4.1 // indirect
 	github.com/asaskevich/govalidator v0.0.0-20230301143203-a9d515a09cc2 // indirect
 	github.com/beorn7/perks v1.0.1 // indirect
-	github.com/cenkalti/backoff/v4 v4.2.1 // indirect
+	github.com/cenkalti/backoff/v4 v4.3.0 // indirect
 	github.com/cilium/ebpf v0.11.0 // indirect
-	github.com/cncf/xds/go v0.0.0-20231128003011-0fa0005c9caa // indirect
+	github.com/cncf/xds/go v0.0.0-20240318125728-8a4994d93e50 // indirect
 	github.com/containerd/cgroups/v3 v3.0.3 // indirect
 	github.com/containerd/log v0.1.0 // indirect
 	github.com/coreos/go-systemd/v22 v22.5.0 // indirect
@@ -114,23 +115,23 @@ require (
 	github.com/docker/go-units v0.5.0 // indirect
 	github.com/emicklei/go-restful/v3 v3.11.0 // indirect
 	github.com/evanphx/json-patch v5.6.0+incompatible // indirect
-	github.com/fatih/color v1.15.0 // indirect
+	github.com/fatih/color v1.16.0 // indirect
 	github.com/felixge/httpsnoop v1.0.4 // indirect
 	github.com/ghodss/yaml v1.0.0 // indirect
 	github.com/go-kit/kit v0.12.0 // indirect
 	github.com/go-logr/logr v1.4.1 // indirect
 	github.com/go-logr/stdr v1.2.2 // indirect
 	github.com/go-openapi/analysis v0.22.2 // indirect
-	github.com/go-openapi/errors v0.21.1 // indirect
+	github.com/go-openapi/errors v0.22.0 // indirect
 	github.com/go-openapi/jsonpointer v0.20.2 // indirect
 	github.com/go-openapi/jsonreference v0.20.4 // indirect
 	github.com/go-openapi/loads v0.21.5 // indirect
 	github.com/go-openapi/spec v0.20.14 // indirect
 	github.com/go-openapi/swag v0.22.9 // indirect
 	github.com/go-openapi/validate v0.23.0 // indirect
-	github.com/go-resty/resty/v2 v2.11.0 // indirect
+	github.com/go-resty/resty/v2 v2.13.1 // indirect
 	github.com/godbus/dbus/v5 v5.0.4 // indirect
-	github.com/golang-jwt/jwt/v5 v5.2.0 // indirect
+	github.com/golang-jwt/jwt/v5 v5.2.1 // indirect
 	github.com/golang/glog v1.2.0 // indirect
 	github.com/golang/groupcache v0.0.0-20210331224755-41bb18bfe9da // indirect
 	github.com/golang/protobuf v1.5.4 // indirect
@@ -139,18 +140,17 @@ require (
 	github.com/google/gofuzz v1.2.0 // indirect
 	github.com/google/s2a-go v0.1.7 // indirect
 	github.com/googleapis/enterprise-certificate-proxy v0.3.2 // indirect
-	github.com/googleapis/gax-go/v2 v2.12.2 // indirect
+	github.com/googleapis/gax-go/v2 v2.12.4 // indirect
 	github.com/gorilla/websocket v1.5.0 // indirect
-	github.com/grpc-ecosystem/grpc-gateway/v2 v2.19.0 // indirect
+	github.com/grpc-ecosystem/grpc-gateway/v2 v2.20.0 // indirect
 	github.com/hashicorp/cronexpr v1.1.2 // indirect
 	github.com/hashicorp/errwrap v1.1.0 // indirect
 	github.com/hashicorp/go-cleanhttp v0.5.2 // indirect
-	github.com/hashicorp/go-hclog v1.5.0 // indirect
+	github.com/hashicorp/go-hclog v1.6.3 // indirect
 	github.com/hashicorp/go-immutable-radix v1.3.1 // indirect
 	github.com/hashicorp/go-multierror v1.1.1 // indirect
-	github.com/hashicorp/go-retryablehttp v0.7.4 // indirect
+	github.com/hashicorp/go-retryablehttp v0.7.7 // indirect
 	github.com/hashicorp/go-rootcerts v1.0.2 // indirect
-	github.com/hashicorp/go-version v1.6.0 // indirect
 	github.com/hashicorp/golang-lru v0.6.0 // indirect
 	github.com/hashicorp/serf v0.10.1 // indirect
 	github.com/imdario/mergo v0.3.16 // indirect
@@ -161,9 +161,10 @@ require (
 	github.com/kylelemons/godebug v1.1.0 // indirect
 	github.com/mailru/easyjson v0.7.7 // indirect
 	github.com/mattn/go-colorable v0.1.13 // indirect
-	github.com/mattn/go-isatty v0.0.19 // indirect
+	github.com/mattn/go-isatty v0.0.20 // indirect
 	github.com/mitchellh/go-homedir v1.1.0 // indirect
 	github.com/mitchellh/mapstructure v1.5.0 // indirect
+	github.com/moby/docker-image-spec v1.3.1 // indirect
 	github.com/moby/term v0.0.0-20210619224110-3f7ff695adc6 // indirect
 	github.com/modern-go/concurrent v0.0.0-20180306012644-bacd9c7ef1dd // indirect
 	github.com/modern-go/reflect2 v1.0.2 // indirect
@@ -182,19 +183,17 @@ require (
 	github.com/xhit/go-str2duration/v2 v2.1.0 // indirect
 	go.mongodb.org/mongo-driver v1.14.0 // indirect
 	go.opencensus.io v0.24.0 // indirect
-	go.opentelemetry.io/otel/metric v1.24.0 // indirect
-	go.opentelemetry.io/proto/otlp v1.1.0 // indirect
-	golang.org/x/crypto v0.21.0 // indirect
+	go.opentelemetry.io/otel/metric v1.27.0 // indirect
+	go.opentelemetry.io/proto/otlp v1.2.0 // indirect
+	golang.org/x/crypto v0.24.0 // indirect
 	golang.org/x/exp v0.0.0-20240119083558-1b970713d09a // indirect
-	golang.org/x/mod v0.16.0 // indirect
-	golang.org/x/term v0.18.0 // indirect
-	golang.org/x/text v0.14.0 // indirect
-	google.golang.org/appengine v1.6.8 // indirect
-	google.golang.org/genproto/googleapis/rpc v0.0.0-20240304161311-37d4d3c04a78 // indirect
+	golang.org/x/mod v0.18.0 // indirect
+	golang.org/x/term v0.21.0 // indirect
+	google.golang.org/genproto/googleapis/rpc v0.0.0-20240528184218-531527333157 // indirect
 	gopkg.in/inf.v0 v0.9.1 // indirect
 	gopkg.in/ini.v1 v1.67.0 // indirect
 	gotest.tools/v3 v3.0.3 // indirect
-	k8s.io/kube-openapi v0.0.0-20231010175941-2dd684a91f00 // indirect
+	k8s.io/kube-openapi v0.0.0-20240228011516-70dd3763d340 // indirect
 	k8s.io/utils v0.0.0-20230726121419-3b25d923346b // indirect
 	sigs.k8s.io/json v0.0.0-20221116044647-bc3834ca7abd // indirect
 	sigs.k8s.io/structured-merge-diff/v4 v4.4.1 // indirect
diff --git a/go.sum b/go.sum
index 79c133682e..956b9d8949 100644
--- a/go.sum
+++ b/go.sum
@@ -12,16 +12,18 @@ cloud.google.com/go v0.54.0/go.mod h1:1rq2OEkV3YMf6n/9ZvGWI3GWw0VoqH/1x2nd8Is/bP
 cloud.google.com/go v0.56.0/go.mod h1:jr7tqZxxKOVYizybht9+26Z/gUq7tiRzu+ACVAMbKVk=
 cloud.google.com/go v0.57.0/go.mod h1:oXiQ6Rzq3RAkkY7N6t3TcE6jE+CIBBbA36lwQ1JyzZs=
 cloud.google.com/go v0.65.0/go.mod h1:O5N8zS7uWy9vkA9vayVHs65eM1ubvY4h553ofrNHObY=
+cloud.google.com/go/auth v0.5.1 h1:0QNO7VThG54LUzKiQxv8C6x1YX7lUrzlAa1nVLF8CIw=
+cloud.google.com/go/auth v0.5.1/go.mod h1:vbZT8GjzDf3AVqCcQmqeeM32U9HBFc32vVVAbwDsa6s=
+cloud.google.com/go/auth/oauth2adapt v0.2.2 h1:+TTV8aXpjeChS9M+aTtN/TjdQnzJvmzKFt//oWu7HX4=
+cloud.google.com/go/auth/oauth2adapt v0.2.2/go.mod h1:wcYjgpZI9+Yu7LyYBg4pqSiaRkfEK3GQcpb7C/uyF1Q=
 cloud.google.com/go/bigquery v1.0.1/go.mod h1:i/xbL2UlR5RvWAURpBYZTtm/cXjCha9lbfbpx4poX+o=
 cloud.google.com/go/bigquery v1.3.0/go.mod h1:PjpwJnslEMmckchkHFfq+HTD2DmtT67aNFKH1/VBDHE=
 cloud.google.com/go/bigquery v1.4.0/go.mod h1:S8dzgnTigyfTmLBfrtrhyYhwRxG72rYxvftPBK2Dvzc=
 cloud.google.com/go/bigquery v1.5.0/go.mod h1:snEHRnqQbz117VIFhE8bmtwIDY80NLUZUMb4Nv6dBIg=
 cloud.google.com/go/bigquery v1.7.0/go.mod h1://okPTzCYNXSlb24MZs83e2Do+h+VXtc4gLoIoXIAPc=
 cloud.google.com/go/bigquery v1.8.0/go.mod h1:J5hqkt3O0uAFnINi6JXValWIb1v0goeZM77hZzJN/fQ=
-cloud.google.com/go/compute v1.23.4 h1:EBT9Nw4q3zyE7G45Wvv3MzolIrCJEuHys5muLY0wvAw=
-cloud.google.com/go/compute v1.23.4/go.mod h1:/EJMj55asU6kAFnuZET8zqgwgJ9FvXWXOkkfQZa4ioI=
-cloud.google.com/go/compute/metadata v0.2.3 h1:mg4jlk7mCAj6xXp9UJ4fjI9VUI5rubuGBW5aJ7UnBMY=
-cloud.google.com/go/compute/metadata v0.2.3/go.mod h1:VAV5nSsACxMJvgaAuX6Pk2AawlZn8kiOGuCv6gTkwuA=
+cloud.google.com/go/compute/metadata v0.3.0 h1:Tz+eQXMEqDIKRsmY3cHTL6FVaynIjX2QxYC4trgAKZc=
+cloud.google.com/go/compute/metadata v0.3.0/go.mod h1:zFmK7XCadkQkj6TtorcaGlCW1hT1fIilQDwofLpJ20k=
 cloud.google.com/go/datastore v1.0.0/go.mod h1:LXYbyblFSglQ5pkeyhO+Qmw7ukd3C+pD7TKLgZqpHYE=
 cloud.google.com/go/datastore v1.1.0/go.mod h1:umbIZjpQpHh4hmRpGhH4tLFup+FVzqBi1b3c64qFpCk=
 cloud.google.com/go/pubsub v1.0.1/go.mod h1:R0Gpsv3s54REJCy4fxDixWD93lHJMoZTyQ2kNxGRt3I=
@@ -34,14 +36,14 @@ cloud.google.com/go/storage v1.6.0/go.mod h1:N7U0C8pVQ/+NIKOBQyamJIeKQKkZ+mxpohl
 cloud.google.com/go/storage v1.8.0/go.mod h1:Wv1Oy7z6Yz3DshWRJFhqM/UCfaWIRTdp0RXyy7KQOVs=
 cloud.google.com/go/storage v1.10.0/go.mod h1:FLPqc6j+Ki4BU591ie1oL6qBQGu2Bl/tZ9ullr3+Kg0=
 dmitri.shuralyov.com/gpu/mtl v0.0.0-20190408044501-666a987793e9/go.mod h1:H6x//7gZCb22OMCxBHrMx7a5I7Hp++hsVxbQ4BYO7hU=
-github.com/Azure/azure-sdk-for-go/sdk/azcore v1.10.0 h1:n1DH8TPV4qqPTje2RcUBYwtrTWlabVp4n46+74X2pn4=
-github.com/Azure/azure-sdk-for-go/sdk/azcore v1.10.0/go.mod h1:HDcZnuGbiyppErN6lB+idp4CKhjbc8gwjto6OPpyggM=
-github.com/Azure/azure-sdk-for-go/sdk/azidentity v1.5.1 h1:sO0/P7g68FrryJzljemN+6GTssUXdANk6aJ7T1ZxnsQ=
-github.com/Azure/azure-sdk-for-go/sdk/azidentity v1.5.1/go.mod h1:h8hyGFDsU5HMivxiS2iYFZsgDbU9OnnJ163x5UGVKYo=
-github.com/Azure/azure-sdk-for-go/sdk/internal v1.5.2 h1:LqbJ/WzJUwBf8UiaSzgX7aMclParm9/5Vgp+TY51uBQ=
-github.com/Azure/azure-sdk-for-go/sdk/internal v1.5.2/go.mod h1:yInRyqWXAuaPrgI7p70+lDDgh3mlBohis29jGMISnmc=
-github.com/Azure/azure-sdk-for-go/sdk/resourcemanager/compute/armcompute/v5 v5.6.0 h1:ui3YNbxfW7J3tTFIZMH6LIGRjCngp+J+nIFlnizfNTE=
-github.com/Azure/azure-sdk-for-go/sdk/resourcemanager/compute/armcompute/v5 v5.6.0/go.mod h1:gZmgV+qBqygoznvqo2J9oKZAFziqhLZ2xE/WVUmzkHA=
+github.com/Azure/azure-sdk-for-go/sdk/azcore v1.11.1 h1:E+OJmp2tPvt1W+amx48v1eqbjDYsgN+RzP4q16yV5eM=
+github.com/Azure/azure-sdk-for-go/sdk/azcore v1.11.1/go.mod h1:a6xsAQUZg+VsS3TJ05SRp524Hs4pZ/AeFSr5ENf0Yjo=
+github.com/Azure/azure-sdk-for-go/sdk/azidentity v1.5.2 h1:FDif4R1+UUR+00q6wquyX90K7A8dN+R5E8GEadoP7sU=
+github.com/Azure/azure-sdk-for-go/sdk/azidentity v1.5.2/go.mod h1:aiYBYui4BJ/BJCAIKs92XiPyQfTaBWqvHujDwKb6CBU=
+github.com/Azure/azure-sdk-for-go/sdk/internal v1.6.0 h1:sUFnFjzDUie80h24I7mrKtwCKgLY9L8h5Tp2x9+TWqk=
+github.com/Azure/azure-sdk-for-go/sdk/internal v1.6.0/go.mod h1:52JbnQTp15qg5mRkMBHwp0j0ZFwHJ42Sx3zVV5RE9p0=
+github.com/Azure/azure-sdk-for-go/sdk/resourcemanager/compute/armcompute/v5 v5.7.0 h1:LkHbJbgF3YyvC53aqYGR+wWQDn2Rdp9AQdGndf9QvY4=
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@@ -50,15 +52,15 @@ github.com/Azure/azure-sdk-for-go/sdk/resourcemanager/resources/armresources v1.
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@@ -90,8 +92,8 @@ github.com/asaskevich/govalidator v0.0.0-20230301143203-a9d515a09cc2/go.mod h1:W
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@@ -102,12 +104,12 @@ github.com/beorn7/perks v1.0.1/go.mod h1:G2ZrVWU2WbWT9wwq4/hrbKbnv/1ERSJQ0ibhJ6r
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@@ -118,8 +120,8 @@ github.com/circonus-labs/circonusllhist v0.1.3/go.mod h1:kMXHVDlOchFAehlya5ePtbp
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@@ -141,14 +143,14 @@ github.com/davecgh/go-spew v1.1.2-0.20180830191138-d8f796af33cc/go.mod h1:J7Y8Yc
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@@ -178,8 +180,8 @@ github.com/facette/natsort v0.0.0-20181210072756-2cd4dd1e2dcb/go.mod h1:bH6Xx7IW
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@@ -214,8 +216,8 @@ github.com/go-logr/stdr v1.2.2 h1:hSWxHoqTgW2S2qGc0LTAI563KZ5YKYRhT3MFKZMbjag=
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@@ -224,14 +226,14 @@ github.com/go-openapi/loads v0.21.5 h1:jDzF4dSoHw6ZFADCGltDb2lE4F6De7aWSpe+IcsRz
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@@ -246,8 +248,8 @@ github.com/gogo/protobuf v1.2.0/go.mod h1:r8qH/GZQm5c6nD/R0oafs1akxWv10x8SbQlK7a
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@@ -278,8 +280,6 @@ github.com/golang/protobuf v1.4.0/go.mod h1:jodUvKwWbYaEsadDk5Fwe5c77LiNKVO9IDvq
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@@ -319,8 +319,8 @@ github.com/google/pprof v0.0.0-20200212024743-f11f1df84d12/go.mod h1:ZgVRPoUq/hf
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@@ -332,10 +332,10 @@ github.com/googleapis/enterprise-certificate-proxy v0.3.2 h1:Vie5ybvEvT75RniqhfF
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@@ -343,21 +343,23 @@ github.com/gorilla/mux v1.7.3/go.mod h1:1lud6UwP+6orDFRuTfBEV8e9/aOM/c4fVVCaMa2z
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@@ -367,9 +369,8 @@ github.com/hashicorp/go-cleanhttp v0.5.0/go.mod h1:JpRdi6/HCYpAwUzNwuwqhbovhLtng
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@@ -381,8 +382,8 @@ github.com/hashicorp/go-multierror v1.1.0/go.mod h1:spPvp8C1qA32ftKqdAHm4hHTbPw+
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@@ -408,13 +409,13 @@ github.com/hashicorp/mdns v1.0.4/go.mod h1:mtBihi+LeNXGtG8L9dX59gAEa12BDtBQSp4v/
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@@ -453,8 +454,8 @@ github.com/julienschmidt/httprouter v1.3.0/go.mod h1:JR6WtHb+2LUe8TCKY3cZOxFyyO8
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@@ -471,8 +472,8 @@ github.com/kylelemons/godebug v1.1.0 h1:RPNrshWIDI6G2gRW9EHilWtl7Z6Sb1BR0xunSBf0
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@@ -490,8 +491,8 @@ github.com/mattn/go-isatty v0.0.11/go.mod h1:PhnuNfih5lzO57/f3n+odYbM4JtupLOxQOA
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@@ -499,8 +500,8 @@ github.com/maxatome/go-testdeep v1.12.0/go.mod h1:lPZc/HAcJMP92l7yI6TRz1aZN5URwU
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@@ -515,6 +516,8 @@ github.com/mitchellh/mapstructure v0.0.0-20160808181253-ca63d7c062ee/go.mod h1:F
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@@ -570,8 +573,8 @@ github.com/openzipkin-contrib/zipkin-go-opentracing v0.4.5/go.mod h1:/wsWhb9smxS
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@@ -605,16 +608,16 @@ github.com/prometheus/client_golang v1.3.0/go.mod h1:hJaj2vgQTGQmVCsAACORcieXFeD
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@@ -622,8 +625,8 @@ github.com/prometheus/common v0.9.1/go.mod h1:yhUN8i9wzaXS3w1O07YhxHEBxD+W35wd8b
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@@ -642,13 +645,13 @@ github.com/rcrowley/go-metrics v0.0.0-20181016184325-3113b8401b8a/go.mod h1:bCqn
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@@ -720,30 +723,28 @@ go.opencensus.io v0.22.3/go.mod h1:yxeiOL68Rb0Xd1ddK5vPZ/oVn4vY4Ynel7k9FzqtOIw=
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+go.opentelemetry.io/otel/exporters/otlp/otlptrace/otlptracehttp v1.27.0 h1:QY7/0NeRPKlzusf40ZE4t1VlMKbqSNT7cJRYzWuja0s=
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+go.opentelemetry.io/otel/trace v1.27.0 h1:IqYb813p7cmbHk0a5y6pD5JPakbVfftRXABGt5/Rscw=
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+go.opentelemetry.io/proto/otlp v1.2.0 h1:pVeZGk7nXDC9O2hncA6nHldxEjm6LByfA2aN8IOkz94=
+go.opentelemetry.io/proto/otlp v1.2.0/go.mod h1:gGpR8txAl5M03pDhMC79G6SdqNV26naRm/KDsgaHD8A=
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 go.uber.org/atomic v1.5.0/go.mod h1:sABNBOSYdrvTF6hTgEIbc7YasKWGhgEQZyfxyTvoXHQ=
 go.uber.org/atomic v1.11.0 h1:ZvwS0R+56ePWxUNi+Atn9dWONBPp/AUETXlHW0DxSjE=
@@ -770,9 +771,10 @@ golang.org/x/crypto v0.0.0-20191011191535-87dc89f01550/go.mod h1:yigFU9vqHzYiE8U
 golang.org/x/crypto v0.0.0-20200622213623-75b288015ac9/go.mod h1:LzIPMQfyMNhhGPhUkYOs5KpL4U8rLKemX1yGLhDgUto=
 golang.org/x/crypto v0.0.0-20210921155107-089bfa567519/go.mod h1:GvvjBRRGRdwPK5ydBHafDWAxML/pGHZbMvKqRZ5+Abc=
 golang.org/x/crypto v0.0.0-20220829220503-c86fa9a7ed90/go.mod h1:IxCIyHEi3zRg3s0A5j5BB6A9Jmi73HwBIUl50j+osU4=
-golang.org/x/crypto v0.14.0/go.mod h1:MVFd36DqK4CsrnJYDkBA3VC4m2GkXAM0PvzMCn4JQf4=
-golang.org/x/crypto v0.21.0 h1:X31++rzVUdKhX5sWmSOFZxx8UW/ldWx55cbf08iNAMA=
-golang.org/x/crypto v0.21.0/go.mod h1:0BP7YvVV9gBbVKyeTG0Gyn+gZm94bibOW5BjDEYAOMs=
+golang.org/x/crypto v0.19.0/go.mod h1:Iy9bg/ha4yyC70EfRS8jz+B6ybOBKMaSxLj6P6oBDfU=
+golang.org/x/crypto v0.23.0/go.mod h1:CKFgDieR+mRhux2Lsu27y0fO304Db0wZe70UKqHu0v8=
+golang.org/x/crypto v0.24.0 h1:mnl8DM0o513X8fdIkmyFE/5hTYxbwYOjDS/+rK6qpRI=
+golang.org/x/crypto v0.24.0/go.mod h1:Z1PMYSOR5nyMcyAVAIQSKCDwalqy85Aqn1x3Ws4L5DM=
 golang.org/x/exp v0.0.0-20190121172915-509febef88a4/go.mod h1:CJ0aWSM057203Lf6IL+f9T1iT9GByDxfZKAQTCR3kQA=
 golang.org/x/exp v0.0.0-20190306152737-a1d7652674e8/go.mod h1:CJ0aWSM057203Lf6IL+f9T1iT9GByDxfZKAQTCR3kQA=
 golang.org/x/exp v0.0.0-20190510132918-efd6b22b2522/go.mod h1:ZjyILWgesfNpC6sMxTJOJm9Kp84zZh5NQWvqDGG3Qr8=
@@ -807,8 +809,8 @@ golang.org/x/mod v0.2.0/go.mod h1:s0Qsj1ACt9ePp/hMypM3fl4fZqREWJwdYDEqhRiZZUA=
 golang.org/x/mod v0.3.0/go.mod h1:s0Qsj1ACt9ePp/hMypM3fl4fZqREWJwdYDEqhRiZZUA=
 golang.org/x/mod v0.6.0-dev.0.20220419223038-86c51ed26bb4/go.mod h1:jJ57K6gSWd91VN4djpZkiMVwK6gcyfeH4XE8wZrZaV4=
 golang.org/x/mod v0.8.0/go.mod h1:iBbtSCu2XBx23ZKBPSOrRkjjQPZFPuis4dIYUhu/chs=
-golang.org/x/mod v0.16.0 h1:QX4fJ0Rr5cPQCF7O9lh9Se4pmwfwskqZfq5moyldzic=
-golang.org/x/mod v0.16.0/go.mod h1:hTbmBsO62+eylJbnUtE2MGJUyE7QWk4xUqPFrRgJ+7c=
+golang.org/x/mod v0.18.0 h1:5+9lSbEzPSdWkH32vYPBwEpX8KwDbM52Ud9xBUvNlb0=
+golang.org/x/mod v0.18.0/go.mod h1:hTbmBsO62+eylJbnUtE2MGJUyE7QWk4xUqPFrRgJ+7c=
 golang.org/x/net v0.0.0-20180724234803-3673e40ba225/go.mod h1:mL1N/T3taQHkDXs73rZJwtUhF3w3ftmwwsq0BUmARs4=
 golang.org/x/net v0.0.0-20180826012351-8a410e7b638d/go.mod h1:mL1N/T3taQHkDXs73rZJwtUhF3w3ftmwwsq0BUmARs4=
 golang.org/x/net v0.0.0-20180906233101-161cd47e91fd/go.mod h1:mL1N/T3taQHkDXs73rZJwtUhF3w3ftmwwsq0BUmARs4=
@@ -852,17 +854,18 @@ golang.org/x/net v0.0.0-20211112202133-69e39bad7dc2/go.mod h1:9nx3DQGgdP8bBQD5qx
 golang.org/x/net v0.0.0-20220722155237-a158d28d115b/go.mod h1:XRhObCWvk6IyKnWLug+ECip1KBveYUHfp+8e9klMJ9c=
 golang.org/x/net v0.6.0/go.mod h1:2Tu9+aMcznHK/AK1HMvgo6xiTLG5rD5rZLDS+rp2Bjs=
 golang.org/x/net v0.10.0/go.mod h1:0qNGK6F8kojg2nk9dLZ2mShWaEBan6FAoqfSigmmuDg=
-golang.org/x/net v0.17.0/go.mod h1:NxSsAGuq816PNPmqtQdLE42eU2Fs7NoRIZrHJAlaCOE=
-golang.org/x/net v0.22.0 h1:9sGLhx7iRIHEiX0oAJ3MRZMUCElJgy7Br1nO+AMN3Tc=
-golang.org/x/net v0.22.0/go.mod h1:JKghWKKOSdJwpW2GEx0Ja7fmaKnMsbu+MWVZTokSYmg=
+golang.org/x/net v0.21.0/go.mod h1:bIjVDfnllIU7BJ2DNgfnXvpSvtn8VRwhlsaeUTyUS44=
+golang.org/x/net v0.25.0/go.mod h1:JkAGAh7GEvH74S6FOH42FLoXpXbE/aqXSrIQjXgsiwM=
+golang.org/x/net v0.26.0 h1:soB7SVo0PWrY4vPW/+ay0jKDNScG2X9wFeYlXIvJsOQ=
+golang.org/x/net v0.26.0/go.mod h1:5YKkiSynbBIh3p6iOc/vibscux0x38BZDkn8sCUPxHE=
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 golang.org/x/oauth2 v0.0.0-20190226205417-e64efc72b421/go.mod h1:gOpvHmFTYa4IltrdGE7lF6nIHvwfUNPOp7c8zoXwtLw=
 golang.org/x/oauth2 v0.0.0-20190604053449-0f29369cfe45/go.mod h1:gOpvHmFTYa4IltrdGE7lF6nIHvwfUNPOp7c8zoXwtLw=
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-golang.org/x/oauth2 v0.18.0 h1:09qnuIAgzdx1XplqJvW6CQqMCtGZykZWcXzPMPUusvI=
-golang.org/x/oauth2 v0.18.0/go.mod h1:Wf7knwG0MPoWIMMBgFlEaSUDaKskp0dCfrlJRJXbBi8=
+golang.org/x/oauth2 v0.21.0 h1:tsimM75w1tF/uws5rbeHzIWxEqElMehnc+iW793zsZs=
+golang.org/x/oauth2 v0.21.0/go.mod h1:XYTD2NtWslqkgxebSiOHnXEap4TF09sJSc7H1sXbhtI=
 golang.org/x/sync v0.0.0-20180314180146-1d60e4601c6f/go.mod h1:RxMgew5VJxzue5/jJTE5uejpjVlOe/izrB70Jof72aM=
 golang.org/x/sync v0.0.0-20181108010431-42b317875d0f/go.mod h1:RxMgew5VJxzue5/jJTE5uejpjVlOe/izrB70Jof72aM=
 golang.org/x/sync v0.0.0-20181221193216-37e7f081c4d4/go.mod h1:RxMgew5VJxzue5/jJTE5uejpjVlOe/izrB70Jof72aM=
@@ -876,8 +879,8 @@ golang.org/x/sync v0.0.0-20201207232520-09787c993a3a/go.mod h1:RxMgew5VJxzue5/jJ
 golang.org/x/sync v0.0.0-20210220032951-036812b2e83c/go.mod h1:RxMgew5VJxzue5/jJTE5uejpjVlOe/izrB70Jof72aM=
 golang.org/x/sync v0.0.0-20220722155255-886fb9371eb4/go.mod h1:RxMgew5VJxzue5/jJTE5uejpjVlOe/izrB70Jof72aM=
 golang.org/x/sync v0.1.0/go.mod h1:RxMgew5VJxzue5/jJTE5uejpjVlOe/izrB70Jof72aM=
-golang.org/x/sync v0.6.0 h1:5BMeUDZ7vkXGfEr1x9B4bRcTH4lpkTkpdh0T/J+qjbQ=
-golang.org/x/sync v0.6.0/go.mod h1:Czt+wKu1gCyEFDUtn0jG5QVvpJ6rzVqr5aXyt9drQfk=
+golang.org/x/sync v0.7.0 h1:YsImfSBoP9QPYL0xyKJPq0gcaJdG3rInoqxTWbfQu9M=
+golang.org/x/sync v0.7.0/go.mod h1:Czt+wKu1gCyEFDUtn0jG5QVvpJ6rzVqr5aXyt9drQfk=
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@@ -941,16 +944,18 @@ golang.org/x/sys v0.1.0/go.mod h1:oPkhp1MJrh7nUepCBck5+mAzfO9JrbApNNgaTdGDITg=
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 golang.org/x/sys v0.8.0/go.mod h1:oPkhp1MJrh7nUepCBck5+mAzfO9JrbApNNgaTdGDITg=
-golang.org/x/sys v0.13.0/go.mod h1:oPkhp1MJrh7nUepCBck5+mAzfO9JrbApNNgaTdGDITg=
-golang.org/x/sys v0.18.0 h1:DBdB3niSjOA/O0blCZBqDefyWNYveAYMNF1Wum0DYQ4=
-golang.org/x/sys v0.18.0/go.mod h1:/VUhepiaJMQUp4+oa/7Zr1D23ma6VTLIYjOOTFZPUcA=
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 golang.org/x/term v0.8.0/go.mod h1:xPskH00ivmX89bAKVGSKKtLOWNx2+17Eiy94tnKShWo=
-golang.org/x/term v0.13.0/go.mod h1:LTmsnFJwVN6bCy1rVCoS+qHT1HhALEFxKncY3WNNh4U=
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@@ -958,17 +963,16 @@ golang.org/x/text v0.3.2/go.mod h1:bEr9sfX3Q8Zfm5fL9x+3itogRgK3+ptLWKqgva+5dAk=
 golang.org/x/text v0.3.3/go.mod h1:5Zoc/QRtKVWzQhOtBMvqHzDpF6irO9z98xDceosuGiQ=
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 golang.org/x/text v0.3.7/go.mod h1:u+2+/6zg+i71rQMx5EYifcz6MCKuco9NR6JIITiCfzQ=
-golang.org/x/text v0.3.8/go.mod h1:E6s5w1FMmriuDzIBO73fBruAKo1PCIq6d2Q6DHfQ8WQ=
 golang.org/x/text v0.7.0/go.mod h1:mrYo+phRRbMaCq/xk9113O4dZlRixOauAjOtrjsXDZ8=
 golang.org/x/text v0.9.0/go.mod h1:e1OnstbJyHTd6l/uOt8jFFHp6TRDWZR/bV3emEE/zU8=
-golang.org/x/text v0.13.0/go.mod h1:TvPlkZtksWOMsz7fbANvkp4WM8x/WCo/om8BMLbz+aE=
-golang.org/x/text v0.14.0 h1:ScX5w1eTa3QqT8oi6+ziP7dTV1S2+ALU0bI+0zXKWiQ=
 golang.org/x/text v0.14.0/go.mod h1:18ZOQIKpY8NJVqYksKHtTdi31H5itFRjB5/qKTNYzSU=
+golang.org/x/text v0.15.0/go.mod h1:18ZOQIKpY8NJVqYksKHtTdi31H5itFRjB5/qKTNYzSU=
+golang.org/x/text v0.16.0 h1:a94ExnEXNtEwYLGJSIUxnWoxoRz/ZcCsV63ROupILh4=
+golang.org/x/text v0.16.0/go.mod h1:GhwF1Be+LQoKShO3cGOHzqOgRrGaYc9AvblQOmPVHnI=
 golang.org/x/time v0.0.0-20180412165947-fbb02b2291d2/go.mod h1:tRJNPiyCQ0inRvYxbN9jk5I+vvW/OXSQhTDSoE431IQ=
 golang.org/x/time v0.0.0-20181108054448-85acf8d2951c/go.mod h1:tRJNPiyCQ0inRvYxbN9jk5I+vvW/OXSQhTDSoE431IQ=
 golang.org/x/time v0.0.0-20190308202827-9d24e82272b4/go.mod h1:tRJNPiyCQ0inRvYxbN9jk5I+vvW/OXSQhTDSoE431IQ=
 golang.org/x/time v0.0.0-20191024005414-555d28b269f0/go.mod h1:tRJNPiyCQ0inRvYxbN9jk5I+vvW/OXSQhTDSoE431IQ=
-golang.org/x/time v0.3.0/go.mod h1:tRJNPiyCQ0inRvYxbN9jk5I+vvW/OXSQhTDSoE431IQ=
 golang.org/x/time v0.5.0 h1:o7cqy6amK/52YcAKIPlM3a+Fpj35zvRj2TP+e1xFSfk=
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@@ -1021,8 +1025,8 @@ golang.org/x/tools v0.0.0-20200825202427-b303f430e36d/go.mod h1:njjCfa9FT2d7l9Bc
 golang.org/x/tools v0.0.0-20210106214847-113979e3529a/go.mod h1:emZCQorbCU4vsT4fOWvOPXz4eW1wZW4PmDk9uLelYpA=
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 golang.org/x/tools v0.6.0/go.mod h1:Xwgl3UAJ/d3gWutnCtw505GrjyAbvKui8lOU390QaIU=
-golang.org/x/tools v0.19.0 h1:tfGCXNR1OsFG+sVdLAitlpjAvD/I6dHDKnYrpEZUHkw=
-golang.org/x/tools v0.19.0/go.mod h1:qoJWxmGSIBmAeriMx19ogtrEPrGtDbPK634QFIcLAhc=
+golang.org/x/tools v0.22.0 h1:gqSGLZqv+AI9lIQzniJ0nZDRG5GBPsSi+DRNHWNz6yA=
+golang.org/x/tools v0.22.0/go.mod h1:aCwcsjqvq7Yqt6TNyX7QMU2enbQ/Gt0bo6krSeEri+c=
 golang.org/x/xerrors v0.0.0-20190717185122-a985d3407aa7/go.mod h1:I/5z698sn9Ka8TeJc9MKroUUfqBBauWjQqLJ2OPfmY0=
 golang.org/x/xerrors v0.0.0-20191011141410-1b5146add898/go.mod h1:I/5z698sn9Ka8TeJc9MKroUUfqBBauWjQqLJ2OPfmY0=
 golang.org/x/xerrors v0.0.0-20191204190536-9bdfabe68543/go.mod h1:I/5z698sn9Ka8TeJc9MKroUUfqBBauWjQqLJ2OPfmY0=
@@ -1042,8 +1046,8 @@ google.golang.org/api v0.20.0/go.mod h1:BwFmGc8tA3vsd7r/7kR8DY7iEEGSU04BFxCo5jP/
 google.golang.org/api v0.22.0/go.mod h1:BwFmGc8tA3vsd7r/7kR8DY7iEEGSU04BFxCo5jP/sfE=
 google.golang.org/api v0.24.0/go.mod h1:lIXQywCXRcnZPGlsd8NbLnOjtAoL6em04bJ9+z0MncE=
 google.golang.org/api v0.28.0/go.mod h1:lIXQywCXRcnZPGlsd8NbLnOjtAoL6em04bJ9+z0MncE=
-google.golang.org/api v0.168.0 h1:MBRe+Ki4mMN93jhDDbpuRLjRddooArz4FeSObvUMmjY=
-google.golang.org/api v0.168.0/go.mod h1:gpNOiMA2tZ4mf5R9Iwf4rK/Dcz0fbdIgWYWVoxmsyLg=
+google.golang.org/api v0.183.0 h1:PNMeRDwo1pJdgNcFQ9GstuLe/noWKIc89pRWRLMvLwE=
+google.golang.org/api v0.183.0/go.mod h1:q43adC5/pHoSZTx5h2mSmdF7NcyfW9JuDyIOJAgS9ZQ=
 google.golang.org/appengine v1.1.0/go.mod h1:EbEs0AVv82hx2wNQdGPgUI5lhzA/G0D9YwlJXL52JkM=
 google.golang.org/appengine v1.2.0/go.mod h1:xpcJRLb0r/rnEns0DIKYYv+WjYCduHsrkT7/EB5XEv4=
 google.golang.org/appengine v1.4.0/go.mod h1:xpcJRLb0r/rnEns0DIKYYv+WjYCduHsrkT7/EB5XEv4=
@@ -1051,8 +1055,6 @@ google.golang.org/appengine v1.5.0/go.mod h1:xpcJRLb0r/rnEns0DIKYYv+WjYCduHsrkT7
 google.golang.org/appengine v1.6.1/go.mod h1:i06prIuMbXzDqacNJfV5OdTW448YApPu5ww/cMBSeb0=
 google.golang.org/appengine v1.6.5/go.mod h1:8WjMMxjGQR8xUklV/ARdw2HLXBOI7O7uCIDZVag1xfc=
 google.golang.org/appengine v1.6.6/go.mod h1:8WjMMxjGQR8xUklV/ARdw2HLXBOI7O7uCIDZVag1xfc=
-google.golang.org/appengine v1.6.8 h1:IhEN5q69dyKagZPYMSdIjS2HqprW324FRQZJcGqPAsM=
-google.golang.org/appengine v1.6.8/go.mod h1:1jJ3jBArFh5pcgW8gCtRJnepW8FzD1V44FJffLiz/Ds=
 google.golang.org/genproto v0.0.0-20180817151627-c66870c02cf8/go.mod h1:JiN7NxoALGmiZfu7CAH4rXhgtRTLTxftemlI0sWmxmc=
 google.golang.org/genproto v0.0.0-20190307195333-5fe7a883aa19/go.mod h1:VzzqZJRnGkLBvHegQrXjBqPurQTc5/KpmUdxsrq26oE=
 google.golang.org/genproto v0.0.0-20190418145605-e7d98fc518a7/go.mod h1:VzzqZJRnGkLBvHegQrXjBqPurQTc5/KpmUdxsrq26oE=
@@ -1082,10 +1084,10 @@ google.golang.org/genproto v0.0.0-20200515170657-fc4c6c6a6587/go.mod h1:YsZOwe1m
 google.golang.org/genproto v0.0.0-20200526211855-cb27e3aa2013/go.mod h1:NbSheEEYHJ7i3ixzK3sjbqSGDJWnxyFXZblF3eUsNvo=
 google.golang.org/genproto v0.0.0-20200618031413-b414f8b61790/go.mod h1:jDfRM7FcilCzHH/e9qn6dsT145K34l5v+OpcnNgKAAA=
 google.golang.org/genproto v0.0.0-20200825200019-8632dd797987/go.mod h1:FWY/as6DDZQgahTzZj3fqbO1CbirC29ZNUFHwi0/+no=
-google.golang.org/genproto/googleapis/api v0.0.0-20240304212257-790db918fca8 h1:8eadJkXbwDEMNwcB5O0s5Y5eCfyuCLdvaiOIaGTrWmQ=
-google.golang.org/genproto/googleapis/api v0.0.0-20240304212257-790db918fca8/go.mod h1:O1cOfN1Cy6QEYr7VxtjOyP5AdAuR0aJ/MYZaaof623Y=
-google.golang.org/genproto/googleapis/rpc v0.0.0-20240304161311-37d4d3c04a78 h1:Xs9lu+tLXxLIfuci70nG4cpwaRC+mRQPUL7LoIeDJC4=
-google.golang.org/genproto/googleapis/rpc v0.0.0-20240304161311-37d4d3c04a78/go.mod h1:UCOku4NytXMJuLQE5VuqA5lX3PcHCBo8pxNyvkf4xBs=
+google.golang.org/genproto/googleapis/api v0.0.0-20240528184218-531527333157 h1:7whR9kGa5LUwFtpLm2ArCEejtnxlGeLbAyjFY8sGNFw=
+google.golang.org/genproto/googleapis/api v0.0.0-20240528184218-531527333157/go.mod h1:99sLkeliLXfdj2J75X3Ho+rrVCaJze0uwN7zDDkjPVU=
+google.golang.org/genproto/googleapis/rpc v0.0.0-20240528184218-531527333157 h1:Zy9XzmMEflZ/MAaA7vNcoebnRAld7FsPW1EeBB7V0m8=
+google.golang.org/genproto/googleapis/rpc v0.0.0-20240528184218-531527333157/go.mod h1:EfXuqaE1J41VCDicxHzUDm+8rk+7ZdXzHV0IhO/I6s0=
 google.golang.org/grpc v1.17.0/go.mod h1:6QZJwpn2B+Zp71q/5VxRsJ6NXXVCE5NRUHRo+f3cWCs=
 google.golang.org/grpc v1.19.0/go.mod h1:mqu4LbDTu4XGKhr4mRzUsmM4RtVoemTSY81AxZiDr8c=
 google.golang.org/grpc v1.20.0/go.mod h1:chYK+tFQF0nDUGJgXMSgLCQk3phJEuONr2DCgLDdAQM=
@@ -1104,8 +1106,8 @@ google.golang.org/grpc v1.29.1/go.mod h1:itym6AZVZYACWQqET3MqgPpjcuV5QH3BxFS3Iji
 google.golang.org/grpc v1.31.0/go.mod h1:N36X2cJ7JwdamYAgDz+s+rVMFjt3numwzf/HckM8pak=
 google.golang.org/grpc v1.33.1/go.mod h1:fr5YgcSWrqhRRxogOsw7RzIpsmvOZ6IcH4kBYTpR3n0=
 google.golang.org/grpc v1.33.2/go.mod h1:JMHMWHQWaTccqQQlmk3MJZS+GWXOdAesneDmEnv2fbc=
-google.golang.org/grpc v1.62.1 h1:B4n+nfKzOICUXMgyrNd19h/I9oH0L1pizfk1d4zSgTk=
-google.golang.org/grpc v1.62.1/go.mod h1:IWTG0VlJLCh1SkC58F7np9ka9mx/WNkjl4PGJaiq+QE=
+google.golang.org/grpc v1.64.0 h1:KH3VH9y/MgNQg1dE7b3XfVK0GsPSIzJwdF617gUSbvY=
+google.golang.org/grpc v1.64.0/go.mod h1:oxjF8E3FBnjp+/gVFYdWacaLDx9na1aqy9oovLpxQYg=
 google.golang.org/protobuf v0.0.0-20200109180630-ec00e32a8dfd/go.mod h1:DFci5gLYBciE7Vtevhsrf46CRTquxDuWsQurQQe4oz8=
 google.golang.org/protobuf v0.0.0-20200221191635-4d8936d0db64/go.mod h1:kwYJMbMJ01Woi6D6+Kah6886xMZcty6N08ah7+eCXa0=
 google.golang.org/protobuf v0.0.0-20200228230310-ab0ca4ff8a60/go.mod h1:cfTl7dwQJ+fmap5saPgwCLgHXTUD7jkjRqWcaiX5VyM=
@@ -1117,9 +1119,8 @@ google.golang.org/protobuf v1.23.1-0.20200526195155-81db48ad09cc/go.mod h1:EGpAD
 google.golang.org/protobuf v1.24.0/go.mod h1:r/3tXBNzIEhYS9I1OUVjXDlt8tc493IdKGjtUeSXeh4=
 google.golang.org/protobuf v1.25.0/go.mod h1:9JNX74DMeImyA3h4bdi1ymwjUzf21/xIlbajtzgsN7c=
 google.golang.org/protobuf v1.26.0-rc.1/go.mod h1:jlhhOSvTdKEhbULTjvd4ARK9grFBp09yW+WbY/TyQbw=
-google.golang.org/protobuf v1.26.0/go.mod h1:9q0QmTI4eRPtz6boOQmLYwt+qCgq0jsYwAQnmE0givc=
-google.golang.org/protobuf v1.33.0 h1:uNO2rsAINq/JlFpSdYEKIZ0uKD/R9cpdv0T+yoGwGmI=
-google.golang.org/protobuf v1.33.0/go.mod h1:c6P6GXX6sHbq/GpV6MGZEdwhWPcYBgnhAHhKbcUYpos=
+google.golang.org/protobuf v1.34.1 h1:9ddQBjfCyZPOHPUiPxpYESBLc+T8P3E+Vo4IbKZgFWg=
+google.golang.org/protobuf v1.34.1/go.mod h1:c6P6GXX6sHbq/GpV6MGZEdwhWPcYBgnhAHhKbcUYpos=
 gopkg.in/alecthomas/kingpin.v2 v2.2.6/go.mod h1:FMv+mEhP44yOT+4EoQTLFTRgOQ1FBLkstjWtayDeSgw=
 gopkg.in/check.v1 v0.0.0-20161208181325-20d25e280405/go.mod h1:Co6ibVJAznAaIkqp8huTwlJQCZ016jof/cbN4VW5Yz0=
 gopkg.in/check.v1 v1.0.0-20180628173108-788fd7840127/go.mod h1:Co6ibVJAznAaIkqp8huTwlJQCZ016jof/cbN4VW5Yz0=
@@ -1167,8 +1168,8 @@ k8s.io/apimachinery v0.29.3 h1:2tbx+5L7RNvqJjn7RIuIKu9XTsIZ9Z5wX2G22XAa5EU=
 k8s.io/apimachinery v0.29.3/go.mod h1:hx/S4V2PNW4OMg3WizRrHutyB5la0iCUbZym+W0EQIU=
 k8s.io/client-go v0.29.3 h1:R/zaZbEAxqComZ9FHeQwOh3Y1ZUs7FaHKZdQtIc2WZg=
 k8s.io/client-go v0.29.3/go.mod h1:tkDisCvgPfiRpxGnOORfkljmS+UrW+WtXAy2fTvXJB0=
-k8s.io/kube-openapi v0.0.0-20231010175941-2dd684a91f00 h1:aVUu9fTY98ivBPKR9Y5w/AuzbMm96cd3YHRTU83I780=
-k8s.io/kube-openapi v0.0.0-20231010175941-2dd684a91f00/go.mod h1:AsvuZPBlUDVuCdzJ87iajxtXuR9oktsTctW/R9wwouA=
+k8s.io/kube-openapi v0.0.0-20240228011516-70dd3763d340 h1:BZqlfIlq5YbRMFko6/PM7FjZpUb45WallggurYhKGag=
+k8s.io/kube-openapi v0.0.0-20240228011516-70dd3763d340/go.mod h1:yD4MZYeKMBwQKVht279WycxKyM84kkAx2DPrTXaeb98=
 k8s.io/utils v0.0.0-20230726121419-3b25d923346b h1:sgn3ZU783SCgtaSJjpcVVlRqd6GSnlTLKgpAAttJvpI=
 k8s.io/utils v0.0.0-20230726121419-3b25d923346b/go.mod h1:OLgZIPagt7ERELqWJFomSt595RzquPNLL48iOWgYOg0=
 rsc.io/binaryregexp v0.2.0/go.mod h1:qTv7/COck+e2FymRvadv62gMdZztPaShugOCi3I+8D8=
diff --git a/model/histogram/float_histogram.go b/model/histogram/float_histogram.go
index 19a92b3d5a..2a37ea66d4 100644
--- a/model/histogram/float_histogram.go
+++ b/model/histogram/float_histogram.go
@@ -30,11 +30,12 @@ import (
 type FloatHistogram struct {
 	// Counter reset information.
 	CounterResetHint CounterResetHint
-	// Currently valid schema numbers are -4 <= n <= 8.  They are all for
-	// base-2 bucket schemas, where 1 is a bucket boundary in each case, and
-	// then each power of two is divided into 2^n logarithmic buckets.  Or
-	// in other words, each bucket boundary is the previous boundary times
-	// 2^(2^-n).
+	// Currently valid schema numbers are -4 <= n <= 8 for exponential buckets.
+	// They are all for base-2 bucket schemas, where 1 is a bucket boundary in
+	// each case, and then each power of two is divided into 2^n logarithmic buckets.
+	// Or in other words, each bucket boundary is the previous boundary times
+	// 2^(2^-n). Another valid schema number is -53 for custom buckets, defined by
+	// the CustomValues field.
 	Schema int32
 	// Width of the zero bucket.
 	ZeroThreshold float64
@@ -49,6 +50,16 @@ type FloatHistogram struct {
 	// Observation counts in buckets. Each represents an absolute count and
 	// must be zero or positive.
 	PositiveBuckets, NegativeBuckets []float64
+	// Holds the custom (usually upper) bounds for bucket definitions, otherwise nil.
+	// This slice is interned, to be treated as immutable and copied by reference.
+	// These numbers should be strictly increasing. This field is only used when the
+	// schema is for custom buckets, and the ZeroThreshold, ZeroCount, NegativeSpans
+	// and NegativeBuckets fields are not used in that case.
+	CustomValues []float64
+}
+
+func (h *FloatHistogram) UsesCustomBuckets() bool {
+	return IsCustomBucketsSchema(h.Schema)
 }
 
 // Copy returns a deep copy of the Histogram.
@@ -56,28 +67,37 @@ func (h *FloatHistogram) Copy() *FloatHistogram {
 	c := FloatHistogram{
 		CounterResetHint: h.CounterResetHint,
 		Schema:           h.Schema,
-		ZeroThreshold:    h.ZeroThreshold,
-		ZeroCount:        h.ZeroCount,
 		Count:            h.Count,
 		Sum:              h.Sum,
 	}
 
+	if h.UsesCustomBuckets() {
+		if len(h.CustomValues) != 0 {
+			c.CustomValues = make([]float64, len(h.CustomValues))
+			copy(c.CustomValues, h.CustomValues)
+		}
+	} else {
+		c.ZeroThreshold = h.ZeroThreshold
+		c.ZeroCount = h.ZeroCount
+
+		if len(h.NegativeSpans) != 0 {
+			c.NegativeSpans = make([]Span, len(h.NegativeSpans))
+			copy(c.NegativeSpans, h.NegativeSpans)
+		}
+		if len(h.NegativeBuckets) != 0 {
+			c.NegativeBuckets = make([]float64, len(h.NegativeBuckets))
+			copy(c.NegativeBuckets, h.NegativeBuckets)
+		}
+	}
+
 	if len(h.PositiveSpans) != 0 {
 		c.PositiveSpans = make([]Span, len(h.PositiveSpans))
 		copy(c.PositiveSpans, h.PositiveSpans)
 	}
-	if len(h.NegativeSpans) != 0 {
-		c.NegativeSpans = make([]Span, len(h.NegativeSpans))
-		copy(c.NegativeSpans, h.NegativeSpans)
-	}
 	if len(h.PositiveBuckets) != 0 {
 		c.PositiveBuckets = make([]float64, len(h.PositiveBuckets))
 		copy(c.PositiveBuckets, h.PositiveBuckets)
 	}
-	if len(h.NegativeBuckets) != 0 {
-		c.NegativeBuckets = make([]float64, len(h.NegativeBuckets))
-		copy(c.NegativeBuckets, h.NegativeBuckets)
-	}
 
 	return &c
 }
@@ -87,32 +107,53 @@ func (h *FloatHistogram) Copy() *FloatHistogram {
 func (h *FloatHistogram) CopyTo(to *FloatHistogram) {
 	to.CounterResetHint = h.CounterResetHint
 	to.Schema = h.Schema
-	to.ZeroThreshold = h.ZeroThreshold
-	to.ZeroCount = h.ZeroCount
 	to.Count = h.Count
 	to.Sum = h.Sum
 
+	if h.UsesCustomBuckets() {
+		to.ZeroThreshold = 0
+		to.ZeroCount = 0
+
+		to.NegativeSpans = clearIfNotNil(to.NegativeSpans)
+		to.NegativeBuckets = clearIfNotNil(to.NegativeBuckets)
+
+		to.CustomValues = resize(to.CustomValues, len(h.CustomValues))
+		copy(to.CustomValues, h.CustomValues)
+	} else {
+		to.ZeroThreshold = h.ZeroThreshold
+		to.ZeroCount = h.ZeroCount
+
+		to.NegativeSpans = resize(to.NegativeSpans, len(h.NegativeSpans))
+		copy(to.NegativeSpans, h.NegativeSpans)
+
+		to.NegativeBuckets = resize(to.NegativeBuckets, len(h.NegativeBuckets))
+		copy(to.NegativeBuckets, h.NegativeBuckets)
+
+		to.CustomValues = clearIfNotNil(to.CustomValues)
+	}
+
 	to.PositiveSpans = resize(to.PositiveSpans, len(h.PositiveSpans))
 	copy(to.PositiveSpans, h.PositiveSpans)
 
-	to.NegativeSpans = resize(to.NegativeSpans, len(h.NegativeSpans))
-	copy(to.NegativeSpans, h.NegativeSpans)
-
 	to.PositiveBuckets = resize(to.PositiveBuckets, len(h.PositiveBuckets))
 	copy(to.PositiveBuckets, h.PositiveBuckets)
-
-	to.NegativeBuckets = resize(to.NegativeBuckets, len(h.NegativeBuckets))
-	copy(to.NegativeBuckets, h.NegativeBuckets)
 }
 
 // CopyToSchema works like Copy, but the returned deep copy has the provided
 // target schema, which must be ≤ the original schema (i.e. it must have a lower
-// resolution).
+// resolution). This method panics if a custom buckets schema is used in the
+// receiving FloatHistogram or as the provided targetSchema.
 func (h *FloatHistogram) CopyToSchema(targetSchema int32) *FloatHistogram {
 	if targetSchema == h.Schema {
 		// Fast path.
 		return h.Copy()
 	}
+	if h.UsesCustomBuckets() {
+		panic(fmt.Errorf("cannot reduce resolution to %d when there are custom buckets", targetSchema))
+	}
+	if IsCustomBucketsSchema(targetSchema) {
+		panic("cannot reduce resolution to custom buckets schema")
+	}
 	if targetSchema > h.Schema {
 		panic(fmt.Errorf("cannot copy from schema %d to %d", h.Schema, targetSchema))
 	}
@@ -185,6 +226,9 @@ func (h *FloatHistogram) TestExpression() string {
 	if m.ZeroThreshold != 0 {
 		res = append(res, fmt.Sprintf("z_bucket_w:%g", m.ZeroThreshold))
 	}
+	if m.UsesCustomBuckets() {
+		res = append(res, fmt.Sprintf("custom_values:%g", m.CustomValues))
+	}
 
 	addBuckets := func(kind, bucketsKey, offsetKey string, buckets []float64, spans []Span) []string {
 		if len(spans) > 1 {
@@ -210,14 +254,18 @@ func (h *FloatHistogram) TestExpression() string {
 	return "{{" + strings.Join(res, " ") + "}}"
 }
 
-// ZeroBucket returns the zero bucket.
+// ZeroBucket returns the zero bucket. This method panics if the schema is for custom buckets.
 func (h *FloatHistogram) ZeroBucket() Bucket[float64] {
+	if h.UsesCustomBuckets() {
+		panic("histograms with custom buckets have no zero bucket")
+	}
 	return Bucket[float64]{
 		Lower:          -h.ZeroThreshold,
 		Upper:          h.ZeroThreshold,
 		LowerInclusive: true,
 		UpperInclusive: true,
 		Count:          h.ZeroCount,
+		// Index is irrelevant for the zero bucket.
 	}
 }
 
@@ -263,9 +311,18 @@ func (h *FloatHistogram) Div(scalar float64) *FloatHistogram {
 //
 // The method reconciles differences in the zero threshold and in the schema, and
 // changes them if needed. The other histogram will not be modified in any case.
+// Adding is currently only supported between 2 exponential histograms, or between
+// 2 custom buckets histograms with the exact same custom bounds.
 //
 // This method returns a pointer to the receiving histogram for convenience.
-func (h *FloatHistogram) Add(other *FloatHistogram) *FloatHistogram {
+func (h *FloatHistogram) Add(other *FloatHistogram) (*FloatHistogram, error) {
+	if h.UsesCustomBuckets() != other.UsesCustomBuckets() {
+		return nil, ErrHistogramsIncompatibleSchema
+	}
+	if h.UsesCustomBuckets() && !FloatBucketsMatch(h.CustomValues, other.CustomValues) {
+		return nil, ErrHistogramsIncompatibleBounds
+	}
+
 	switch {
 	case other.CounterResetHint == h.CounterResetHint:
 		// Adding apples to apples, all good. No need to change anything.
@@ -290,19 +347,28 @@ func (h *FloatHistogram) Add(other *FloatHistogram) *FloatHistogram {
 		// TODO(trevorwhitney): Actually issue the warning as soon as the plumbing for it is in place
 	}
 
-	otherZeroCount := h.reconcileZeroBuckets(other)
-	h.ZeroCount += otherZeroCount
+	if !h.UsesCustomBuckets() {
+		otherZeroCount := h.reconcileZeroBuckets(other)
+		h.ZeroCount += otherZeroCount
+	}
 	h.Count += other.Count
 	h.Sum += other.Sum
 
 	var (
-		hPositiveSpans   = h.PositiveSpans
-		hPositiveBuckets = h.PositiveBuckets
-		hNegativeSpans   = h.NegativeSpans
-		hNegativeBuckets = h.NegativeBuckets
-
+		hPositiveSpans       = h.PositiveSpans
+		hPositiveBuckets     = h.PositiveBuckets
 		otherPositiveSpans   = other.PositiveSpans
 		otherPositiveBuckets = other.PositiveBuckets
+	)
+
+	if h.UsesCustomBuckets() {
+		h.PositiveSpans, h.PositiveBuckets = addBuckets(h.Schema, h.ZeroThreshold, false, hPositiveSpans, hPositiveBuckets, otherPositiveSpans, otherPositiveBuckets)
+		return h, nil
+	}
+
+	var (
+		hNegativeSpans       = h.NegativeSpans
+		hNegativeBuckets     = h.NegativeBuckets
 		otherNegativeSpans   = other.NegativeSpans
 		otherNegativeBuckets = other.NegativeBuckets
 	)
@@ -321,24 +387,40 @@ func (h *FloatHistogram) Add(other *FloatHistogram) *FloatHistogram {
 	h.PositiveSpans, h.PositiveBuckets = addBuckets(h.Schema, h.ZeroThreshold, false, hPositiveSpans, hPositiveBuckets, otherPositiveSpans, otherPositiveBuckets)
 	h.NegativeSpans, h.NegativeBuckets = addBuckets(h.Schema, h.ZeroThreshold, false, hNegativeSpans, hNegativeBuckets, otherNegativeSpans, otherNegativeBuckets)
 
-	return h
+	return h, nil
 }
 
 // Sub works like Add but subtracts the other histogram.
-func (h *FloatHistogram) Sub(other *FloatHistogram) *FloatHistogram {
-	otherZeroCount := h.reconcileZeroBuckets(other)
-	h.ZeroCount -= otherZeroCount
+func (h *FloatHistogram) Sub(other *FloatHistogram) (*FloatHistogram, error) {
+	if h.UsesCustomBuckets() != other.UsesCustomBuckets() {
+		return nil, ErrHistogramsIncompatibleSchema
+	}
+	if h.UsesCustomBuckets() && !FloatBucketsMatch(h.CustomValues, other.CustomValues) {
+		return nil, ErrHistogramsIncompatibleBounds
+	}
+
+	if !h.UsesCustomBuckets() {
+		otherZeroCount := h.reconcileZeroBuckets(other)
+		h.ZeroCount -= otherZeroCount
+	}
 	h.Count -= other.Count
 	h.Sum -= other.Sum
 
 	var (
-		hPositiveSpans   = h.PositiveSpans
-		hPositiveBuckets = h.PositiveBuckets
-		hNegativeSpans   = h.NegativeSpans
-		hNegativeBuckets = h.NegativeBuckets
-
+		hPositiveSpans       = h.PositiveSpans
+		hPositiveBuckets     = h.PositiveBuckets
 		otherPositiveSpans   = other.PositiveSpans
 		otherPositiveBuckets = other.PositiveBuckets
+	)
+
+	if h.UsesCustomBuckets() {
+		h.PositiveSpans, h.PositiveBuckets = addBuckets(h.Schema, h.ZeroThreshold, true, hPositiveSpans, hPositiveBuckets, otherPositiveSpans, otherPositiveBuckets)
+		return h, nil
+	}
+
+	var (
+		hNegativeSpans       = h.NegativeSpans
+		hNegativeBuckets     = h.NegativeBuckets
 		otherNegativeSpans   = other.NegativeSpans
 		otherNegativeBuckets = other.NegativeBuckets
 	)
@@ -356,7 +438,7 @@ func (h *FloatHistogram) Sub(other *FloatHistogram) *FloatHistogram {
 	h.PositiveSpans, h.PositiveBuckets = addBuckets(h.Schema, h.ZeroThreshold, true, hPositiveSpans, hPositiveBuckets, otherPositiveSpans, otherPositiveBuckets)
 	h.NegativeSpans, h.NegativeBuckets = addBuckets(h.Schema, h.ZeroThreshold, true, hNegativeSpans, hNegativeBuckets, otherNegativeSpans, otherNegativeBuckets)
 
-	return h
+	return h, nil
 }
 
 // Equals returns true if the given float histogram matches exactly.
@@ -365,29 +447,42 @@ func (h *FloatHistogram) Sub(other *FloatHistogram) *FloatHistogram {
 // but they must represent the same bucket layout to match.
 // Sum, Count, ZeroCount and bucket values are compared based on their bit patterns
 // because this method is about data equality rather than mathematical equality.
+// We ignore fields that are not used based on the exponential / custom buckets schema,
+// but check fields where differences may cause unintended behaviour even if they are not
+// supposed to be used according to the schema.
 func (h *FloatHistogram) Equals(h2 *FloatHistogram) bool {
 	if h2 == nil {
 		return false
 	}
 
-	if h.Schema != h2.Schema || h.ZeroThreshold != h2.ZeroThreshold ||
-		math.Float64bits(h.ZeroCount) != math.Float64bits(h2.ZeroCount) ||
+	if h.Schema != h2.Schema ||
 		math.Float64bits(h.Count) != math.Float64bits(h2.Count) ||
 		math.Float64bits(h.Sum) != math.Float64bits(h2.Sum) {
 		return false
 	}
 
+	if h.UsesCustomBuckets() {
+		if !FloatBucketsMatch(h.CustomValues, h2.CustomValues) {
+			return false
+		}
+	}
+
+	if h.ZeroThreshold != h2.ZeroThreshold ||
+		math.Float64bits(h.ZeroCount) != math.Float64bits(h2.ZeroCount) {
+		return false
+	}
+
+	if !spansMatch(h.NegativeSpans, h2.NegativeSpans) {
+		return false
+	}
+	if !FloatBucketsMatch(h.NegativeBuckets, h2.NegativeBuckets) {
+		return false
+	}
+
 	if !spansMatch(h.PositiveSpans, h2.PositiveSpans) {
 		return false
 	}
-	if !spansMatch(h.NegativeSpans, h2.NegativeSpans) {
-		return false
-	}
-
-	if !floatBucketsMatch(h.PositiveBuckets, h2.PositiveBuckets) {
-		return false
-	}
-	if !floatBucketsMatch(h.NegativeBuckets, h2.NegativeBuckets) {
+	if !FloatBucketsMatch(h.PositiveBuckets, h2.PositiveBuckets) {
 		return false
 	}
 
@@ -403,6 +498,7 @@ func (h *FloatHistogram) Size() int {
 	negSpanSize := len(h.NegativeSpans) * 8     // 8 bytes (int32 + uint32).
 	posBucketSize := len(h.PositiveBuckets) * 8 // 8 bytes (float64).
 	negBucketSize := len(h.NegativeBuckets) * 8 // 8 bytes (float64).
+	customBoundSize := len(h.CustomValues) * 8  // 8 bytes (float64).
 
 	// Total size of the struct.
 
@@ -417,9 +513,10 @@ func (h *FloatHistogram) Size() int {
 	// fh.NegativeSpans is 24 bytes.
 	// fh.PositiveBuckets is 24 bytes.
 	// fh.NegativeBuckets is 24 bytes.
-	structSize := 144
+	// fh.CustomValues is 24 bytes.
+	structSize := 168
 
-	return structSize + posSpanSize + negSpanSize + posBucketSize + negBucketSize
+	return structSize + posSpanSize + negSpanSize + posBucketSize + negBucketSize + customBoundSize
 }
 
 // Compact eliminates empty buckets at the beginning and end of each span, then
@@ -504,6 +601,12 @@ func (h *FloatHistogram) DetectReset(previous *FloatHistogram) bool {
 	if h.Count < previous.Count {
 		return true
 	}
+	if h.UsesCustomBuckets() != previous.UsesCustomBuckets() || (h.UsesCustomBuckets() && !FloatBucketsMatch(h.CustomValues, previous.CustomValues)) {
+		// Mark that something has changed or that the application has been restarted. However, this does
+		// not matter so much since the change in schema will be handled directly in the chunks and PromQL
+		// functions.
+		return true
+	}
 	if h.Schema > previous.Schema {
 		return true
 	}
@@ -609,7 +712,7 @@ func (h *FloatHistogram) NegativeBucketIterator() BucketIterator[float64] {
 // positive buckets in descending order (starting at the highest bucket and
 // going down towards the zero bucket).
 func (h *FloatHistogram) PositiveReverseBucketIterator() BucketIterator[float64] {
-	it := newReverseFloatBucketIterator(h.PositiveSpans, h.PositiveBuckets, h.Schema, true)
+	it := newReverseFloatBucketIterator(h.PositiveSpans, h.PositiveBuckets, h.Schema, true, h.CustomValues)
 	return &it
 }
 
@@ -617,7 +720,7 @@ func (h *FloatHistogram) PositiveReverseBucketIterator() BucketIterator[float64]
 // negative buckets in ascending order (starting at the lowest bucket and going
 // up towards the zero bucket).
 func (h *FloatHistogram) NegativeReverseBucketIterator() BucketIterator[float64] {
-	it := newReverseFloatBucketIterator(h.NegativeSpans, h.NegativeBuckets, h.Schema, false)
+	it := newReverseFloatBucketIterator(h.NegativeSpans, h.NegativeBuckets, h.Schema, false, nil)
 	return &it
 }
 
@@ -629,7 +732,7 @@ func (h *FloatHistogram) NegativeReverseBucketIterator() BucketIterator[float64]
 func (h *FloatHistogram) AllBucketIterator() BucketIterator[float64] {
 	return &allFloatBucketIterator{
 		h:         h,
-		leftIter:  newReverseFloatBucketIterator(h.NegativeSpans, h.NegativeBuckets, h.Schema, false),
+		leftIter:  newReverseFloatBucketIterator(h.NegativeSpans, h.NegativeBuckets, h.Schema, false, nil),
 		rightIter: h.floatBucketIterator(true, 0, h.Schema),
 		state:     -1,
 	}
@@ -643,30 +746,52 @@ func (h *FloatHistogram) AllBucketIterator() BucketIterator[float64] {
 func (h *FloatHistogram) AllReverseBucketIterator() BucketIterator[float64] {
 	return &allFloatBucketIterator{
 		h:         h,
-		leftIter:  newReverseFloatBucketIterator(h.PositiveSpans, h.PositiveBuckets, h.Schema, true),
+		leftIter:  newReverseFloatBucketIterator(h.PositiveSpans, h.PositiveBuckets, h.Schema, true, h.CustomValues),
 		rightIter: h.floatBucketIterator(false, 0, h.Schema),
 		state:     -1,
 	}
 }
 
 // Validate validates consistency between span and bucket slices. Also, buckets are checked
-// against negative values.
+// against negative values. We check to make sure there are no unexpected fields or field values
+// based on the exponential / custom buckets schema.
 // We do not check for h.Count being at least as large as the sum of the
 // counts in the buckets because floating point precision issues can
 // create false positives here.
 func (h *FloatHistogram) Validate() error {
-	if err := checkHistogramSpans(h.NegativeSpans, len(h.NegativeBuckets)); err != nil {
-		return fmt.Errorf("negative side: %w", err)
-	}
-	if err := checkHistogramSpans(h.PositiveSpans, len(h.PositiveBuckets)); err != nil {
-		return fmt.Errorf("positive side: %w", err)
-	}
 	var nCount, pCount float64
-	err := checkHistogramBuckets(h.NegativeBuckets, &nCount, false)
-	if err != nil {
-		return fmt.Errorf("negative side: %w", err)
+	if h.UsesCustomBuckets() {
+		if err := checkHistogramCustomBounds(h.CustomValues, h.PositiveSpans, len(h.PositiveBuckets)); err != nil {
+			return fmt.Errorf("custom buckets: %w", err)
+		}
+		if h.ZeroCount != 0 {
+			return fmt.Errorf("custom buckets: must have zero count of 0")
+		}
+		if h.ZeroThreshold != 0 {
+			return fmt.Errorf("custom buckets: must have zero threshold of 0")
+		}
+		if len(h.NegativeSpans) > 0 {
+			return fmt.Errorf("custom buckets: must not have negative spans")
+		}
+		if len(h.NegativeBuckets) > 0 {
+			return fmt.Errorf("custom buckets: must not have negative buckets")
+		}
+	} else {
+		if err := checkHistogramSpans(h.PositiveSpans, len(h.PositiveBuckets)); err != nil {
+			return fmt.Errorf("positive side: %w", err)
+		}
+		if err := checkHistogramSpans(h.NegativeSpans, len(h.NegativeBuckets)); err != nil {
+			return fmt.Errorf("negative side: %w", err)
+		}
+		err := checkHistogramBuckets(h.NegativeBuckets, &nCount, false)
+		if err != nil {
+			return fmt.Errorf("negative side: %w", err)
+		}
+		if h.CustomValues != nil {
+			return fmt.Errorf("histogram with exponential schema must not have custom bounds")
+		}
 	}
-	err = checkHistogramBuckets(h.PositiveBuckets, &pCount, false)
+	err := checkHistogramBuckets(h.PositiveBuckets, &pCount, false)
 	if err != nil {
 		return fmt.Errorf("positive side: %w", err)
 	}
@@ -790,17 +915,25 @@ func (h *FloatHistogram) reconcileZeroBuckets(other *FloatHistogram) float64 {
 // If positive is true, the returned iterator iterates through the positive
 // buckets, otherwise through the negative buckets.
 //
-// If absoluteStartValue is < the lowest absolute value of any upper bucket
-// boundary, the iterator starts with the first bucket. Otherwise, it will skip
-// all buckets with an absolute value of their upper boundary ≤
-// absoluteStartValue.
+// Only for exponential schemas, if absoluteStartValue is < the lowest absolute
+// value of any upper bucket boundary, the iterator starts with the first bucket.
+// Otherwise, it will skip all buckets with an absolute value of their upper boundary ≤
+// absoluteStartValue. For custom bucket schemas, absoluteStartValue is ignored and
+// no buckets are skipped.
 //
 // targetSchema must be ≤ the schema of FloatHistogram (and of course within the
 // legal values for schemas in general). The buckets are merged to match the
-// targetSchema prior to iterating (without mutating FloatHistogram).
+// targetSchema prior to iterating (without mutating FloatHistogram), but custom buckets
+// schemas cannot be merged with other schemas.
 func (h *FloatHistogram) floatBucketIterator(
 	positive bool, absoluteStartValue float64, targetSchema int32,
 ) floatBucketIterator {
+	if h.UsesCustomBuckets() && targetSchema != h.Schema {
+		panic(fmt.Errorf("cannot merge from custom buckets schema to exponential schema"))
+	}
+	if !h.UsesCustomBuckets() && IsCustomBucketsSchema(targetSchema) {
+		panic(fmt.Errorf("cannot merge from exponential buckets schema to custom schema"))
+	}
 	if targetSchema > h.Schema {
 		panic(fmt.Errorf("cannot merge from schema %d to %d", h.Schema, targetSchema))
 	}
@@ -816,6 +949,7 @@ func (h *FloatHistogram) floatBucketIterator(
 	if positive {
 		i.spans = h.PositiveSpans
 		i.buckets = h.PositiveBuckets
+		i.customValues = h.CustomValues
 	} else {
 		i.spans = h.NegativeSpans
 		i.buckets = h.NegativeBuckets
@@ -825,14 +959,15 @@ func (h *FloatHistogram) floatBucketIterator(
 
 // reverseFloatBucketIterator is a low-level constructor for reverse bucket iterators.
 func newReverseFloatBucketIterator(
-	spans []Span, buckets []float64, schema int32, positive bool,
+	spans []Span, buckets []float64, schema int32, positive bool, customValues []float64,
 ) reverseFloatBucketIterator {
 	r := reverseFloatBucketIterator{
 		baseBucketIterator: baseBucketIterator[float64, float64]{
-			schema:   schema,
-			spans:    spans,
-			buckets:  buckets,
-			positive: positive,
+			schema:       schema,
+			spans:        spans,
+			buckets:      buckets,
+			positive:     positive,
+			customValues: customValues,
 		},
 	}
 
@@ -946,9 +1081,9 @@ func (i *floatBucketIterator) Next() bool {
 		}
 	}
 
-	// Skip buckets before absoluteStartValue.
+	// Skip buckets before absoluteStartValue for exponential schemas.
 	// TODO(beorn7): Maybe do something more efficient than this recursive call.
-	if !i.boundReachedStartValue && getBound(i.currIdx, i.targetSchema) <= i.absoluteStartValue {
+	if !i.boundReachedStartValue && IsExponentialSchema(i.targetSchema) && getBoundExponential(i.currIdx, i.targetSchema) <= i.absoluteStartValue {
 		return i.Next()
 	}
 	i.boundReachedStartValue = true
@@ -1010,14 +1145,7 @@ func (i *allFloatBucketIterator) Next() bool {
 	case 0:
 		i.state = 1
 		if i.h.ZeroCount > 0 {
-			i.currBucket = Bucket[float64]{
-				Lower:          -i.h.ZeroThreshold,
-				Upper:          i.h.ZeroThreshold,
-				LowerInclusive: true,
-				UpperInclusive: true,
-				Count:          i.h.ZeroCount,
-				// Index is irrelevant for the zero bucket.
-			}
+			i.currBucket = i.h.ZeroBucket()
 			return true
 		}
 		return i.Next()
@@ -1076,7 +1204,7 @@ func addBuckets(
 	for _, spanB := range spansB {
 		indexB += spanB.Offset
 		for j := 0; j < int(spanB.Length); j++ {
-			if lowerThanThreshold && getBound(indexB, schema) <= threshold {
+			if lowerThanThreshold && IsExponentialSchema(schema) && getBoundExponential(indexB, schema) <= threshold {
 				goto nextLoop
 			}
 			lowerThanThreshold = false
@@ -1177,7 +1305,7 @@ func addBuckets(
 	return spansA, bucketsA
 }
 
-func floatBucketsMatch(b1, b2 []float64) bool {
+func FloatBucketsMatch(b1, b2 []float64) bool {
 	if len(b1) != len(b2) {
 		return false
 	}
@@ -1191,7 +1319,15 @@ func floatBucketsMatch(b1, b2 []float64) bool {
 
 // ReduceResolution reduces the float histogram's spans, buckets into target schema.
 // The target schema must be smaller than the current float histogram's schema.
+// This will panic if the histogram has custom buckets or if the target schema is
+// a custom buckets schema.
 func (h *FloatHistogram) ReduceResolution(targetSchema int32) *FloatHistogram {
+	if h.UsesCustomBuckets() {
+		panic("cannot reduce resolution when there are custom buckets")
+	}
+	if IsCustomBucketsSchema(targetSchema) {
+		panic("cannot reduce resolution to custom buckets schema")
+	}
 	if targetSchema >= h.Schema {
 		panic(fmt.Errorf("cannot reduce resolution from schema %d to %d", h.Schema, targetSchema))
 	}
diff --git a/model/histogram/float_histogram_test.go b/model/histogram/float_histogram_test.go
index 49fb77ab0b..1558a6d679 100644
--- a/model/histogram/float_histogram_test.go
+++ b/model/histogram/float_histogram_test.go
@@ -14,9 +14,9 @@
 package histogram
 
 import (
-	"fmt"
 	"math"
 	"math/rand"
+	"strconv"
 	"testing"
 
 	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
@@ -131,6 +131,46 @@ func TestFloatHistogramMul(t *testing.T) {
 				NegativeBuckets: []float64{9, 3, 15, 18},
 			},
 		},
+		{
+			"no-op with custom buckets",
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				Count:           3493.3,
+				Sum:             2349209.324,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 1}, {2, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 3.3, 4.2, 0.1},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3},
+			},
+			1,
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				Count:           3493.3,
+				Sum:             2349209.324,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 1}, {2, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 3.3, 4.2, 0.1},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3},
+			},
+		},
+		{
+			"triple with custom buckets",
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				Count:           30,
+				Sum:             23,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 2}, {1, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 0, 3, 4, 7},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4},
+			},
+			3,
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				Count:           90,
+				Sum:             69,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 2}, {1, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{3, 0, 9, 12, 21},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4},
+			},
+		},
 	}
 
 	for _, c := range cases {
@@ -178,6 +218,21 @@ func TestFloatHistogramCopy(t *testing.T) {
 			},
 			expected: &FloatHistogram{},
 		},
+		{
+			name: "with custom buckets",
+			orig: &FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 1}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 3, -3, 42},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3},
+			},
+			expected: &FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 1}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 3, -3, 42},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3},
+			},
+		},
 	}
 
 	for _, tcase := range cases {
@@ -228,6 +283,21 @@ func TestFloatHistogramCopyTo(t *testing.T) {
 			},
 			expected: &FloatHistogram{},
 		},
+		{
+			name: "with custom buckets",
+			orig: &FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 1}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 3, -3, 42},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3},
+			},
+			expected: &FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 1}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 3, -3, 42},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3},
+			},
+		},
 	}
 
 	for _, tcase := range cases {
@@ -339,6 +409,46 @@ func TestFloatHistogramDiv(t *testing.T) {
 				NegativeBuckets: []float64{1.5, 0.5, 2.5, 3},
 			},
 		},
+		{
+			"no-op with custom buckets",
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				Count:           3493.3,
+				Sum:             2349209.324,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 1}, {2, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 3.3, 4.2, 0.1},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3},
+			},
+			1,
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				Count:           3493.3,
+				Sum:             2349209.324,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 1}, {2, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 3.3, 4.2, 0.1},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3},
+			},
+		},
+		{
+			"half with custom buckets",
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				Count:           30,
+				Sum:             23,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 2}, {1, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 0, 3, 4, 7},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4},
+			},
+			2,
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				Count:           15,
+				Sum:             11.5,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 2}, {1, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{0.5, 0, 1.5, 2, 3.5},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4},
+			},
+		},
 	}
 
 	for _, c := range cases {
@@ -937,6 +1047,138 @@ func TestFloatHistogramDetectReset(t *testing.T) {
 			},
 			true,
 		},
+		{
+			"no buckets to some buckets with custom bounds",
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:       CustomBucketsSchema,
+				CustomValues: []float64{1, 2, 3},
+			},
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				Count:           3493.3,
+				Sum:             2349209.324,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 1}, {2, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 3.3, 4.2, 0.1},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3},
+			},
+			false,
+		},
+		{
+			"some buckets to no buckets with custom bounds",
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				Count:           3493.3,
+				Sum:             2349209.324,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 1}, {2, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 3.3, 4.2, 0.1},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3},
+			},
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:       CustomBucketsSchema,
+				CustomValues: []float64{1, 2, 3},
+			},
+			true,
+		},
+		{
+			"one bucket appears, nothing else changes with custom bounds",
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				Count:           3493.3,
+				Sum:             2349209.324,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 1}, {2, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 3.3, 4.2, 0.1},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4},
+			},
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				Count:           3493.3,
+				Sum:             2349209.324,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 2}, {1, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 1.23, 3.3, 4.2, 0.1},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4},
+			},
+			false,
+		},
+		{
+			"one bucket disappears, nothing else changes with custom bounds",
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				Count:           3493.3,
+				Sum:             2349209.324,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 2}, {1, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 1.23, 3.3, 4.2, 0.1},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4},
+			},
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				Count:           3493.3,
+				Sum:             2349209.324,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 1}, {2, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 3.3, 4.2, 0.1},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4},
+			},
+			true,
+		},
+		{
+			"an unpopulated bucket disappears, nothing else changes with custom bounds",
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				Count:           3493.3,
+				Sum:             2349209.324,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 2}, {1, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 0, 3.3, 4.2, 0.1},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4},
+			},
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				Count:           3493.3,
+				Sum:             2349209.324,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 1}, {2, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 3.3, 4.2, 0.1},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4},
+			},
+			false,
+		},
+		{
+			"one positive bucket goes up with custom bounds",
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				Count:           3493.3,
+				Sum:             2349209.324,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 2}, {1, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 0, 3.3, 4.2, 0.1},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4},
+			},
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				Count:           3493.3,
+				Sum:             2349209.324,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 2}, {1, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 0, 3.3, 4.3, 0.1},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4},
+			},
+			false,
+		},
+		{
+			"one positive bucket goes down with custom bounds",
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				Count:           3493.3,
+				Sum:             2349209.324,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 2}, {1, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 0, 3.3, 4.2, 0.1},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4},
+			},
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				Count:           3493.3,
+				Sum:             2349209.324,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 2}, {1, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 0, 3.3, 4.1, 0.1},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4},
+			},
+			true,
+		},
 	}
 
 	for _, c := range cases {
@@ -1230,6 +1472,70 @@ func TestFloatHistogramCompact(t *testing.T) {
 				NegativeBuckets: []float64{2, 3},
 			},
 		},
+		{
+			"nothing should happen with custom buckets",
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 1}, {2, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 3.3, 4.2, 0.1},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3},
+			},
+			0,
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 1}, {2, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 3.3, 4.2, 0.1},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3},
+			},
+		},
+		{
+			"eliminate zero offsets with custom buckets",
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 1}, {0, 3}, {0, 1}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 3.3, 4.2, 0.1, 3.3},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4},
+			},
+			0,
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 5}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 3.3, 4.2, 0.1, 3.3},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4},
+			},
+		},
+		{
+			"eliminate multiple zero length spans with custom buckets",
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 2}, {2, 0}, {2, 0}, {2, 0}, {3, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 3.3, 4.2, 0.1, 3.3},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4},
+			},
+			0,
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 2}, {9, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 3.3, 4.2, 0.1, 3.3},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4},
+			},
+		},
+		{
+			"cut empty buckets at start and end with custom buckets",
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 4}, {5, 6}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{0, 0, 1, 3.3, 4.2, 0.1, 3.3, 0, 0, 0},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9},
+			},
+			0,
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{2, 2}, {5, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 3.3, 4.2, 0.1, 3.3},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9},
+			},
+		},
 	}
 
 	for _, c := range cases {
@@ -1245,6 +1551,7 @@ func TestFloatHistogramAdd(t *testing.T) {
 	cases := []struct {
 		name               string
 		in1, in2, expected *FloatHistogram
+		expErrMsg          string
 	}{
 		{
 			"same bucket layout",
@@ -1278,6 +1585,7 @@ func TestFloatHistogramAdd(t *testing.T) {
 				NegativeSpans:   []Span{{3, 2}, {3, 2}},
 				NegativeBuckets: []float64{4, 2, 9, 10},
 			},
+			"",
 		},
 		{
 			"same bucket layout, defined differently",
@@ -1311,6 +1619,7 @@ func TestFloatHistogramAdd(t *testing.T) {
 				NegativeSpans:   []Span{{3, 5}, {0, 2}},
 				NegativeBuckets: []float64{4, 2, 0, 0, 0, 9, 10},
 			},
+			"",
 		},
 		{
 			"non-overlapping spans",
@@ -1344,9 +1653,10 @@ func TestFloatHistogramAdd(t *testing.T) {
 				NegativeSpans:   []Span{{-9, 2}, {3, 2}, {5, 2}, {3, 2}},
 				NegativeBuckets: []float64{1, 1, 4, 4, 3, 1, 5, 6},
 			},
+			"",
 		},
 		{
-			"non-overlapping inverted order",
+			"non-overlapping spans inverted order",
 			&FloatHistogram{
 				ZeroThreshold:   0.01,
 				ZeroCount:       8,
@@ -1377,6 +1687,7 @@ func TestFloatHistogramAdd(t *testing.T) {
 				NegativeSpans:   []Span{{-6, 2}, {1, 2}, {4, 2}, {3, 2}},
 				NegativeBuckets: []float64{1, 1, 4, 4, 3, 1, 5, 6},
 			},
+			"",
 		},
 		{
 			"overlapping spans",
@@ -1410,6 +1721,7 @@ func TestFloatHistogramAdd(t *testing.T) {
 				NegativeSpans:   []Span{{3, 3}, {1, 3}},
 				NegativeBuckets: []float64{3, 2, 1, 4, 9, 6},
 			},
+			"",
 		},
 		{
 			"overlapping spans inverted order",
@@ -1443,6 +1755,7 @@ func TestFloatHistogramAdd(t *testing.T) {
 				NegativeSpans:   []Span{{3, 3}, {1, 3}},
 				NegativeBuckets: []float64{3, 2, 1, 4, 9, 6},
 			},
+			"",
 		},
 		{
 			"schema change",
@@ -1478,6 +1791,7 @@ func TestFloatHistogramAdd(t *testing.T) {
 				NegativeSpans:   []Span{{3, 3}, {1, 3}},
 				NegativeBuckets: []float64{3, 2, 1, 4, 9, 6},
 			},
+			"",
 		},
 		{
 			"larger zero bucket in first histogram",
@@ -1511,6 +1825,7 @@ func TestFloatHistogramAdd(t *testing.T) {
 				NegativeSpans:   []Span{{3, 3}, {1, 3}},
 				NegativeBuckets: []float64{3, 2, 1, 4, 9, 6},
 			},
+			"",
 		},
 		{
 			"larger zero bucket in second histogram",
@@ -1544,6 +1859,7 @@ func TestFloatHistogramAdd(t *testing.T) {
 				NegativeSpans:   []Span{{3, 3}, {1, 3}},
 				NegativeBuckets: []float64{3, 2, 1, 4, 9, 6},
 			},
+			"",
 		},
 		{
 			"larger zero threshold in first histogram ends up inside a populated bucket of second histogram",
@@ -1577,6 +1893,7 @@ func TestFloatHistogramAdd(t *testing.T) {
 				NegativeSpans:   []Span{{3, 3}, {1, 3}},
 				NegativeBuckets: []float64{3, 2, 1, 4, 9, 6},
 			},
+			"",
 		},
 		{
 			"larger zero threshold in second histogram ends up inside a populated bucket of first histogram",
@@ -1610,6 +1927,7 @@ func TestFloatHistogramAdd(t *testing.T) {
 				NegativeSpans:   []Span{{3, 3}, {1, 3}},
 				NegativeBuckets: []float64{3, 2, 1, 4, 9, 6},
 			},
+			"",
 		},
 		{
 			"schema change combined with larger zero bucket in second histogram",
@@ -1645,6 +1963,7 @@ func TestFloatHistogramAdd(t *testing.T) {
 				NegativeSpans:   []Span{{3, 3}, {1, 3}},
 				NegativeBuckets: []float64{3, 2, 1, 4, 9, 6},
 			},
+			"",
 		},
 		{
 			"schema change combined with larger zero bucket in first histogram",
@@ -1680,36 +1999,261 @@ func TestFloatHistogramAdd(t *testing.T) {
 				NegativeSpans:   []Span{{3, 3}, {1, 3}},
 				NegativeBuckets: []float64{3, 2, 1, 4, 9, 6},
 			},
+			"",
+		},
+		{
+			"same custom bucket layout",
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				Count:           15,
+				Sum:             2.345,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 2}, {1, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 0, 3, 4, 7},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4},
+			},
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				Count:           11,
+				Sum:             1.234,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 2}, {1, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{0, 0, 2, 3, 6},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4},
+			},
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				Count:           26,
+				Sum:             3.579,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 2}, {1, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 0, 5, 7, 13},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4},
+			},
+			"",
+		},
+		{
+			"same custom bucket layout, defined differently",
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				Count:           15,
+				Sum:             2.345,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 2}, {1, 1}, {0, 2}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 0, 3, 4, 7},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4},
+			},
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				Count:           11,
+				Sum:             1.234,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 2}, {1, 2}, {0, 1}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{0, 0, 2, 3, 6},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4},
+			},
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				Count:           26,
+				Sum:             3.579,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 2}, {1, 1}, {0, 2}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 0, 5, 7, 13},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4},
+			},
+			"",
+		},
+		{
+			"non-overlapping spans with custom buckets",
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				Count:           15,
+				Sum:             2.345,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 2}, {2, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 0, 3, 4, 7},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4},
+			},
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				Count:           20,
+				Sum:             1.234,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{2, 2}, {3, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{5, 4, 2, 3, 6},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4},
+			},
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				Count:           35,
+				Sum:             3.579,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 4}, {0, 6}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 0, 5, 4, 3, 4, 7, 2, 3, 6},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4},
+			},
+			"",
+		},
+		{
+			"non-overlapping spans inverted order with custom buckets",
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				Count:           20,
+				Sum:             1.234,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{2, 2}, {3, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{5, 4, 2, 3, 6},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4},
+			},
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				Count:           15,
+				Sum:             2.345,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 2}, {2, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 0, 3, 4, 7},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4},
+			},
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				Count:           35,
+				Sum:             3.579,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 4}, {0, 6}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 0, 5, 4, 3, 4, 7, 2, 3, 6},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4},
+			},
+			"",
+		},
+		{
+			"overlapping spans with custom buckets",
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				Count:           15,
+				Sum:             2.345,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 2}, {2, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 0, 3, 4, 7},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4},
+			},
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				Count:           27,
+				Sum:             1.234,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{1, 4}, {0, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{5, 4, 2, 3, 6, 2, 5},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4},
+			},
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				Count:           42,
+				Sum:             3.579,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 4}, {0, 4}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 5, 4, 2, 6, 10, 9, 5},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4},
+			},
+			"",
+		},
+		{
+			"overlapping spans inverted order with custom buckets",
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				Count:           27,
+				Sum:             1.234,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{1, 4}, {0, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{5, 4, 2, 3, 6, 2, 5},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4},
+			},
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				Count:           15,
+				Sum:             2.345,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 2}, {2, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 0, 3, 4, 7},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4},
+			},
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				Count:           42,
+				Sum:             3.579,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 4}, {0, 4}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 5, 4, 2, 6, 10, 9, 5},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4},
+			},
+			"",
+		},
+		{
+			"different custom bucket layout",
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				Count:           15,
+				Sum:             2.345,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 2}, {1, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 0, 3, 4, 7},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4},
+			},
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				Count:           11,
+				Sum:             1.234,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 2}, {1, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{0, 0, 2, 3, 6},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4, 5},
+			},
+			nil,
+			"cannot apply this operation on custom buckets histograms with different custom bounds",
+		},
+		{
+			"mix exponential and custom buckets histograms",
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				ZeroThreshold:   0.01,
+				ZeroCount:       8,
+				Count:           59,
+				Sum:             1.234,
+				Schema:          0,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{-2, 5}, {0, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{2, 5, 4, 2, 3, 6, 7, 5},
+				NegativeSpans:   []Span{{3, 3}, {1, 3}},
+				NegativeBuckets: []float64{4, 10, 1, 4, 14, 7},
+			},
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				Count:           11,
+				Sum:             12,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 2}, {1, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{0, 0, 2, 3, 6},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4},
+			},
+			nil,
+			"cannot apply this operation on histograms with a mix of exponential and custom bucket schemas",
 		},
 	}
 
 	for _, c := range cases {
 		t.Run(c.name, func(t *testing.T) {
-			testHistogramAdd(t, c.in1, c.in2, c.expected)
-			testHistogramAdd(t, c.in2, c.in1, c.expected)
+			testHistogramAdd(t, c.in1, c.in2, c.expected, c.expErrMsg)
+			testHistogramAdd(t, c.in2, c.in1, c.expected, c.expErrMsg)
 		})
 	}
 }
 
-func testHistogramAdd(t *testing.T, a, b, expected *FloatHistogram) {
+func testHistogramAdd(t *testing.T, a, b, expected *FloatHistogram, expErrMsg string) {
 	var (
 		aCopy        = a.Copy()
 		bCopy        = b.Copy()
-		expectedCopy = expected.Copy()
+		expectedCopy *FloatHistogram
 	)
 
-	res := aCopy.Add(bCopy)
+	if expected != nil {
+		expectedCopy = expected.Copy()
+	}
 
-	res.Compact(0)
-	expectedCopy.Compact(0)
+	res, err := aCopy.Add(bCopy)
+	if expErrMsg != "" {
+		require.EqualError(t, err, expErrMsg)
+	} else {
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+	}
 
-	require.Equal(t, expectedCopy, res)
+	if expected != nil {
+		res.Compact(0)
+		expectedCopy.Compact(0)
 
-	// Has it also happened in-place?
-	require.Equal(t, expectedCopy, aCopy)
+		require.Equal(t, expectedCopy, res)
 
-	// Check that the argument was not mutated.
-	require.Equal(t, b, bCopy)
+		// Has it also happened in-place?
+		require.Equal(t, expectedCopy, aCopy)
+
+		// Check that the argument was not mutated.
+		require.Equal(t, b, bCopy)
+	}
 }
 
 func TestFloatHistogramSub(t *testing.T) {
@@ -1718,6 +2262,7 @@ func TestFloatHistogramSub(t *testing.T) {
 	cases := []struct {
 		name               string
 		in1, in2, expected *FloatHistogram
+		expErrMsg          string
 	}{
 		{
 			"same bucket layout",
@@ -1751,6 +2296,7 @@ func TestFloatHistogramSub(t *testing.T) {
 				NegativeSpans:   []Span{{3, 2}, {3, 2}},
 				NegativeBuckets: []float64{2, 0, 1, 2},
 			},
+			"",
 		},
 		{
 			"schema change",
@@ -1786,38 +2332,126 @@ func TestFloatHistogramSub(t *testing.T) {
 				NegativeSpans:   []Span{{3, 3}, {1, 3}},
 				NegativeBuckets: []float64{1, 9, 1, 4, 9, 1},
 			},
+			"",
+		},
+		{
+			"same custom bucket layout",
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				Count:           15,
+				Sum:             23,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 2}, {1, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 0, 3, 4, 7},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4},
+			},
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				Count:           11,
+				Sum:             12,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 2}, {1, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{0, 0, 2, 3, 6},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4},
+			},
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				Count:           4,
+				Sum:             11,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 2}, {1, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 0, 1, 1, 1},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4},
+			},
+			"",
+		},
+		{
+			"different custom bucket layout",
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				Count:           15,
+				Sum:             23,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 2}, {1, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 0, 3, 4, 7},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4},
+			},
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				Count:           11,
+				Sum:             12,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 2}, {1, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{0, 0, 2, 3, 6},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4, 5},
+			},
+			nil,
+			"cannot apply this operation on custom buckets histograms with different custom bounds",
+		},
+		{
+			"mix exponential and custom buckets histograms",
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				ZeroThreshold:   0.01,
+				ZeroCount:       8,
+				Count:           59,
+				Sum:             1.234,
+				Schema:          0,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{-2, 5}, {0, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{2, 5, 4, 2, 3, 6, 7, 5},
+				NegativeSpans:   []Span{{3, 3}, {1, 3}},
+				NegativeBuckets: []float64{4, 10, 1, 4, 14, 7},
+			},
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				Count:           11,
+				Sum:             12,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 2}, {1, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{0, 0, 2, 3, 6},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4},
+			},
+			nil,
+			"cannot apply this operation on histograms with a mix of exponential and custom bucket schemas",
 		},
 	}
 
 	for _, c := range cases {
 		t.Run(c.name, func(t *testing.T) {
-			testFloatHistogramSub(t, c.in1, c.in2, c.expected)
+			testFloatHistogramSub(t, c.in1, c.in2, c.expected, c.expErrMsg)
 
-			expectedNegative := c.expected.Copy().Mul(-1)
-			testFloatHistogramSub(t, c.in2, c.in1, expectedNegative)
+			var expectedNegative *FloatHistogram
+			if c.expected != nil {
+				expectedNegative = c.expected.Copy().Mul(-1)
+			}
+			testFloatHistogramSub(t, c.in2, c.in1, expectedNegative, c.expErrMsg)
 		})
 	}
 }
 
-func testFloatHistogramSub(t *testing.T, a, b, expected *FloatHistogram) {
+func testFloatHistogramSub(t *testing.T, a, b, expected *FloatHistogram, expErrMsg string) {
 	var (
 		aCopy        = a.Copy()
 		bCopy        = b.Copy()
-		expectedCopy = expected.Copy()
+		expectedCopy *FloatHistogram
 	)
 
-	res := aCopy.Sub(bCopy)
+	if expected != nil {
+		expectedCopy = expected.Copy()
+	}
 
-	res.Compact(0)
-	expectedCopy.Compact(0)
+	res, err := aCopy.Sub(bCopy)
+	if expErrMsg != "" {
+		require.EqualError(t, err, expErrMsg)
+	} else {
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+	}
 
-	require.Equal(t, expectedCopy, res)
+	if expected != nil {
+		res.Compact(0)
+		expectedCopy.Compact(0)
 
-	// Has it also happened in-place?
-	require.Equal(t, expectedCopy, aCopy)
+		require.Equal(t, expectedCopy, res)
 
-	// Check that the argument was not mutated.
-	require.Equal(t, b, bCopy)
+		// Has it also happened in-place?
+		require.Equal(t, expectedCopy, aCopy)
+
+		// Check that the argument was not mutated.
+		require.Equal(t, b, bCopy)
+	}
 }
 
 func TestFloatHistogramCopyToSchema(t *testing.T) {
@@ -1878,6 +2512,26 @@ func TestFloatHistogramCopyToSchema(t *testing.T) {
 				NegativeBuckets: []float64{3, 1, 5, 6},
 			},
 		},
+		{
+			"no schema change for custom buckets",
+			CustomBucketsSchema,
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Count:           30,
+				Sum:             2.345,
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 3}, {5, 5}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 0, 0, 3, 2, 2, 3, 4},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7},
+			},
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Count:           30,
+				Sum:             2.345,
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 3}, {5, 5}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 0, 0, 3, 2, 2, 3, 4},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7},
+			},
+		},
 	}
 
 	for _, c := range cases {
@@ -2134,7 +2788,7 @@ func TestAllFloatBucketIterator(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 
 	for i, c := range cases {
-		t.Run(fmt.Sprintf("%d", i), func(t *testing.T) {
+		t.Run(strconv.Itoa(i), func(t *testing.T) {
 			var expBuckets, actBuckets []Bucket[float64]
 
 			if c.includeNeg {
@@ -2360,7 +3014,7 @@ func TestAllReverseFloatBucketIterator(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 
 	for i, c := range cases {
-		t.Run(fmt.Sprintf("%d", i), func(t *testing.T) {
+		t.Run(strconv.Itoa(i), func(t *testing.T) {
 			var expBuckets, actBuckets []Bucket[float64]
 
 			if c.includePos {
@@ -2450,6 +3104,110 @@ func TestFloatBucketIteratorTargetSchema(t *testing.T) {
 	require.False(t, it.Next(), "negative iterator not exhausted")
 }
 
+func TestFloatCustomBucketsIterators(t *testing.T) {
+	cases := []struct {
+		h                  FloatHistogram
+		expPositiveBuckets []Bucket[float64]
+	}{
+		{
+			h: FloatHistogram{
+				Count:  622,
+				Sum:    10008.4,
+				Schema: CustomBucketsSchema,
+				PositiveSpans: []Span{
+					{Offset: 0, Length: 2},
+					{Offset: 1, Length: 1},
+					{Offset: 1, Length: 1},
+				},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{100, 344, 123, 55},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{10, 25, 50, 100, 500},
+			},
+			expPositiveBuckets: []Bucket[float64]{
+				{Lower: math.Inf(-1), Upper: 10, LowerInclusive: true, UpperInclusive: true, Count: 100, Index: 0},
+				{Lower: 10, Upper: 25, LowerInclusive: false, UpperInclusive: true, Count: 344, Index: 1},
+				{Lower: 50, Upper: 100, LowerInclusive: false, UpperInclusive: true, Count: 123, Index: 3},
+				{Lower: 500, Upper: math.Inf(1), LowerInclusive: false, UpperInclusive: true, Count: 55, Index: 5},
+			},
+		},
+		{
+			h: FloatHistogram{
+				Count:  622,
+				Sum:    10008.4,
+				Schema: CustomBucketsSchema,
+				PositiveSpans: []Span{
+					{Offset: 0, Length: 2},
+					{Offset: 1, Length: 1},
+					{Offset: 1, Length: 1},
+				},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{100, 344, 123, 55},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{-10, -5, 0, 10, 25},
+			},
+			expPositiveBuckets: []Bucket[float64]{
+				{Lower: math.Inf(-1), Upper: -10, LowerInclusive: true, UpperInclusive: true, Count: 100, Index: 0},
+				{Lower: -10, Upper: -5, LowerInclusive: false, UpperInclusive: true, Count: 344, Index: 1},
+				{Lower: 0, Upper: 10, LowerInclusive: false, UpperInclusive: true, Count: 123, Index: 3},
+				{Lower: 25, Upper: math.Inf(1), LowerInclusive: false, UpperInclusive: true, Count: 55, Index: 5},
+			},
+		},
+	}
+
+	for i, c := range cases {
+		t.Run(strconv.Itoa(i), func(t *testing.T) {
+			{
+				it := c.h.AllBucketIterator()
+				for i, b := range c.expPositiveBuckets {
+					require.True(t, it.Next(), "all bucket iterator exhausted too early")
+					require.Equal(t, b, it.At(), "bucket %d", i)
+				}
+				require.False(t, it.Next(), "all bucket iterator not exhausted")
+
+				it = c.h.AllReverseBucketIterator()
+				length := len(c.expPositiveBuckets)
+				for j := 0; j < length; j++ {
+					i := length - j - 1
+					b := c.expPositiveBuckets[i]
+					require.True(t, it.Next(), "all reverse bucket iterator exhausted too early")
+					require.Equal(t, b, it.At(), "bucket %d", i)
+				}
+				require.False(t, it.Next(), "all reverse bucket iterator not exhausted")
+
+				it = c.h.PositiveBucketIterator()
+				for i, b := range c.expPositiveBuckets {
+					require.True(t, it.Next(), "positive bucket iterator exhausted too early")
+					require.Equal(t, b, it.At(), "bucket %d", i)
+				}
+				require.False(t, it.Next(), "positive bucket iterator not exhausted")
+
+				it = c.h.PositiveReverseBucketIterator()
+				for j := 0; j < length; j++ {
+					i := length - j - 1
+					b := c.expPositiveBuckets[i]
+					require.True(t, it.Next(), "positive reverse bucket iterator exhausted too early")
+					require.Equal(t, b, it.At(), "bucket %d", i)
+				}
+				require.False(t, it.Next(), "positive reverse bucket iterator not exhausted")
+
+				it = c.h.NegativeBucketIterator()
+				require.False(t, it.Next(), "negative bucket iterator not exhausted")
+
+				it = c.h.NegativeReverseBucketIterator()
+				require.False(t, it.Next(), "negative reverse bucket iterator not exhausted")
+			}
+			{
+				it := c.h.floatBucketIterator(true, 0, CustomBucketsSchema)
+				for i, b := range c.expPositiveBuckets {
+					require.True(t, it.Next(), "positive iterator exhausted too early")
+					require.Equal(t, b, it.At(), "bucket %d", i)
+				}
+				require.False(t, it.Next(), "positive iterator not exhausted")
+
+				it = c.h.floatBucketIterator(false, 0, CustomBucketsSchema)
+				require.False(t, it.Next(), "negative iterator not exhausted")
+			}
+		})
+	}
+}
+
 // TestFloatHistogramEquals tests FloatHistogram with float-specific cases that
 // cannot be covered by TestHistogramEquals.
 func TestFloatHistogramEquals(t *testing.T) {
@@ -2498,6 +3256,42 @@ func TestFloatHistogramEquals(t *testing.T) {
 	hNegBucketNaN.NegativeBuckets[0] = math.NaN()
 	notEquals(h1, *hNegBucketNaN)
 	equals(*hNegBucketNaN, *hNegBucketNaN)
+
+	// Custom bounds are defined for exponential schema.
+	hCustom := h1.Copy()
+	hCustom.CustomValues = []float64{1, 2, 3}
+	equals(h1, *hCustom)
+
+	cbh1 := FloatHistogram{
+		Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+		Count:           2.2,
+		Sum:             9.7,
+		PositiveSpans:   []Span{{0, 1}},
+		PositiveBuckets: []float64{3},
+		CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3},
+	}
+
+	require.NoError(t, cbh1.Validate())
+
+	cbh2 := cbh1.Copy()
+	equals(cbh1, *cbh2)
+
+	// Has different custom bounds for custom buckets schema.
+	cbh2 = cbh1.Copy()
+	cbh2.CustomValues = []float64{1, 2, 3, 4}
+	notEquals(cbh1, *cbh2)
+
+	// Has non-empty negative spans and buckets for custom buckets schema.
+	cbh2 = cbh1.Copy()
+	cbh2.NegativeSpans = []Span{{Offset: 0, Length: 1}}
+	cbh2.NegativeBuckets = []float64{1}
+	notEquals(cbh1, *cbh2)
+
+	// Has non-zero zero count and threshold for custom buckets schema.
+	cbh2 = cbh1.Copy()
+	cbh2.ZeroThreshold = 0.1
+	cbh2.ZeroCount = 10
+	notEquals(cbh1, *cbh2)
 }
 
 func TestFloatHistogramSize(t *testing.T) {
@@ -2519,8 +3313,9 @@ func TestFloatHistogramSize(t *testing.T) {
 				PositiveBuckets:  nil,         // 24 bytes.
 				NegativeSpans:    nil,         // 24 bytes.
 				NegativeBuckets:  nil,         // 24 bytes.
+				CustomValues:     nil,         // 24 bytes.
 			},
-			8 + 4 + 4 + 8 + 8 + 8 + 8 + 24 + 24 + 24 + 24,
+			8 + 4 + 4 + 8 + 8 + 8 + 8 + 24 + 24 + 24 + 24 + 24,
 		},
 		{
 			"complete struct",
@@ -2540,8 +3335,29 @@ func TestFloatHistogramSize(t *testing.T) {
 					{3, 2},  // 2 * 4 bytes.
 					{3, 2}}, //  2 * 4 bytes.
 				NegativeBuckets: []float64{3.1, 3, 1.234e5, 1000}, // 24 bytes + 4 * 8 bytes.
+				CustomValues:    nil,                              // 24 bytes.
 			},
-			8 + 4 + 4 + 8 + 8 + 8 + 8 + (24 + 2*4 + 2*4) + (24 + 2*4 + 2*4) + (24 + 4*8) + (24 + 4*8),
+			8 + 4 + 4 + 8 + 8 + 8 + 8 + (24 + 2*4 + 2*4) + (24 + 2*4 + 2*4) + (24 + 4*8) + (24 + 4*8) + 24,
+		},
+		{
+			"complete struct with custom buckets",
+			&FloatHistogram{ // 8 bytes.
+				CounterResetHint: 0,                   // 1 byte.
+				Schema:           CustomBucketsSchema, // 4 bytes.
+				ZeroThreshold:    0,                   // 8 bytes.
+				ZeroCount:        0,                   // 8 bytes.
+				Count:            3493.3,              // 8 bytes.
+				Sum:              2349209.324,         // 8 bytes.
+				PositiveSpans: []Span{ // 24 bytes.
+					{0, 1}, // 2 * 4 bytes.
+					{2, 3}, //  2 * 4 bytes.
+				},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 3.3, 4.2, 0.1}, // 24 bytes + 4 * 8 bytes.
+				NegativeSpans:   nil,                         // 24 bytes.
+				NegativeBuckets: nil,                         // 24 bytes.
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3},          // 24 bytes + 3 * 8 bytes.
+			},
+			8 + 4 + 4 + 8 + 8 + 8 + 8 + (24 + 2*4 + 2*4) + (24 + 4*8) + 24 + 24 + (24 + 3*8),
 		},
 	}
 
@@ -2552,6 +3368,58 @@ func TestFloatHistogramSize(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 }
 
+func TestFloatHistogramString(t *testing.T) {
+	cases := []struct {
+		name     string
+		fh       *FloatHistogram
+		expected string
+	}{
+		{
+			"exponential histogram",
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema:        1,
+				ZeroThreshold: 0.01,
+				ZeroCount:     5.5,
+				Count:         3493.3,
+				Sum:           2349209.324,
+				PositiveSpans: []Span{
+					{-2, 1},
+					{2, 3},
+				},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 3.3, 4.2, 0.1},
+				NegativeSpans: []Span{
+					{3, 2},
+					{3, 2},
+				},
+				NegativeBuckets: []float64{3.1, 3, 1.234e5, 1000},
+			},
+			`{count:3493.3, sum:2.349209324e+06, [-22.62741699796952,-16):1000, [-16,-11.31370849898476):123400, [-4,-2.82842712474619):3, [-2.82842712474619,-2):3.1, [-0.01,0.01]:5.5, (0.35355339059327373,0.5]:1, (1,1.414213562373095]:3.3, (1.414213562373095,2]:4.2, (2,2.82842712474619]:0.1}`,
+		},
+		{
+			"custom buckets histogram",
+			&FloatHistogram{
+				Schema: CustomBucketsSchema,
+				Count:  3493.3,
+				Sum:    2349209.324,
+				PositiveSpans: []Span{
+					{0, 1},
+					{2, 4},
+				},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 3.3, 4.2, 0.1, 5},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 5, 10, 15, 20},
+			},
+			`{count:3493.3, sum:2.349209324e+06, [-Inf,1]:1, (5,10]:3.3, (10,15]:4.2, (15,20]:0.1, (20,+Inf]:5}`,
+		},
+	}
+
+	for _, c := range cases {
+		t.Run(c.name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			require.NoError(t, c.fh.Validate())
+			require.Equal(t, c.expected, c.fh.String())
+		})
+	}
+}
+
 func BenchmarkFloatHistogramAllBucketIterator(b *testing.B) {
 	rng := rand.New(rand.NewSource(0))
 
diff --git a/model/histogram/generic.go b/model/histogram/generic.go
index 7e1cc4b605..a36b58d069 100644
--- a/model/histogram/generic.go
+++ b/model/histogram/generic.go
@@ -20,14 +20,33 @@ import (
 	"strings"
 )
 
-var (
-	ErrHistogramCountNotBigEnough    = errors.New("histogram's observation count should be at least the number of observations found in the buckets")
-	ErrHistogramCountMismatch        = errors.New("histogram's observation count should equal the number of observations found in the buckets (in absence of NaN)")
-	ErrHistogramNegativeBucketCount  = errors.New("histogram has a bucket whose observation count is negative")
-	ErrHistogramSpanNegativeOffset   = errors.New("histogram has a span whose offset is negative")
-	ErrHistogramSpansBucketsMismatch = errors.New("histogram spans specify different number of buckets than provided")
+const (
+	ExponentialSchemaMax int32 = 8
+	ExponentialSchemaMin int32 = -4
+	CustomBucketsSchema  int32 = -53
 )
 
+var (
+	ErrHistogramCountNotBigEnough     = errors.New("histogram's observation count should be at least the number of observations found in the buckets")
+	ErrHistogramCountMismatch         = errors.New("histogram's observation count should equal the number of observations found in the buckets (in absence of NaN)")
+	ErrHistogramNegativeBucketCount   = errors.New("histogram has a bucket whose observation count is negative")
+	ErrHistogramSpanNegativeOffset    = errors.New("histogram has a span whose offset is negative")
+	ErrHistogramSpansBucketsMismatch  = errors.New("histogram spans specify different number of buckets than provided")
+	ErrHistogramCustomBucketsMismatch = errors.New("histogram custom bounds are too few")
+	ErrHistogramCustomBucketsInvalid  = errors.New("histogram custom bounds must be in strictly increasing order")
+	ErrHistogramCustomBucketsInfinite = errors.New("histogram custom bounds must be finite")
+	ErrHistogramsIncompatibleSchema   = errors.New("cannot apply this operation on histograms with a mix of exponential and custom bucket schemas")
+	ErrHistogramsIncompatibleBounds   = errors.New("cannot apply this operation on custom buckets histograms with different custom bounds")
+)
+
+func IsCustomBucketsSchema(s int32) bool {
+	return s == CustomBucketsSchema
+}
+
+func IsExponentialSchema(s int32) bool {
+	return s >= ExponentialSchemaMin && s <= ExponentialSchemaMax
+}
+
 // BucketCount is a type constraint for the count in a bucket, which can be
 // float64 (for type FloatHistogram) or uint64 (for type Histogram).
 type BucketCount interface {
@@ -115,6 +134,8 @@ type baseBucketIterator[BC BucketCount, IBC InternalBucketCount] struct {
 
 	currCount IBC   // Count in the current bucket.
 	currIdx   int32 // The actual bucket index.
+
+	customValues []float64 // Bounds (usually upper) for histograms with custom buckets.
 }
 
 func (b *baseBucketIterator[BC, IBC]) At() Bucket[BC] {
@@ -128,14 +149,19 @@ func (b *baseBucketIterator[BC, IBC]) at(schema int32) Bucket[BC] {
 		Index: b.currIdx,
 	}
 	if b.positive {
-		bucket.Upper = getBound(b.currIdx, schema)
-		bucket.Lower = getBound(b.currIdx-1, schema)
+		bucket.Upper = getBound(b.currIdx, schema, b.customValues)
+		bucket.Lower = getBound(b.currIdx-1, schema, b.customValues)
 	} else {
-		bucket.Lower = -getBound(b.currIdx, schema)
-		bucket.Upper = -getBound(b.currIdx-1, schema)
+		bucket.Lower = -getBound(b.currIdx, schema, b.customValues)
+		bucket.Upper = -getBound(b.currIdx-1, schema, b.customValues)
+	}
+	if IsCustomBucketsSchema(schema) {
+		bucket.LowerInclusive = b.currIdx == 0
+		bucket.UpperInclusive = true
+	} else {
+		bucket.LowerInclusive = bucket.Lower < 0
+		bucket.UpperInclusive = bucket.Upper > 0
 	}
-	bucket.LowerInclusive = bucket.Lower < 0
-	bucket.UpperInclusive = bucket.Upper > 0
 	return bucket
 }
 
@@ -393,7 +419,55 @@ func checkHistogramBuckets[BC BucketCount, IBC InternalBucketCount](buckets []IB
 	return nil
 }
 
-func getBound(idx, schema int32) float64 {
+func checkHistogramCustomBounds(bounds []float64, spans []Span, numBuckets int) error {
+	prev := math.Inf(-1)
+	for _, curr := range bounds {
+		if curr <= prev {
+			return fmt.Errorf("previous bound is %f and current is %f: %w", prev, curr, ErrHistogramCustomBucketsInvalid)
+		}
+		prev = curr
+	}
+	if prev == math.Inf(1) {
+		return fmt.Errorf("last +Inf bound must not be explicitly defined: %w", ErrHistogramCustomBucketsInfinite)
+	}
+
+	var spanBuckets int
+	var totalSpanLength int
+	for n, span := range spans {
+		if span.Offset < 0 {
+			return fmt.Errorf("span number %d with offset %d: %w", n+1, span.Offset, ErrHistogramSpanNegativeOffset)
+		}
+		spanBuckets += int(span.Length)
+		totalSpanLength += int(span.Length) + int(span.Offset)
+	}
+	if spanBuckets != numBuckets {
+		return fmt.Errorf("spans need %d buckets, have %d buckets: %w", spanBuckets, numBuckets, ErrHistogramSpansBucketsMismatch)
+	}
+	if (len(bounds) + 1) < totalSpanLength {
+		return fmt.Errorf("only %d custom bounds defined which is insufficient to cover total span length of %d: %w", len(bounds), totalSpanLength, ErrHistogramCustomBucketsMismatch)
+	}
+
+	return nil
+}
+
+func getBound(idx, schema int32, customValues []float64) float64 {
+	if IsCustomBucketsSchema(schema) {
+		length := int32(len(customValues))
+		switch {
+		case idx > length || idx < -1:
+			panic(fmt.Errorf("index %d out of bounds for custom bounds of length %d", idx, length))
+		case idx == length:
+			return math.Inf(1)
+		case idx == -1:
+			return math.Inf(-1)
+		default:
+			return customValues[idx]
+		}
+	}
+	return getBoundExponential(idx, schema)
+}
+
+func getBoundExponential(idx, schema int32) float64 {
 	// Here a bit of context about the behavior for the last bucket counting
 	// regular numbers (called simply "last bucket" below) and the bucket
 	// counting observations of ±Inf (called "inf bucket" below, with an idx
@@ -422,7 +496,7 @@ func getBound(idx, schema int32) float64 {
 	// bucket results in precisely that. It is either frac=1.0 & exp=1024
 	// (for schema < 0) or frac=0.5 & exp=1025 (for schema >=0). (This is,
 	// by the way, a power of two where the exponent itself is a power of
-	// two, 2¹⁰ in fact, which coinicides with a bucket boundary in all
+	// two, 2¹⁰ in fact, which coincides with a bucket boundary in all
 	// schemas.) So these are the special cases we have to catch below.
 	if schema < 0 {
 		exp := int(idx) << -schema
@@ -703,3 +777,10 @@ func reduceResolution[IBC InternalBucketCount](
 
 	return targetSpans, targetBuckets
 }
+
+func clearIfNotNil[T any](items []T) []T {
+	if items == nil {
+		return nil
+	}
+	return items[:0]
+}
diff --git a/model/histogram/generic_test.go b/model/histogram/generic_test.go
index b4d6585a8b..b49adbcadf 100644
--- a/model/histogram/generic_test.go
+++ b/model/histogram/generic_test.go
@@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ import (
 	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
 )
 
-func TestGetBound(t *testing.T) {
+func TestGetBoundExponential(t *testing.T) {
 	scenarios := []struct {
 		idx    int32
 		schema int32
@@ -105,7 +105,7 @@ func TestGetBound(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 
 	for _, s := range scenarios {
-		got := getBound(s.idx, s.schema)
+		got := getBoundExponential(s.idx, s.schema)
 		if s.want != got {
 			require.Equal(t, s.want, got, "idx %d, schema %d", s.idx, s.schema)
 		}
diff --git a/model/histogram/histogram.go b/model/histogram/histogram.go
index d94cf98fa6..e4b99ec420 100644
--- a/model/histogram/histogram.go
+++ b/model/histogram/histogram.go
@@ -49,11 +49,12 @@ const (
 type Histogram struct {
 	// Counter reset information.
 	CounterResetHint CounterResetHint
-	// Currently valid schema numbers are -4 <= n <= 8.  They are all for
-	// base-2 bucket schemas, where 1 is a bucket boundary in each case, and
-	// then each power of two is divided into 2^n logarithmic buckets.  Or
-	// in other words, each bucket boundary is the previous boundary times
-	// 2^(2^-n).
+	// Currently valid schema numbers are -4 <= n <= 8 for exponential buckets,
+	// They are all for base-2 bucket schemas, where 1 is a bucket boundary in
+	// each case, and then each power of two is divided into 2^n logarithmic buckets.
+	// Or in other words, each bucket boundary is the previous boundary times
+	// 2^(2^-n). Another valid schema number is -53 for custom buckets, defined by
+	// the CustomValues field.
 	Schema int32
 	// Width of the zero bucket.
 	ZeroThreshold float64
@@ -69,6 +70,12 @@ type Histogram struct {
 	// count. All following ones are deltas relative to the previous
 	// element.
 	PositiveBuckets, NegativeBuckets []int64
+	// Holds the custom (usually upper) bounds for bucket definitions, otherwise nil.
+	// This slice is interned, to be treated as immutable and copied by reference.
+	// These numbers should be strictly increasing. This field is only used when the
+	// schema is for custom buckets, and the ZeroThreshold, ZeroCount, NegativeSpans
+	// and NegativeBuckets fields are not used in that case.
+	CustomValues []float64
 }
 
 // A Span defines a continuous sequence of buckets.
@@ -80,33 +87,46 @@ type Span struct {
 	Length uint32
 }
 
+func (h *Histogram) UsesCustomBuckets() bool {
+	return IsCustomBucketsSchema(h.Schema)
+}
+
 // Copy returns a deep copy of the Histogram.
 func (h *Histogram) Copy() *Histogram {
 	c := Histogram{
 		CounterResetHint: h.CounterResetHint,
 		Schema:           h.Schema,
-		ZeroThreshold:    h.ZeroThreshold,
-		ZeroCount:        h.ZeroCount,
 		Count:            h.Count,
 		Sum:              h.Sum,
 	}
 
+	if h.UsesCustomBuckets() {
+		if len(h.CustomValues) != 0 {
+			c.CustomValues = make([]float64, len(h.CustomValues))
+			copy(c.CustomValues, h.CustomValues)
+		}
+	} else {
+		c.ZeroThreshold = h.ZeroThreshold
+		c.ZeroCount = h.ZeroCount
+
+		if len(h.NegativeSpans) != 0 {
+			c.NegativeSpans = make([]Span, len(h.NegativeSpans))
+			copy(c.NegativeSpans, h.NegativeSpans)
+		}
+		if len(h.NegativeBuckets) != 0 {
+			c.NegativeBuckets = make([]int64, len(h.NegativeBuckets))
+			copy(c.NegativeBuckets, h.NegativeBuckets)
+		}
+	}
+
 	if len(h.PositiveSpans) != 0 {
 		c.PositiveSpans = make([]Span, len(h.PositiveSpans))
 		copy(c.PositiveSpans, h.PositiveSpans)
 	}
-	if len(h.NegativeSpans) != 0 {
-		c.NegativeSpans = make([]Span, len(h.NegativeSpans))
-		copy(c.NegativeSpans, h.NegativeSpans)
-	}
 	if len(h.PositiveBuckets) != 0 {
 		c.PositiveBuckets = make([]int64, len(h.PositiveBuckets))
 		copy(c.PositiveBuckets, h.PositiveBuckets)
 	}
-	if len(h.NegativeBuckets) != 0 {
-		c.NegativeBuckets = make([]int64, len(h.NegativeBuckets))
-		copy(c.NegativeBuckets, h.NegativeBuckets)
-	}
 
 	return &c
 }
@@ -116,22 +136,36 @@ func (h *Histogram) Copy() *Histogram {
 func (h *Histogram) CopyTo(to *Histogram) {
 	to.CounterResetHint = h.CounterResetHint
 	to.Schema = h.Schema
-	to.ZeroThreshold = h.ZeroThreshold
-	to.ZeroCount = h.ZeroCount
 	to.Count = h.Count
 	to.Sum = h.Sum
 
+	if h.UsesCustomBuckets() {
+		to.ZeroThreshold = 0
+		to.ZeroCount = 0
+
+		to.NegativeSpans = clearIfNotNil(to.NegativeSpans)
+		to.NegativeBuckets = clearIfNotNil(to.NegativeBuckets)
+
+		to.CustomValues = resize(to.CustomValues, len(h.CustomValues))
+		copy(to.CustomValues, h.CustomValues)
+	} else {
+		to.ZeroThreshold = h.ZeroThreshold
+		to.ZeroCount = h.ZeroCount
+
+		to.NegativeSpans = resize(to.NegativeSpans, len(h.NegativeSpans))
+		copy(to.NegativeSpans, h.NegativeSpans)
+
+		to.NegativeBuckets = resize(to.NegativeBuckets, len(h.NegativeBuckets))
+		copy(to.NegativeBuckets, h.NegativeBuckets)
+
+		to.CustomValues = clearIfNotNil(to.CustomValues)
+	}
+
 	to.PositiveSpans = resize(to.PositiveSpans, len(h.PositiveSpans))
 	copy(to.PositiveSpans, h.PositiveSpans)
 
-	to.NegativeSpans = resize(to.NegativeSpans, len(h.NegativeSpans))
-	copy(to.NegativeSpans, h.NegativeSpans)
-
 	to.PositiveBuckets = resize(to.PositiveBuckets, len(h.PositiveBuckets))
 	copy(to.PositiveBuckets, h.PositiveBuckets)
-
-	to.NegativeBuckets = resize(to.NegativeBuckets, len(h.NegativeBuckets))
-	copy(to.NegativeBuckets, h.NegativeBuckets)
 }
 
 // String returns a string representation of the Histogram.
@@ -165,8 +199,11 @@ func (h *Histogram) String() string {
 	return sb.String()
 }
 
-// ZeroBucket returns the zero bucket.
+// ZeroBucket returns the zero bucket. This method panics if the schema is for custom buckets.
 func (h *Histogram) ZeroBucket() Bucket[uint64] {
+	if h.UsesCustomBuckets() {
+		panic("histograms with custom buckets have no zero bucket")
+	}
 	return Bucket[uint64]{
 		Lower:          -h.ZeroThreshold,
 		Upper:          h.ZeroThreshold,
@@ -179,14 +216,14 @@ func (h *Histogram) ZeroBucket() Bucket[uint64] {
 // PositiveBucketIterator returns a BucketIterator to iterate over all positive
 // buckets in ascending order (starting next to the zero bucket and going up).
 func (h *Histogram) PositiveBucketIterator() BucketIterator[uint64] {
-	it := newRegularBucketIterator(h.PositiveSpans, h.PositiveBuckets, h.Schema, true)
+	it := newRegularBucketIterator(h.PositiveSpans, h.PositiveBuckets, h.Schema, true, h.CustomValues)
 	return &it
 }
 
 // NegativeBucketIterator returns a BucketIterator to iterate over all negative
 // buckets in descending order (starting next to the zero bucket and going down).
 func (h *Histogram) NegativeBucketIterator() BucketIterator[uint64] {
-	it := newRegularBucketIterator(h.NegativeSpans, h.NegativeBuckets, h.Schema, false)
+	it := newRegularBucketIterator(h.NegativeSpans, h.NegativeBuckets, h.Schema, false, nil)
 	return &it
 }
 
@@ -207,30 +244,42 @@ func (h *Histogram) CumulativeBucketIterator() BucketIterator[uint64] {
 // but they must represent the same bucket layout to match.
 // Sum is compared based on its bit pattern because this method
 // is about data equality rather than mathematical equality.
+// We ignore fields that are not used based on the exponential / custom buckets schema,
+// but check fields where differences may cause unintended behaviour even if they are not
+// supposed to be used according to the schema.
 func (h *Histogram) Equals(h2 *Histogram) bool {
 	if h2 == nil {
 		return false
 	}
 
-	if h.Schema != h2.Schema || h.ZeroThreshold != h2.ZeroThreshold ||
-		h.ZeroCount != h2.ZeroCount || h.Count != h2.Count ||
+	if h.Schema != h2.Schema || h.Count != h2.Count ||
 		math.Float64bits(h.Sum) != math.Float64bits(h2.Sum) {
 		return false
 	}
 
+	if h.UsesCustomBuckets() {
+		if !FloatBucketsMatch(h.CustomValues, h2.CustomValues) {
+			return false
+		}
+	}
+
+	if h.ZeroThreshold != h2.ZeroThreshold || h.ZeroCount != h2.ZeroCount {
+		return false
+	}
+
+	if !spansMatch(h.NegativeSpans, h2.NegativeSpans) {
+		return false
+	}
+	if !slices.Equal(h.NegativeBuckets, h2.NegativeBuckets) {
+		return false
+	}
+
 	if !spansMatch(h.PositiveSpans, h2.PositiveSpans) {
 		return false
 	}
-	if !spansMatch(h.NegativeSpans, h2.NegativeSpans) {
-		return false
-	}
-
 	if !slices.Equal(h.PositiveBuckets, h2.PositiveBuckets) {
 		return false
 	}
-	if !slices.Equal(h.NegativeBuckets, h2.NegativeBuckets) {
-		return false
-	}
 
 	return true
 }
@@ -321,17 +370,36 @@ func (h *Histogram) ToFloat(fh *FloatHistogram) *FloatHistogram {
 	}
 	fh.CounterResetHint = h.CounterResetHint
 	fh.Schema = h.Schema
-	fh.ZeroThreshold = h.ZeroThreshold
-	fh.ZeroCount = float64(h.ZeroCount)
 	fh.Count = float64(h.Count)
 	fh.Sum = h.Sum
 
+	if h.UsesCustomBuckets() {
+		fh.ZeroThreshold = 0
+		fh.ZeroCount = 0
+		fh.NegativeSpans = clearIfNotNil(fh.NegativeSpans)
+		fh.NegativeBuckets = clearIfNotNil(fh.NegativeBuckets)
+
+		fh.CustomValues = resize(fh.CustomValues, len(h.CustomValues))
+		copy(fh.CustomValues, h.CustomValues)
+	} else {
+		fh.ZeroThreshold = h.ZeroThreshold
+		fh.ZeroCount = float64(h.ZeroCount)
+
+		fh.NegativeSpans = resize(fh.NegativeSpans, len(h.NegativeSpans))
+		copy(fh.NegativeSpans, h.NegativeSpans)
+
+		fh.NegativeBuckets = resize(fh.NegativeBuckets, len(h.NegativeBuckets))
+		var currentNegative float64
+		for i, b := range h.NegativeBuckets {
+			currentNegative += float64(b)
+			fh.NegativeBuckets[i] = currentNegative
+		}
+		fh.CustomValues = clearIfNotNil(fh.CustomValues)
+	}
+
 	fh.PositiveSpans = resize(fh.PositiveSpans, len(h.PositiveSpans))
 	copy(fh.PositiveSpans, h.PositiveSpans)
 
-	fh.NegativeSpans = resize(fh.NegativeSpans, len(h.NegativeSpans))
-	copy(fh.NegativeSpans, h.NegativeSpans)
-
 	fh.PositiveBuckets = resize(fh.PositiveBuckets, len(h.PositiveBuckets))
 	var currentPositive float64
 	for i, b := range h.PositiveBuckets {
@@ -339,13 +407,6 @@ func (h *Histogram) ToFloat(fh *FloatHistogram) *FloatHistogram {
 		fh.PositiveBuckets[i] = currentPositive
 	}
 
-	fh.NegativeBuckets = resize(fh.NegativeBuckets, len(h.NegativeBuckets))
-	var currentNegative float64
-	for i, b := range h.NegativeBuckets {
-		currentNegative += float64(b)
-		fh.NegativeBuckets[i] = currentNegative
-	}
-
 	return fh
 }
 
@@ -357,25 +418,47 @@ func resize[T any](items []T, n int) []T {
 }
 
 // Validate validates consistency between span and bucket slices. Also, buckets are checked
-// against negative values.
+// against negative values. We check to make sure there are no unexpected fields or field values
+// based on the exponential / custom buckets schema.
 // For histograms that have not observed any NaN values (based on IsNaN(h.Sum) check), a
 // strict h.Count = nCount + pCount + h.ZeroCount check is performed.
 // Otherwise, only a lower bound check will be done (h.Count >= nCount + pCount + h.ZeroCount),
 // because NaN observations do not increment the values of buckets (but they do increment
 // the total h.Count).
 func (h *Histogram) Validate() error {
-	if err := checkHistogramSpans(h.NegativeSpans, len(h.NegativeBuckets)); err != nil {
-		return fmt.Errorf("negative side: %w", err)
-	}
-	if err := checkHistogramSpans(h.PositiveSpans, len(h.PositiveBuckets)); err != nil {
-		return fmt.Errorf("positive side: %w", err)
-	}
 	var nCount, pCount uint64
-	err := checkHistogramBuckets(h.NegativeBuckets, &nCount, true)
-	if err != nil {
-		return fmt.Errorf("negative side: %w", err)
+	if h.UsesCustomBuckets() {
+		if err := checkHistogramCustomBounds(h.CustomValues, h.PositiveSpans, len(h.PositiveBuckets)); err != nil {
+			return fmt.Errorf("custom buckets: %w", err)
+		}
+		if h.ZeroCount != 0 {
+			return fmt.Errorf("custom buckets: must have zero count of 0")
+		}
+		if h.ZeroThreshold != 0 {
+			return fmt.Errorf("custom buckets: must have zero threshold of 0")
+		}
+		if len(h.NegativeSpans) > 0 {
+			return fmt.Errorf("custom buckets: must not have negative spans")
+		}
+		if len(h.NegativeBuckets) > 0 {
+			return fmt.Errorf("custom buckets: must not have negative buckets")
+		}
+	} else {
+		if err := checkHistogramSpans(h.PositiveSpans, len(h.PositiveBuckets)); err != nil {
+			return fmt.Errorf("positive side: %w", err)
+		}
+		if err := checkHistogramSpans(h.NegativeSpans, len(h.NegativeBuckets)); err != nil {
+			return fmt.Errorf("negative side: %w", err)
+		}
+		err := checkHistogramBuckets(h.NegativeBuckets, &nCount, true)
+		if err != nil {
+			return fmt.Errorf("negative side: %w", err)
+		}
+		if h.CustomValues != nil {
+			return fmt.Errorf("histogram with exponential schema must not have custom bounds")
+		}
 	}
-	err = checkHistogramBuckets(h.PositiveBuckets, &pCount, true)
+	err := checkHistogramBuckets(h.PositiveBuckets, &pCount, true)
 	if err != nil {
 		return fmt.Errorf("positive side: %w", err)
 	}
@@ -398,12 +481,13 @@ type regularBucketIterator struct {
 	baseBucketIterator[uint64, int64]
 }
 
-func newRegularBucketIterator(spans []Span, buckets []int64, schema int32, positive bool) regularBucketIterator {
+func newRegularBucketIterator(spans []Span, buckets []int64, schema int32, positive bool, customValues []float64) regularBucketIterator {
 	i := baseBucketIterator[uint64, int64]{
-		schema:   schema,
-		spans:    spans,
-		buckets:  buckets,
-		positive: positive,
+		schema:       schema,
+		spans:        spans,
+		buckets:      buckets,
+		positive:     positive,
+		customValues: customValues,
 	}
 	return regularBucketIterator{i}
 }
@@ -477,7 +561,7 @@ func (c *cumulativeBucketIterator) Next() bool {
 
 	if c.emptyBucketCount > 0 {
 		// We are traversing through empty buckets at the moment.
-		c.currUpper = getBound(c.currIdx, c.h.Schema)
+		c.currUpper = getBound(c.currIdx, c.h.Schema, c.h.CustomValues)
 		c.currIdx++
 		c.emptyBucketCount--
 		return true
@@ -494,7 +578,7 @@ func (c *cumulativeBucketIterator) Next() bool {
 
 	c.currCount += c.h.PositiveBuckets[c.posBucketsIdx]
 	c.currCumulativeCount += uint64(c.currCount)
-	c.currUpper = getBound(c.currIdx, c.h.Schema)
+	c.currUpper = getBound(c.currIdx, c.h.Schema, c.h.CustomValues)
 
 	c.posBucketsIdx++
 	c.idxInSpan++
@@ -524,7 +608,15 @@ func (c *cumulativeBucketIterator) At() Bucket[uint64] {
 
 // ReduceResolution reduces the histogram's spans, buckets into target schema.
 // The target schema must be smaller than the current histogram's schema.
+// This will panic if the histogram has custom buckets or if the target schema is
+// a custom buckets schema.
 func (h *Histogram) ReduceResolution(targetSchema int32) *Histogram {
+	if h.UsesCustomBuckets() {
+		panic("cannot reduce resolution when there are custom buckets")
+	}
+	if IsCustomBucketsSchema(targetSchema) {
+		panic("cannot reduce resolution to custom buckets schema")
+	}
 	if targetSchema >= h.Schema {
 		panic(fmt.Errorf("cannot reduce resolution from schema %d to %d", h.Schema, targetSchema))
 	}
diff --git a/model/histogram/histogram_test.go b/model/histogram/histogram_test.go
index 14a948e644..edc8663c94 100644
--- a/model/histogram/histogram_test.go
+++ b/model/histogram/histogram_test.go
@@ -14,8 +14,8 @@
 package histogram
 
 import (
-	"fmt"
 	"math"
+	"strconv"
 	"testing"
 
 	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
@@ -69,10 +69,25 @@ func TestHistogramString(t *testing.T) {
 			},
 			expectedString: "{count:19, sum:2.7, [-64,-32):1, [-16,-8):1, [-8,-4):2, [-4,-2):1, [-2,-1):3, [-1,-0.5):1, (0.5,1]:1, (1,2]:3, (2,4]:1, (4,8]:2, (8,16]:1, (16,32]:1, (32,64]:1}",
 		},
+		{
+			histogram: Histogram{
+				Schema: CustomBucketsSchema,
+				Count:  19,
+				Sum:    2.7,
+				PositiveSpans: []Span{
+					{Offset: 0, Length: 4},
+					{Offset: 0, Length: 0},
+					{Offset: 0, Length: 3},
+				},
+				PositiveBuckets: []int64{1, 2, -2, 1, -1, 0, 0},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 50},
+			},
+			expectedString: "{count:19, sum:2.7, [-Inf,1]:1, (1,2]:3, (2,5]:1, (5,10]:2, (10,15]:1, (15,20]:1, (20,25]:1}",
+		},
 	}
 
 	for i, c := range cases {
-		t.Run(fmt.Sprintf("%d", i), func(t *testing.T) {
+		t.Run(strconv.Itoa(i), func(t *testing.T) {
 			actualString := c.histogram.String()
 			require.Equal(t, c.expectedString, actualString)
 		})
@@ -208,10 +223,30 @@ func TestCumulativeBucketIterator(t *testing.T) {
 				{Lower: math.Inf(-1), Upper: 16, Count: 8, LowerInclusive: true, UpperInclusive: true, Index: 2},
 			},
 		},
+		{
+			histogram: Histogram{
+				Schema: CustomBucketsSchema,
+				PositiveSpans: []Span{
+					{Offset: 0, Length: 2},
+					{Offset: 1, Length: 2},
+				},
+				PositiveBuckets: []int64{1, 1, -1, 0},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{5, 10, 20, 50},
+			},
+			expectedBuckets: []Bucket[uint64]{
+				{Lower: math.Inf(-1), Upper: 5, Count: 1, LowerInclusive: true, UpperInclusive: true, Index: 0},
+				{Lower: math.Inf(-1), Upper: 10, Count: 3, LowerInclusive: true, UpperInclusive: true, Index: 1},
+
+				{Lower: math.Inf(-1), Upper: 20, Count: 3, LowerInclusive: true, UpperInclusive: true, Index: 2},
+
+				{Lower: math.Inf(-1), Upper: 50, Count: 4, LowerInclusive: true, UpperInclusive: true, Index: 3},
+				{Lower: math.Inf(-1), Upper: math.Inf(1), Count: 5, LowerInclusive: true, UpperInclusive: true, Index: 4},
+			},
+		},
 	}
 
 	for i, c := range cases {
-		t.Run(fmt.Sprintf("%d", i), func(t *testing.T) {
+		t.Run(strconv.Itoa(i), func(t *testing.T) {
 			it := c.histogram.CumulativeBucketIterator()
 			actualBuckets := make([]Bucket[uint64], 0, len(c.expectedBuckets))
 			for it.Next() {
@@ -368,10 +403,66 @@ func TestRegularBucketIterator(t *testing.T) {
 			},
 			expectedNegativeBuckets: []Bucket[uint64]{},
 		},
+		{
+			histogram: Histogram{
+				Schema: CustomBucketsSchema,
+				PositiveSpans: []Span{
+					{Offset: 0, Length: 2},
+					{Offset: 1, Length: 2},
+				},
+				PositiveBuckets: []int64{1, 1, -1, 0},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{5, 10, 20, 50},
+			},
+			expectedPositiveBuckets: []Bucket[uint64]{
+				{Lower: math.Inf(-1), Upper: 5, Count: 1, LowerInclusive: true, UpperInclusive: true, Index: 0},
+				{Lower: 5, Upper: 10, Count: 2, LowerInclusive: false, UpperInclusive: true, Index: 1},
+
+				{Lower: 20, Upper: 50, Count: 1, LowerInclusive: false, UpperInclusive: true, Index: 3},
+				{Lower: 50, Upper: math.Inf(1), Count: 1, LowerInclusive: false, UpperInclusive: true, Index: 4},
+			},
+			expectedNegativeBuckets: []Bucket[uint64]{},
+		},
+		{
+			histogram: Histogram{
+				Schema: CustomBucketsSchema,
+				PositiveSpans: []Span{
+					{Offset: 0, Length: 2},
+					{Offset: 1, Length: 2},
+				},
+				PositiveBuckets: []int64{1, 1, -1, 0},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{0, 10, 20, 50},
+			},
+			expectedPositiveBuckets: []Bucket[uint64]{
+				{Lower: math.Inf(-1), Upper: 0, Count: 1, LowerInclusive: true, UpperInclusive: true, Index: 0},
+				{Lower: 0, Upper: 10, Count: 2, LowerInclusive: false, UpperInclusive: true, Index: 1},
+
+				{Lower: 20, Upper: 50, Count: 1, LowerInclusive: false, UpperInclusive: true, Index: 3},
+				{Lower: 50, Upper: math.Inf(1), Count: 1, LowerInclusive: false, UpperInclusive: true, Index: 4},
+			},
+			expectedNegativeBuckets: []Bucket[uint64]{},
+		},
+		{
+			histogram: Histogram{
+				Schema: CustomBucketsSchema,
+				PositiveSpans: []Span{
+					{Offset: 0, Length: 5},
+				},
+				PositiveBuckets: []int64{1, 1, 0, -1, 0},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{-5, 0, 20, 50},
+			},
+			expectedPositiveBuckets: []Bucket[uint64]{
+				{Lower: math.Inf(-1), Upper: -5, Count: 1, LowerInclusive: true, UpperInclusive: true, Index: 0},
+				{Lower: -5, Upper: 0, Count: 2, LowerInclusive: false, UpperInclusive: true, Index: 1},
+				{Lower: 0, Upper: 20, Count: 2, LowerInclusive: false, UpperInclusive: true, Index: 2},
+				{Lower: 20, Upper: 50, Count: 1, LowerInclusive: false, UpperInclusive: true, Index: 3},
+				{Lower: 50, Upper: math.Inf(1), Count: 1, LowerInclusive: false, UpperInclusive: true, Index: 4},
+			},
+			expectedNegativeBuckets: []Bucket[uint64]{},
+		},
 	}
 
 	for i, c := range cases {
-		t.Run(fmt.Sprintf("%d", i), func(t *testing.T) {
+		t.Run(strconv.Itoa(i), func(t *testing.T) {
 			it := c.histogram.PositiveBucketIterator()
 			actualPositiveBuckets := make([]Bucket[uint64], 0, len(c.expectedPositiveBuckets))
 			for it.Next() {
@@ -461,11 +552,81 @@ func TestHistogramToFloat(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 }
 
+func TestCustomBucketsHistogramToFloat(t *testing.T) {
+	h := Histogram{
+		Schema: CustomBucketsSchema,
+		Count:  10,
+		Sum:    2.7,
+		PositiveSpans: []Span{
+			{Offset: 0, Length: 4},
+			{Offset: 0, Length: 0},
+			{Offset: 0, Length: 3},
+		},
+		PositiveBuckets: []int64{1, 2, -2, 1, -1, 0, 0},
+		CustomValues:    []float64{5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 500},
+	}
+	cases := []struct {
+		name string
+		fh   *FloatHistogram
+	}{
+		{name: "without prior float histogram"},
+		{name: "prior float histogram with more buckets", fh: &FloatHistogram{
+			Schema:        2,
+			Count:         3,
+			Sum:           5,
+			ZeroThreshold: 4,
+			ZeroCount:     1,
+			PositiveSpans: []Span{
+				{Offset: 1, Length: 2},
+				{Offset: 1, Length: 2},
+				{Offset: 1, Length: 2},
+			},
+			PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9},
+			NegativeSpans: []Span{
+				{Offset: 20, Length: 6},
+				{Offset: 12, Length: 7},
+				{Offset: 33, Length: 10},
+			},
+			NegativeBuckets: []float64{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9},
+		}},
+		{name: "prior float histogram with fewer buckets", fh: &FloatHistogram{
+			Schema:        2,
+			Count:         3,
+			Sum:           5,
+			ZeroThreshold: 4,
+			ZeroCount:     1,
+			PositiveSpans: []Span{
+				{Offset: 1, Length: 2},
+				{Offset: 1, Length: 2},
+				{Offset: 1, Length: 2},
+			},
+			PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 2},
+			NegativeSpans: []Span{
+				{Offset: 20, Length: 6},
+				{Offset: 12, Length: 7},
+				{Offset: 33, Length: 10},
+			},
+			NegativeBuckets: []float64{1, 2},
+		}},
+	}
+
+	require.NoError(t, h.Validate())
+	for _, c := range cases {
+		t.Run(c.name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			hStr := h.String()
+			fh := h.ToFloat(c.fh)
+			require.NoError(t, fh.Validate())
+			require.Equal(t, hStr, h.String())
+			require.Equal(t, hStr, fh.String())
+		})
+	}
+}
+
 // TestHistogramEquals tests both Histogram and FloatHistogram.
 func TestHistogramEquals(t *testing.T) {
 	h1 := Histogram{
 		Schema:        3,
-		Count:         61,
+		Count:         62,
 		Sum:           2.7,
 		ZeroThreshold: 0.1,
 		ZeroCount:     42,
@@ -495,6 +656,15 @@ func TestHistogramEquals(t *testing.T) {
 		require.False(t, h1f.Equals(h2f))
 		require.False(t, h2f.Equals(h1f))
 	}
+	notEqualsUntilFloatConv := func(h1, h2 Histogram) {
+		require.False(t, h1.Equals(&h2))
+		require.False(t, h2.Equals(&h1))
+		h1f, h2f := h1.ToFloat(nil), h2.ToFloat(nil)
+		require.True(t, h1f.Equals(h2f))
+		require.True(t, h2f.Equals(h1f))
+	}
+
+	require.NoError(t, h1.Validate())
 
 	h2 := h1.Copy()
 	equals(h1, *h2)
@@ -602,6 +772,45 @@ func TestHistogramEquals(t *testing.T) {
 
 	// Sum StaleNaN vs regular NaN.
 	notEquals(*hStale, *hNaN)
+
+	// Has non-empty custom bounds for exponential schema.
+	hCustom := h1.Copy()
+	hCustom.CustomValues = []float64{1, 2, 3}
+	equals(h1, *hCustom)
+
+	cbh1 := Histogram{
+		Schema: CustomBucketsSchema,
+		Count:  10,
+		Sum:    2.7,
+		PositiveSpans: []Span{
+			{Offset: 0, Length: 4},
+			{Offset: 10, Length: 3},
+		},
+		PositiveBuckets: []int64{1, 2, -2, 1, -1, 0, 0},
+		CustomValues:    []float64{0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 50, 75, 100, 200, 250, 500, 1000},
+	}
+
+	require.NoError(t, cbh1.Validate())
+
+	cbh2 := cbh1.Copy()
+	equals(cbh1, *cbh2)
+
+	// Has different custom bounds for custom buckets schema.
+	cbh2 = cbh1.Copy()
+	cbh2.CustomValues = []float64{0.1, 0.2, 0.5}
+	notEquals(cbh1, *cbh2)
+
+	// Has non-empty negative spans and buckets for custom buckets schema.
+	cbh2 = cbh1.Copy()
+	cbh2.NegativeSpans = []Span{{Offset: 0, Length: 1}}
+	cbh2.NegativeBuckets = []int64{1}
+	notEqualsUntilFloatConv(cbh1, *cbh2)
+
+	// Has non-zero zero count and threshold for custom buckets schema.
+	cbh2 = cbh1.Copy()
+	cbh2.ZeroThreshold = 0.1
+	cbh2.ZeroCount = 10
+	notEqualsUntilFloatConv(cbh1, *cbh2)
 }
 
 func TestHistogramCopy(t *testing.T) {
@@ -640,6 +849,21 @@ func TestHistogramCopy(t *testing.T) {
 			},
 			expected: &Histogram{},
 		},
+		{
+			name: "with custom buckets",
+			orig: &Histogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{-2, 1}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []int64{1, 3, -3, 42},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{5, 10, 15},
+			},
+			expected: &Histogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{-2, 1}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []int64{1, 3, -3, 42},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{5, 10, 15},
+			},
+		},
 	}
 
 	for _, tcase := range cases {
@@ -690,6 +914,21 @@ func TestHistogramCopyTo(t *testing.T) {
 			},
 			expected: &Histogram{},
 		},
+		{
+			name: "with custom buckets",
+			orig: &Histogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{-2, 1}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []int64{1, 3, -3, 42},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{5, 10, 15},
+			},
+			expected: &Histogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{-2, 1}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []int64{1, 3, -3, 42},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{5, 10, 15},
+			},
+		},
 	}
 
 	for _, tcase := range cases {
@@ -971,6 +1210,86 @@ func TestHistogramCompact(t *testing.T) {
 				NegativeBuckets: []int64{2, 3},
 			},
 		},
+		{
+			"nothing should happen with custom buckets",
+			&Histogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{-2, 1}, {2, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []int64{1, 3, -3, 42},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{5, 10, 15},
+			},
+			0,
+			&Histogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{-2, 1}, {2, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []int64{1, 3, -3, 42},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{5, 10, 15},
+			},
+		},
+		{
+			"eliminate zero offsets with custom buckets",
+			&Histogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{-2, 1}, {0, 3}, {0, 1}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []int64{1, 3, -3, 42, 3},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{5, 10, 15, 20},
+			},
+			0,
+			&Histogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{-2, 5}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []int64{1, 3, -3, 42, 3},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{5, 10, 15, 20},
+			},
+		},
+		{
+			"eliminate zero length with custom buckets",
+			&Histogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{-2, 2}, {2, 0}, {3, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []int64{1, 3, -3, 42, 3},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{5, 10, 15, 20},
+			},
+			0,
+			&Histogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{-2, 2}, {5, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []int64{1, 3, -3, 42, 3},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{5, 10, 15, 20},
+			},
+		},
+		{
+			"eliminate multiple zero length spans with custom buckets",
+			&Histogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{-2, 2}, {2, 0}, {2, 0}, {2, 0}, {3, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []int64{1, 3, -3, 42, 3},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{5, 10, 15, 20},
+			},
+			0,
+			&Histogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{-2, 2}, {9, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []int64{1, 3, -3, 42, 3},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{5, 10, 15, 20},
+			},
+		},
+		{
+			"cut empty buckets at start or end of spans, even in the middle, with custom buckets",
+			&Histogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{-4, 6}, {3, 6}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []int64{0, 0, 1, 3, -4, 0, 1, 42, 3, -46, 0, 0},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{5, 10, 15, 20},
+			},
+			0,
+			&Histogram{
+				Schema:          CustomBucketsSchema,
+				PositiveSpans:   []Span{{-2, 2}, {5, 3}},
+				PositiveBuckets: []int64{1, 3, -3, 42, 3},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{5, 10, 15, 20},
+			},
+		},
 	}
 
 	for _, c := range cases {
@@ -1107,6 +1426,145 @@ func TestHistogramValidation(t *testing.T) {
 			errMsg:    `3 observations found in buckets, but the Count field is 2: histogram's observation count should equal the number of observations found in the buckets (in absence of NaN)`,
 			skipFloat: true,
 		},
+		"rejects an exponential histogram with custom buckets schema": {
+			h: &Histogram{
+				Count:         12,
+				ZeroCount:     2,
+				ZeroThreshold: 0.001,
+				Sum:           19.4,
+				Schema:        CustomBucketsSchema,
+				PositiveSpans: []Span{
+					{Offset: 0, Length: 2},
+					{Offset: 1, Length: 2},
+				},
+				PositiveBuckets: []int64{1, 1, -1, 0},
+				NegativeSpans: []Span{
+					{Offset: 0, Length: 2},
+					{Offset: 1, Length: 2},
+				},
+				NegativeBuckets: []int64{1, 1, -1, 0},
+			},
+			errMsg: `custom buckets: only 0 custom bounds defined which is insufficient to cover total span length of 5: histogram custom bounds are too few`,
+		},
+		"rejects a custom buckets histogram with exponential schema": {
+			h: &Histogram{
+				Count:  5,
+				Sum:    19.4,
+				Schema: 0,
+				PositiveSpans: []Span{
+					{Offset: 0, Length: 2},
+					{Offset: 1, Length: 2},
+				},
+				PositiveBuckets: []int64{1, 1, -1, 0},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4},
+			},
+			errMsg:    `histogram with exponential schema must not have custom bounds`,
+			skipFloat: true, // Converting to float will remove the wrong fields so only the float version will pass validation
+		},
+		"rejects a custom buckets histogram with zero/negative buckets": {
+			h: &Histogram{
+				Count:         12,
+				ZeroCount:     2,
+				ZeroThreshold: 0.001,
+				Sum:           19.4,
+				Schema:        CustomBucketsSchema,
+				PositiveSpans: []Span{
+					{Offset: 0, Length: 2},
+					{Offset: 1, Length: 2},
+				},
+				PositiveBuckets: []int64{1, 1, -1, 0},
+				NegativeSpans: []Span{
+					{Offset: 0, Length: 2},
+					{Offset: 1, Length: 2},
+				},
+				NegativeBuckets: []int64{1, 1, -1, 0},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4},
+			},
+			errMsg:    `custom buckets: must have zero count of 0`,
+			skipFloat: true, // Converting to float will remove the wrong fields so only the float version will pass validation
+		},
+		"rejects a custom buckets histogram with negative offset in first span": {
+			h: &Histogram{
+				Count:  5,
+				Sum:    19.4,
+				Schema: CustomBucketsSchema,
+				PositiveSpans: []Span{
+					{Offset: -1, Length: 2},
+					{Offset: 1, Length: 2},
+				},
+				PositiveBuckets: []int64{1, 1, -1, 0},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4},
+			},
+			errMsg: `custom buckets: span number 1 with offset -1: histogram has a span whose offset is negative`,
+		},
+		"rejects a custom buckets histogram with negative offset in subsequent spans": {
+			h: &Histogram{
+				Count:  5,
+				Sum:    19.4,
+				Schema: CustomBucketsSchema,
+				PositiveSpans: []Span{
+					{Offset: 0, Length: 2},
+					{Offset: -1, Length: 2},
+				},
+				PositiveBuckets: []int64{1, 1, -1, 0},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4},
+			},
+			errMsg: `custom buckets: span number 2 with offset -1: histogram has a span whose offset is negative`,
+		},
+		"rejects a custom buckets histogram with non-matching bucket counts": {
+			h: &Histogram{
+				Count:  5,
+				Sum:    19.4,
+				Schema: CustomBucketsSchema,
+				PositiveSpans: []Span{
+					{Offset: 0, Length: 2},
+					{Offset: 1, Length: 2},
+				},
+				PositiveBuckets: []int64{1, 1, -1},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4},
+			},
+			errMsg: `custom buckets: spans need 4 buckets, have 3 buckets: histogram spans specify different number of buckets than provided`,
+		},
+		"rejects a custom buckets histogram with too few bounds": {
+			h: &Histogram{
+				Count:  5,
+				Sum:    19.4,
+				Schema: CustomBucketsSchema,
+				PositiveSpans: []Span{
+					{Offset: 0, Length: 2},
+					{Offset: 1, Length: 2},
+				},
+				PositiveBuckets: []int64{1, 1, -1, 0},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3},
+			},
+			errMsg: `custom buckets: only 3 custom bounds defined which is insufficient to cover total span length of 5: histogram custom bounds are too few`,
+		},
+		"valid custom buckets histogram": {
+			h: &Histogram{
+				Count:  5,
+				Sum:    19.4,
+				Schema: CustomBucketsSchema,
+				PositiveSpans: []Span{
+					{Offset: 0, Length: 2},
+					{Offset: 1, Length: 2},
+				},
+				PositiveBuckets: []int64{1, 1, -1, 0},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4},
+			},
+		},
+		"valid custom buckets histogram with extra bounds": {
+			h: &Histogram{
+				Count:  5,
+				Sum:    19.4,
+				Schema: CustomBucketsSchema,
+				PositiveSpans: []Span{
+					{Offset: 0, Length: 2},
+					{Offset: 1, Length: 2},
+				},
+				PositiveBuckets: []int64{1, 1, -1, 0},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8},
+			},
+		},
 	}
 
 	for testName, tc := range tests {
diff --git a/model/labels/labels_common.go b/model/labels/labels_common.go
index f46321c97e..4bc94f84fe 100644
--- a/model/labels/labels_common.go
+++ b/model/labels/labels_common.go
@@ -18,6 +18,7 @@ import (
 	"encoding/json"
 	"slices"
 	"strconv"
+	"unsafe"
 
 	"github.com/prometheus/common/model"
 )
@@ -215,3 +216,7 @@ func contains(s []Label, n string) bool {
 	}
 	return false
 }
+
+func yoloString(b []byte) string {
+	return *((*string)(unsafe.Pointer(&b)))
+}
diff --git a/model/labels/labels_dedupelabels.go b/model/labels/labels_dedupelabels.go
index dfc74aa3a3..0e5bb048be 100644
--- a/model/labels/labels_dedupelabels.go
+++ b/model/labels/labels_dedupelabels.go
@@ -20,7 +20,6 @@ import (
 	"slices"
 	"strings"
 	"sync"
-	"unsafe"
 
 	"github.com/cespare/xxhash/v2"
 )
@@ -105,30 +104,39 @@ func (t *nameTable) ToName(num int) string {
 	return t.byNum[num]
 }
 
+// "Varint" in this file is non-standard: we encode small numbers (up to 32767) in 2 bytes,
+// because we expect most Prometheus to have more than 127 unique strings.
+// And we don't encode numbers larger than 4 bytes because we don't expect more than 536,870,912 unique strings.
 func decodeVarint(data string, index int) (int, int) {
-	// Fast-path for common case of a single byte, value 0..127.
-	b := data[index]
+	b := int(data[index]) + int(data[index+1])<<8
+	index += 2
+	if b < 0x8000 {
+		return b, index
+	}
+	return decodeVarintRest(b, data, index)
+}
+
+func decodeVarintRest(b int, data string, index int) (int, int) {
+	value := int(b & 0x7FFF)
+	b = int(data[index])
 	index++
 	if b < 0x80 {
-		return int(b), index
+		return value | (b << 15), index
 	}
-	value := int(b & 0x7F)
-	for shift := uint(7); ; shift += 7 {
-		// Just panic if we go of the end of data, since all Labels strings are constructed internally and
-		// malformed data indicates a bug, or memory corruption.
-		b := data[index]
-		index++
-		value |= int(b&0x7F) << shift
-		if b < 0x80 {
-			break
-		}
-	}
-	return value, index
+
+	value |= (b & 0x7f) << 15
+	b = int(data[index])
+	index++
+	return value | (b << 22), index
 }
 
 func decodeString(t *nameTable, data string, index int) (string, int) {
-	var num int
-	num, index = decodeVarint(data, index)
+	// Copy decodeVarint here, because the Go compiler says it's too big to inline.
+	num := int(data[index]) + int(data[index+1])<<8
+	index += 2
+	if num >= 0x8000 {
+		num, index = decodeVarintRest(num, data, index)
+	}
 	return t.ToName(num), index
 }
 
@@ -322,7 +330,12 @@ func (ls Labels) Get(name string) string {
 		} else if lName[0] > name[0] { // Stop looking if we've gone past.
 			break
 		}
-		_, i = decodeVarint(ls.data, i)
+		// Copy decodeVarint here, because the Go compiler says it's too big to inline.
+		num := int(ls.data[i]) + int(ls.data[i+1])<<8
+		i += 2
+		if num >= 0x8000 {
+			_, i = decodeVarintRest(num, ls.data, i)
+		}
 	}
 	return ""
 }
@@ -340,7 +353,12 @@ func (ls Labels) Has(name string) bool {
 		} else if lName[0] > name[0] { // Stop looking if we've gone past.
 			break
 		}
-		_, i = decodeVarint(ls.data, i)
+		// Copy decodeVarint here, because the Go compiler says it's too big to inline.
+		num := int(ls.data[i]) + int(ls.data[i+1])<<8
+		i += 2
+		if num >= 0x8000 {
+			_, i = decodeVarintRest(num, ls.data, i)
+		}
 	}
 	return false
 }
@@ -426,10 +444,6 @@ func EmptyLabels() Labels {
 	return Labels{}
 }
 
-func yoloString(b []byte) string {
-	return *((*string)(unsafe.Pointer(&b)))
-}
-
 // New returns a sorted Labels from the given labels.
 // The caller has to guarantee that all label names are unique.
 // Note this function is not efficient; should not be used in performance-critical places.
@@ -646,29 +660,24 @@ func marshalNumbersToSizedBuffer(nums []int, data []byte) int {
 
 func sizeVarint(x uint64) (n int) {
 	// Most common case first
-	if x < 1<<7 {
-		return 1
+	if x < 1<<15 {
+		return 2
 	}
-	if x >= 1<<56 {
-		return 9
+	if x < 1<<22 {
+		return 3
 	}
-	if x >= 1<<28 {
-		x >>= 28
-		n = 4
+	if x >= 1<<29 {
+		panic("Number too large to represent")
 	}
-	if x >= 1<<14 {
-		x >>= 14
-		n += 2
-	}
-	if x >= 1<<7 {
-		n++
-	}
-	return n + 1
+	return 4
 }
 
 func encodeVarintSlow(data []byte, offset int, v uint64) int {
 	offset -= sizeVarint(v)
 	base := offset
+	data[offset] = uint8(v)
+	v >>= 8
+	offset++
 	for v >= 1<<7 {
 		data[offset] = uint8(v&0x7f | 0x80)
 		v >>= 7
@@ -678,11 +687,12 @@ func encodeVarintSlow(data []byte, offset int, v uint64) int {
 	return base
 }
 
-// Special code for the common case that a value is less than 128
+// Special code for the common case that a value is less than 32768
 func encodeVarint(data []byte, offset, v int) int {
-	if v < 1<<7 {
-		offset--
+	if v < 1<<15 {
+		offset -= 2
 		data[offset] = uint8(v)
+		data[offset+1] = uint8(v >> 8)
 		return offset
 	}
 	return encodeVarintSlow(data, offset, uint64(v))
diff --git a/model/labels/labels_dedupelabels_test.go b/model/labels/labels_dedupelabels_test.go
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..5ef9255c21
--- /dev/null
+++ b/model/labels/labels_dedupelabels_test.go
@@ -0,0 +1,50 @@
+// Copyright 2024 The Prometheus Authors
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+//
+// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+
+//go:build dedupelabels
+
+package labels
+
+import (
+	"testing"
+
+	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
+)
+
+func TestVarint(t *testing.T) {
+	cases := []struct {
+		v        int
+		expected []byte
+	}{
+		{0, []byte{0, 0}},
+		{1, []byte{1, 0}},
+		{2, []byte{2, 0}},
+		{0x7FFF, []byte{0xFF, 0x7F}},
+		{0x8000, []byte{0x00, 0x80, 0x01}},
+		{0x8001, []byte{0x01, 0x80, 0x01}},
+		{0x3FFFFF, []byte{0xFF, 0xFF, 0x7F}},
+		{0x400000, []byte{0x00, 0x80, 0x80, 0x01}},
+		{0x400001, []byte{0x01, 0x80, 0x80, 0x01}},
+		{0x1FFFFFFF, []byte{0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0x7F}},
+	}
+	var buf [16]byte
+	for _, c := range cases {
+		n := encodeVarint(buf[:], len(buf), c.v)
+		require.Equal(t, len(c.expected), len(buf)-n)
+		require.Equal(t, c.expected, buf[n:])
+		got, m := decodeVarint(string(buf[:]), n)
+		require.Equal(t, c.v, got)
+		require.Equal(t, len(buf), m)
+	}
+	require.Panics(t, func() { encodeVarint(buf[:], len(buf), 1<<29) })
+}
diff --git a/model/labels/labels_stringlabels.go b/model/labels/labels_stringlabels.go
index 9ef764daec..bccceb61fe 100644
--- a/model/labels/labels_stringlabels.go
+++ b/model/labels/labels_stringlabels.go
@@ -299,11 +299,6 @@ func Equal(ls, o Labels) bool {
 func EmptyLabels() Labels {
 	return Labels{}
 }
-
-func yoloString(b []byte) string {
-	return *((*string)(unsafe.Pointer(&b)))
-}
-
 func yoloBytes(s string) (b []byte) {
 	*(*string)(unsafe.Pointer(&b)) = s
 	(*reflect.SliceHeader)(unsafe.Pointer(&b)).Cap = len(s)
diff --git a/model/labels/labels_test.go b/model/labels/labels_test.go
index 3d6e7659f4..d8910cdc85 100644
--- a/model/labels/labels_test.go
+++ b/model/labels/labels_test.go
@@ -17,6 +17,7 @@ import (
 	"encoding/json"
 	"fmt"
 	"net/http"
+	"strconv"
 	"strings"
 	"testing"
 
@@ -465,6 +466,38 @@ func TestLabels_DropMetricName(t *testing.T) {
 	require.True(t, Equal(original, check))
 }
 
+func ScratchBuilderForBenchmark() ScratchBuilder {
+	// (Only relevant to -tags dedupelabels: stuff the symbol table before adding the real labels, to avoid having everything fitting into 1 byte.)
+	b := NewScratchBuilder(256)
+	for i := 0; i < 256; i++ {
+		b.Add(fmt.Sprintf("name%d", i), fmt.Sprintf("value%d", i))
+	}
+	b.Labels()
+	b.Reset()
+	return b
+}
+
+func NewForBenchmark(ls ...Label) Labels {
+	b := ScratchBuilderForBenchmark()
+	for _, l := range ls {
+		b.Add(l.Name, l.Value)
+	}
+	b.Sort()
+	return b.Labels()
+}
+
+func FromStringsForBenchmark(ss ...string) Labels {
+	if len(ss)%2 != 0 {
+		panic("invalid number of strings")
+	}
+	b := ScratchBuilderForBenchmark()
+	for i := 0; i < len(ss); i += 2 {
+		b.Add(ss[i], ss[i+1])
+	}
+	b.Sort()
+	return b.Labels()
+}
+
 // BenchmarkLabels_Get was written to check whether a binary search can improve the performance vs the linear search implementation
 // The results have shown that binary search would only be better when searching last labels in scenarios with more than 10 labels.
 // In the following list, `old` is the linear search while `new` is the binary search implementation (without calling sort.Search, which performs even worse here)
@@ -487,7 +520,7 @@ func BenchmarkLabels_Get(b *testing.B) {
 	}
 	for _, size := range []int{5, 10, maxLabels} {
 		b.Run(fmt.Sprintf("with %d labels", size), func(b *testing.B) {
-			labels := New(allLabels[:size]...)
+			labels := NewForBenchmark(allLabels[:size]...)
 			for _, scenario := range []struct {
 				desc, label string
 			}{
@@ -519,33 +552,33 @@ var comparisonBenchmarkScenarios = []struct {
 }{
 	{
 		"equal",
-		FromStrings("a_label_name", "a_label_value", "another_label_name", "another_label_value"),
-		FromStrings("a_label_name", "a_label_value", "another_label_name", "another_label_value"),
+		FromStringsForBenchmark("a_label_name", "a_label_value", "another_label_name", "another_label_value"),
+		FromStringsForBenchmark("a_label_name", "a_label_value", "another_label_name", "another_label_value"),
 	},
 	{
 		"not equal",
-		FromStrings("a_label_name", "a_label_value", "another_label_name", "another_label_value"),
-		FromStrings("a_label_name", "a_label_value", "another_label_name", "a_different_label_value"),
+		FromStringsForBenchmark("a_label_name", "a_label_value", "another_label_name", "another_label_value"),
+		FromStringsForBenchmark("a_label_name", "a_label_value", "another_label_name", "a_different_label_value"),
 	},
 	{
 		"different sizes",
-		FromStrings("a_label_name", "a_label_value", "another_label_name", "another_label_value"),
-		FromStrings("a_label_name", "a_label_value"),
+		FromStringsForBenchmark("a_label_name", "a_label_value", "another_label_name", "another_label_value"),
+		FromStringsForBenchmark("a_label_name", "a_label_value"),
 	},
 	{
 		"lots",
-		FromStrings("aaa", "bbb", "ccc", "ddd", "eee", "fff", "ggg", "hhh", "iii", "jjj", "kkk", "lll", "mmm", "nnn", "ooo", "ppp", "qqq", "rrz"),
-		FromStrings("aaa", "bbb", "ccc", "ddd", "eee", "fff", "ggg", "hhh", "iii", "jjj", "kkk", "lll", "mmm", "nnn", "ooo", "ppp", "qqq", "rrr"),
+		FromStringsForBenchmark("aaa", "bbb", "ccc", "ddd", "eee", "fff", "ggg", "hhh", "iii", "jjj", "kkk", "lll", "mmm", "nnn", "ooo", "ppp", "qqq", "rrz"),
+		FromStringsForBenchmark("aaa", "bbb", "ccc", "ddd", "eee", "fff", "ggg", "hhh", "iii", "jjj", "kkk", "lll", "mmm", "nnn", "ooo", "ppp", "qqq", "rrr"),
 	},
 	{
 		"real long equal",
-		FromStrings("__name__", "kube_pod_container_status_last_terminated_exitcode", "cluster", "prod-af-north-0", " container", "prometheus", "instance", "kube-state-metrics-0:kube-state-metrics:ksm", "job", "kube-state-metrics/kube-state-metrics", " namespace", "observability-prometheus", "pod", "observability-prometheus-0", "uid", "d3ec90b2-4975-4607-b45d-b9ad64bb417e"),
-		FromStrings("__name__", "kube_pod_container_status_last_terminated_exitcode", "cluster", "prod-af-north-0", " container", "prometheus", "instance", "kube-state-metrics-0:kube-state-metrics:ksm", "job", "kube-state-metrics/kube-state-metrics", " namespace", "observability-prometheus", "pod", "observability-prometheus-0", "uid", "d3ec90b2-4975-4607-b45d-b9ad64bb417e"),
+		FromStringsForBenchmark("__name__", "kube_pod_container_status_last_terminated_exitcode", "cluster", "prod-af-north-0", " container", "prometheus", "instance", "kube-state-metrics-0:kube-state-metrics:ksm", "job", "kube-state-metrics/kube-state-metrics", " namespace", "observability-prometheus", "pod", "observability-prometheus-0", "uid", "d3ec90b2-4975-4607-b45d-b9ad64bb417e"),
+		FromStringsForBenchmark("__name__", "kube_pod_container_status_last_terminated_exitcode", "cluster", "prod-af-north-0", " container", "prometheus", "instance", "kube-state-metrics-0:kube-state-metrics:ksm", "job", "kube-state-metrics/kube-state-metrics", " namespace", "observability-prometheus", "pod", "observability-prometheus-0", "uid", "d3ec90b2-4975-4607-b45d-b9ad64bb417e"),
 	},
 	{
 		"real long different end",
-		FromStrings("__name__", "kube_pod_container_status_last_terminated_exitcode", "cluster", "prod-af-north-0", " container", "prometheus", "instance", "kube-state-metrics-0:kube-state-metrics:ksm", "job", "kube-state-metrics/kube-state-metrics", " namespace", "observability-prometheus", "pod", "observability-prometheus-0", "uid", "d3ec90b2-4975-4607-b45d-b9ad64bb417e"),
-		FromStrings("__name__", "kube_pod_container_status_last_terminated_exitcode", "cluster", "prod-af-north-0", " container", "prometheus", "instance", "kube-state-metrics-0:kube-state-metrics:ksm", "job", "kube-state-metrics/kube-state-metrics", " namespace", "observability-prometheus", "pod", "observability-prometheus-0", "uid", "deadbeef-0000-1111-2222-b9ad64bb417e"),
+		FromStringsForBenchmark("__name__", "kube_pod_container_status_last_terminated_exitcode", "cluster", "prod-af-north-0", " container", "prometheus", "instance", "kube-state-metrics-0:kube-state-metrics:ksm", "job", "kube-state-metrics/kube-state-metrics", " namespace", "observability-prometheus", "pod", "observability-prometheus-0", "uid", "d3ec90b2-4975-4607-b45d-b9ad64bb417e"),
+		FromStringsForBenchmark("__name__", "kube_pod_container_status_last_terminated_exitcode", "cluster", "prod-af-north-0", " container", "prometheus", "instance", "kube-state-metrics-0:kube-state-metrics:ksm", "job", "kube-state-metrics/kube-state-metrics", " namespace", "observability-prometheus", "pod", "observability-prometheus-0", "uid", "deadbeef-0000-1111-2222-b9ad64bb417e"),
 	},
 }
 
@@ -732,7 +765,7 @@ func TestScratchBuilder(t *testing.T) {
 			want: FromStrings("ddd", "444"),
 		},
 	} {
-		t.Run(fmt.Sprint(i), func(t *testing.T) {
+		t.Run(strconv.Itoa(i), func(t *testing.T) {
 			b := NewScratchBuilder(len(tcase.add))
 			for _, lbl := range tcase.add {
 				b.Add(lbl.Name, lbl.Value)
@@ -833,7 +866,7 @@ func BenchmarkBuilder(b *testing.B) {
 }
 
 func BenchmarkLabels_Copy(b *testing.B) {
-	l := New(benchmarkLabels...)
+	l := NewForBenchmark(benchmarkLabels...)
 
 	for i := 0; i < b.N; i++ {
 		l = l.Copy()
diff --git a/model/labels/matcher.go b/model/labels/matcher.go
index 1282f80d63..a09c838e3f 100644
--- a/model/labels/matcher.go
+++ b/model/labels/matcher.go
@@ -14,7 +14,8 @@
 package labels
 
 import (
-	"fmt"
+	"bytes"
+	"strconv"
 )
 
 // MatchType is an enum for label matching types.
@@ -78,7 +79,29 @@ func MustNewMatcher(mt MatchType, name, val string) *Matcher {
 }
 
 func (m *Matcher) String() string {
-	return fmt.Sprintf("%s%s%q", m.Name, m.Type, m.Value)
+	// Start a buffer with a pre-allocated size on stack to cover most needs.
+	var bytea [1024]byte
+	b := bytes.NewBuffer(bytea[:0])
+
+	if m.shouldQuoteName() {
+		b.Write(strconv.AppendQuote(b.AvailableBuffer(), m.Name))
+	} else {
+		b.WriteString(m.Name)
+	}
+	b.WriteString(m.Type.String())
+	b.Write(strconv.AppendQuote(b.AvailableBuffer(), m.Value))
+
+	return b.String()
+}
+
+func (m *Matcher) shouldQuoteName() bool {
+	for i, c := range m.Name {
+		if c == '_' || (c >= 'a' && c <= 'z') || (c >= 'A' && c <= 'Z') || (i > 0 && c >= '0' && c <= '9') {
+			continue
+		}
+		return true
+	}
+	return len(m.Name) == 0
 }
 
 // Matches returns whether the matcher matches the given string value.
diff --git a/model/labels/matcher_test.go b/model/labels/matcher_test.go
index c23deafe61..ff39d40d0f 100644
--- a/model/labels/matcher_test.go
+++ b/model/labels/matcher_test.go
@@ -15,6 +15,7 @@ package labels
 
 import (
 	"fmt"
+	"math/rand"
 	"testing"
 
 	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
@@ -225,3 +226,128 @@ func BenchmarkNewMatcher(b *testing.B) {
 		}
 	})
 }
+
+func BenchmarkMatcher_String(b *testing.B) {
+	type benchCase struct {
+		name     string
+		matchers []*Matcher
+	}
+	cases := []benchCase{
+		{
+			name: "short name equal",
+			matchers: []*Matcher{
+				MustNewMatcher(MatchEqual, "foo", "bar"),
+				MustNewMatcher(MatchEqual, "bar", "baz"),
+				MustNewMatcher(MatchEqual, "abc", "def"),
+				MustNewMatcher(MatchEqual, "ghi", "klm"),
+				MustNewMatcher(MatchEqual, "nop", "qrs"),
+			},
+		},
+		{
+			name: "short quoted name not equal",
+			matchers: []*Matcher{
+				MustNewMatcher(MatchEqual, "f.o", "bar"),
+				MustNewMatcher(MatchEqual, "b.r", "baz"),
+				MustNewMatcher(MatchEqual, "a.c", "def"),
+				MustNewMatcher(MatchEqual, "g.i", "klm"),
+				MustNewMatcher(MatchEqual, "n.p", "qrs"),
+			},
+		},
+		{
+			name: "short quoted name with quotes not equal",
+			matchers: []*Matcher{
+				MustNewMatcher(MatchEqual, `"foo"`, "bar"),
+				MustNewMatcher(MatchEqual, `"foo"`, "baz"),
+				MustNewMatcher(MatchEqual, `"foo"`, "def"),
+				MustNewMatcher(MatchEqual, `"foo"`, "klm"),
+				MustNewMatcher(MatchEqual, `"foo"`, "qrs"),
+			},
+		},
+		{
+			name: "short name value with quotes equal",
+			matchers: []*Matcher{
+				MustNewMatcher(MatchEqual, "foo", `"bar"`),
+				MustNewMatcher(MatchEqual, "bar", `"baz"`),
+				MustNewMatcher(MatchEqual, "abc", `"def"`),
+				MustNewMatcher(MatchEqual, "ghi", `"klm"`),
+				MustNewMatcher(MatchEqual, "nop", `"qrs"`),
+			},
+		},
+		{
+			name: "short name and long value regexp",
+			matchers: []*Matcher{
+				MustNewMatcher(MatchRegexp, "foo", "five_six_seven_eight_nine_ten_one_two_three_four"),
+				MustNewMatcher(MatchRegexp, "bar", "one_two_three_four_five_six_seven_eight_nine_ten"),
+				MustNewMatcher(MatchRegexp, "abc", "two_three_four_five_six_seven_eight_nine_ten_one"),
+				MustNewMatcher(MatchRegexp, "ghi", "three_four_five_six_seven_eight_nine_ten_one_two"),
+				MustNewMatcher(MatchRegexp, "nop", "four_five_six_seven_eight_nine_ten_one_two_three"),
+			},
+		},
+		{
+			name: "short name and long value with quotes equal",
+			matchers: []*Matcher{
+				MustNewMatcher(MatchEqual, "foo", `five_six_seven_eight_nine_ten_"one"_two_three_four`),
+				MustNewMatcher(MatchEqual, "bar", `one_two_three_four_five_six_"seven"_eight_nine_ten`),
+				MustNewMatcher(MatchEqual, "abc", `two_three_four_five_six_seven_"eight"_nine_ten_one`),
+				MustNewMatcher(MatchEqual, "ghi", `three_four_five_six_seven_eight_"nine"_ten_one_two`),
+				MustNewMatcher(MatchEqual, "nop", `four_five_six_seven_eight_nine_"ten"_one_two_three`),
+			},
+		},
+		{
+			name: "long name regexp",
+			matchers: []*Matcher{
+				MustNewMatcher(MatchRegexp, "one_two_three_four_five_six_seven_eight_nine_ten", "val"),
+				MustNewMatcher(MatchRegexp, "two_three_four_five_six_seven_eight_nine_ten_one", "val"),
+				MustNewMatcher(MatchRegexp, "three_four_five_six_seven_eight_nine_ten_one_two", "val"),
+				MustNewMatcher(MatchRegexp, "four_five_six_seven_eight_nine_ten_one_two_three", "val"),
+				MustNewMatcher(MatchRegexp, "five_six_seven_eight_nine_ten_one_two_three_four", "val"),
+			},
+		},
+		{
+			name: "long quoted name regexp",
+			matchers: []*Matcher{
+				MustNewMatcher(MatchRegexp, "one.two.three.four.five.six.seven.eight.nine.ten", "val"),
+				MustNewMatcher(MatchRegexp, "two.three.four.five.six.seven.eight.nine.ten.one", "val"),
+				MustNewMatcher(MatchRegexp, "three.four.five.six.seven.eight.nine.ten.one.two", "val"),
+				MustNewMatcher(MatchRegexp, "four.five.six.seven.eight.nine.ten.one.two.three", "val"),
+				MustNewMatcher(MatchRegexp, "five.six.seven.eight.nine.ten.one.two.three.four", "val"),
+			},
+		},
+		{
+			name: "long name and long value regexp",
+			matchers: []*Matcher{
+				MustNewMatcher(MatchRegexp, "one_two_three_four_five_six_seven_eight_nine_ten", "five_six_seven_eight_nine_ten_one_two_three_four"),
+				MustNewMatcher(MatchRegexp, "two_three_four_five_six_seven_eight_nine_ten_one", "one_two_three_four_five_six_seven_eight_nine_ten"),
+				MustNewMatcher(MatchRegexp, "three_four_five_six_seven_eight_nine_ten_one_two", "two_three_four_five_six_seven_eight_nine_ten_one"),
+				MustNewMatcher(MatchRegexp, "four_five_six_seven_eight_nine_ten_one_two_three", "three_four_five_six_seven_eight_nine_ten_one_two"),
+				MustNewMatcher(MatchRegexp, "five_six_seven_eight_nine_ten_one_two_three_four", "four_five_six_seven_eight_nine_ten_one_two_three"),
+			},
+		},
+		{
+			name: "long quoted name and long value regexp",
+			matchers: []*Matcher{
+				MustNewMatcher(MatchRegexp, "one.two.three.four.five.six.seven.eight.nine.ten", "five.six.seven.eight.nine.ten.one.two.three.four"),
+				MustNewMatcher(MatchRegexp, "two.three.four.five.six.seven.eight.nine.ten.one", "one.two.three.four.five.six.seven.eight.nine.ten"),
+				MustNewMatcher(MatchRegexp, "three.four.five.six.seven.eight.nine.ten.one.two", "two.three.four.five.six.seven.eight.nine.ten.one"),
+				MustNewMatcher(MatchRegexp, "four.five.six.seven.eight.nine.ten.one.two.three", "three.four.five.six.seven.eight.nine.ten.one.two"),
+				MustNewMatcher(MatchRegexp, "five.six.seven.eight.nine.ten.one.two.three.four", "four.five.six.seven.eight.nine.ten.one.two.three"),
+			},
+		},
+	}
+
+	var mixed []*Matcher
+	for _, bc := range cases {
+		mixed = append(mixed, bc.matchers...)
+	}
+	rand.Shuffle(len(mixed), func(i, j int) { mixed[i], mixed[j] = mixed[j], mixed[i] })
+	cases = append(cases, benchCase{name: "mixed", matchers: mixed})
+
+	for _, bc := range cases {
+		b.Run(bc.name, func(b *testing.B) {
+			for i := 0; i <= b.N; i++ {
+				m := bc.matchers[i%len(bc.matchers)]
+				_ = m.String()
+			}
+		})
+	}
+}
diff --git a/model/labels/regexp.go b/model/labels/regexp.go
index f35dc76f60..d2151d83dd 100644
--- a/model/labels/regexp.go
+++ b/model/labels/regexp.go
@@ -16,16 +16,19 @@ package labels
 import (
 	"slices"
 	"strings"
+	"unicode"
+	"unicode/utf8"
 
 	"github.com/grafana/regexp"
 	"github.com/grafana/regexp/syntax"
+	"golang.org/x/text/unicode/norm"
 )
 
 const (
 	maxSetMatches = 256
 
 	// The minimum number of alternate values a regex should have to trigger
-	// the optimization done by optimizeEqualStringMatchers() and so use a map
+	// the optimization done by optimizeEqualOrPrefixStringMatchers() and so use a map
 	// to match values instead of iterating over a list. This value has
 	// been computed running BenchmarkOptimizeEqualStringMatchers.
 	minEqualMultiStringMatcherMapThreshold = 16
@@ -41,7 +44,7 @@ type FastRegexMatcher struct {
 	stringMatcher StringMatcher
 	prefix        string
 	suffix        string
-	contains      string
+	contains      []string
 
 	// matchString is the "compiled" function to run by MatchString().
 	matchString func(string) bool
@@ -86,7 +89,7 @@ func NewFastRegexMatcher(v string) (*FastRegexMatcher, error) {
 // compileMatchStringFunction returns the function to run by MatchString().
 func (m *FastRegexMatcher) compileMatchStringFunction() func(string) bool {
 	// If the only optimization available is the string matcher, then we can just run it.
-	if len(m.setMatches) == 0 && m.prefix == "" && m.suffix == "" && m.contains == "" && m.stringMatcher != nil {
+	if len(m.setMatches) == 0 && m.prefix == "" && m.suffix == "" && len(m.contains) == 0 && m.stringMatcher != nil {
 		return m.stringMatcher.Matches
 	}
 
@@ -105,7 +108,7 @@ func (m *FastRegexMatcher) compileMatchStringFunction() func(string) bool {
 		if m.suffix != "" && !strings.HasSuffix(s, m.suffix) {
 			return false
 		}
-		if m.contains != "" && !strings.Contains(s, m.contains) {
+		if len(m.contains) > 0 && !containsInOrder(s, m.contains) {
 			return false
 		}
 		if m.stringMatcher != nil {
@@ -118,7 +121,7 @@ func (m *FastRegexMatcher) compileMatchStringFunction() func(string) bool {
 // IsOptimized returns true if any fast-path optimization is applied to the
 // regex matcher.
 func (m *FastRegexMatcher) IsOptimized() bool {
-	return len(m.setMatches) > 0 || m.stringMatcher != nil || m.prefix != "" || m.suffix != "" || m.contains != ""
+	return len(m.setMatches) > 0 || m.stringMatcher != nil || m.prefix != "" || m.suffix != "" || len(m.contains) > 0
 }
 
 // findSetMatches extract equality matches from a regexp.
@@ -334,7 +337,7 @@ func optimizeAlternatingLiterals(s string) (StringMatcher, []string) {
 		return nil, nil
 	}
 
-	multiMatcher := newEqualMultiStringMatcher(true, estimatedAlternates)
+	multiMatcher := newEqualMultiStringMatcher(true, estimatedAlternates, 0, 0)
 
 	for end := strings.IndexByte(s, '|'); end > -1; end = strings.IndexByte(s, '|') {
 		// Split the string into the next literal and the remainder
@@ -360,8 +363,9 @@ func optimizeAlternatingLiterals(s string) (StringMatcher, []string) {
 
 // optimizeConcatRegex returns literal prefix/suffix text that can be safely
 // checked against the label value before running the regexp matcher.
-func optimizeConcatRegex(r *syntax.Regexp) (prefix, suffix, contains string) {
+func optimizeConcatRegex(r *syntax.Regexp) (prefix, suffix string, contains []string) {
 	sub := r.Sub
+	clearCapture(sub...)
 
 	// We can safely remove begin and end text matchers respectively
 	// at the beginning and end of the regexp.
@@ -386,13 +390,11 @@ func optimizeConcatRegex(r *syntax.Regexp) (prefix, suffix, contains string) {
 		suffix = string(sub[last].Rune)
 	}
 
-	// If contains any literal which is not a prefix/suffix, we keep the
-	// 1st one. We do not keep the whole list of literals to simplify the
-	// fast path.
+	// If contains any literal which is not a prefix/suffix, we keep track of
+	// all the ones which are case-sensitive.
 	for i := 1; i < len(sub)-1; i++ {
 		if sub[i].Op == syntax.OpLiteral && (sub[i].Flags&syntax.FoldCase) == 0 {
-			contains = string(sub[i].Rune)
-			break
+			contains = append(contains, string(sub[i].Rune))
 		}
 	}
 
@@ -410,7 +412,7 @@ func stringMatcherFromRegexp(re *syntax.Regexp) StringMatcher {
 	clearBeginEndText(re)
 
 	m := stringMatcherFromRegexpInternal(re)
-	m = optimizeEqualStringMatchers(m, minEqualMultiStringMatcherMapThreshold)
+	m = optimizeEqualOrPrefixStringMatchers(m, minEqualMultiStringMatcherMapThreshold)
 
 	return m
 }
@@ -547,11 +549,7 @@ func stringMatcherFromRegexpInternal(re *syntax.Regexp) StringMatcher {
 
 		// Right matcher with 1 fixed set match.
 		case left == nil && len(matches) == 1:
-			return &literalPrefixStringMatcher{
-				prefix:              matches[0],
-				prefixCaseSensitive: matchesCaseSensitive,
-				right:               right,
-			}
+			return newLiteralPrefixStringMatcher(matches[0], matchesCaseSensitive, right)
 
 		// Left matcher with 1 fixed set match.
 		case right == nil && len(matches) == 1:
@@ -629,21 +627,47 @@ func (m *containsStringMatcher) Matches(s string) bool {
 	return false
 }
 
-// literalPrefixStringMatcher matches a string with the given literal prefix and right side matcher.
-type literalPrefixStringMatcher struct {
-	prefix              string
-	prefixCaseSensitive bool
+func newLiteralPrefixStringMatcher(prefix string, prefixCaseSensitive bool, right StringMatcher) StringMatcher {
+	if prefixCaseSensitive {
+		return &literalPrefixSensitiveStringMatcher{
+			prefix: prefix,
+			right:  right,
+		}
+	}
+
+	return &literalPrefixInsensitiveStringMatcher{
+		prefix: prefix,
+		right:  right,
+	}
+}
+
+// literalPrefixSensitiveStringMatcher matches a string with the given literal case-sensitive prefix and right side matcher.
+type literalPrefixSensitiveStringMatcher struct {
+	prefix string
 
 	// The matcher that must match the right side. Can be nil.
 	right StringMatcher
 }
 
-func (m *literalPrefixStringMatcher) Matches(s string) bool {
-	// Ensure the prefix matches.
-	if m.prefixCaseSensitive && !strings.HasPrefix(s, m.prefix) {
+func (m *literalPrefixSensitiveStringMatcher) Matches(s string) bool {
+	if !strings.HasPrefix(s, m.prefix) {
 		return false
 	}
-	if !m.prefixCaseSensitive && !hasPrefixCaseInsensitive(s, m.prefix) {
+
+	// Ensure the right side matches.
+	return m.right.Matches(s[len(m.prefix):])
+}
+
+// literalPrefixInsensitiveStringMatcher matches a string with the given literal case-insensitive prefix and right side matcher.
+type literalPrefixInsensitiveStringMatcher struct {
+	prefix string
+
+	// The matcher that must match the right side. Can be nil.
+	right StringMatcher
+}
+
+func (m *literalPrefixInsensitiveStringMatcher) Matches(s string) bool {
+	if !hasPrefixCaseInsensitive(s, m.prefix) {
 		return false
 	}
 
@@ -708,17 +732,20 @@ func (m *equalStringMatcher) Matches(s string) bool {
 type multiStringMatcherBuilder interface {
 	StringMatcher
 	add(s string)
+	addPrefix(prefix string, prefixCaseSensitive bool, matcher StringMatcher)
 	setMatches() []string
 }
 
-func newEqualMultiStringMatcher(caseSensitive bool, estimatedSize int) multiStringMatcherBuilder {
+func newEqualMultiStringMatcher(caseSensitive bool, estimatedSize, estimatedPrefixes, minPrefixLength int) multiStringMatcherBuilder {
 	// If the estimated size is low enough, it's faster to use a slice instead of a map.
-	if estimatedSize < minEqualMultiStringMatcherMapThreshold {
+	if estimatedSize < minEqualMultiStringMatcherMapThreshold && estimatedPrefixes == 0 {
 		return &equalMultiStringSliceMatcher{caseSensitive: caseSensitive, values: make([]string, 0, estimatedSize)}
 	}
 
 	return &equalMultiStringMapMatcher{
 		values:        make(map[string]struct{}, estimatedSize),
+		prefixes:      make(map[string][]StringMatcher, estimatedPrefixes),
+		minPrefixLen:  minPrefixLength,
 		caseSensitive: caseSensitive,
 	}
 }
@@ -734,6 +761,10 @@ func (m *equalMultiStringSliceMatcher) add(s string) {
 	m.values = append(m.values, s)
 }
 
+func (m *equalMultiStringSliceMatcher) addPrefix(_ string, _ bool, _ StringMatcher) {
+	panic("not implemented")
+}
+
 func (m *equalMultiStringSliceMatcher) setMatches() []string {
 	return m.values
 }
@@ -755,25 +786,49 @@ func (m *equalMultiStringSliceMatcher) Matches(s string) bool {
 	return false
 }
 
-// equalMultiStringMapMatcher matches a string exactly against a map of valid values.
+// equalMultiStringMapMatcher matches a string exactly against a map of valid values
+// or against a set of prefix matchers.
 type equalMultiStringMapMatcher struct {
 	// values contains values to match a string against. If the matching is case insensitive,
 	// the values here must be lowercase.
 	values map[string]struct{}
-
+	// prefixes maps strings, all of length minPrefixLen, to sets of matchers to check the rest of the string.
+	// If the matching is case insensitive, prefixes are all lowercase.
+	prefixes map[string][]StringMatcher
+	// minPrefixLen can be zero, meaning there are no prefix matchers.
+	minPrefixLen  int
 	caseSensitive bool
 }
 
 func (m *equalMultiStringMapMatcher) add(s string) {
 	if !m.caseSensitive {
-		s = strings.ToLower(s)
+		s = toNormalisedLower(s)
 	}
 
 	m.values[s] = struct{}{}
 }
 
+func (m *equalMultiStringMapMatcher) addPrefix(prefix string, prefixCaseSensitive bool, matcher StringMatcher) {
+	if m.minPrefixLen == 0 {
+		panic("addPrefix called when no prefix length defined")
+	}
+	if len(prefix) < m.minPrefixLen {
+		panic("addPrefix called with a too short prefix")
+	}
+	if m.caseSensitive != prefixCaseSensitive {
+		panic("addPrefix called with a prefix whose case sensitivity is different than the expected one")
+	}
+
+	s := prefix[:m.minPrefixLen]
+	if !m.caseSensitive {
+		s = strings.ToLower(s)
+	}
+
+	m.prefixes[s] = append(m.prefixes[s], matcher)
+}
+
 func (m *equalMultiStringMapMatcher) setMatches() []string {
-	if len(m.values) >= maxSetMatches {
+	if len(m.values) >= maxSetMatches || len(m.prefixes) > 0 {
 		return nil
 	}
 
@@ -786,11 +841,42 @@ func (m *equalMultiStringMapMatcher) setMatches() []string {
 
 func (m *equalMultiStringMapMatcher) Matches(s string) bool {
 	if !m.caseSensitive {
-		s = strings.ToLower(s)
+		s = toNormalisedLower(s)
 	}
 
-	_, ok := m.values[s]
-	return ok
+	if _, ok := m.values[s]; ok {
+		return true
+	}
+	if m.minPrefixLen > 0 && len(s) >= m.minPrefixLen {
+		for _, matcher := range m.prefixes[s[:m.minPrefixLen]] {
+			if matcher.Matches(s) {
+				return true
+			}
+		}
+	}
+	return false
+}
+
+// toNormalisedLower normalise the input string using "Unicode Normalization Form D" and then convert
+// it to lower case.
+func toNormalisedLower(s string) string {
+	var buf []byte
+	for i := 0; i < len(s); i++ {
+		c := s[i]
+		if c >= utf8.RuneSelf {
+			return strings.Map(unicode.ToLower, norm.NFKD.String(s))
+		}
+		if 'A' <= c && c <= 'Z' {
+			if buf == nil {
+				buf = []byte(s)
+			}
+			buf[i] = c + 'a' - 'A'
+		}
+	}
+	if buf == nil {
+		return s
+	}
+	return yoloString(buf)
 }
 
 // anyStringWithoutNewlineMatcher is a stringMatcher which matches any string
@@ -827,8 +913,12 @@ type zeroOrOneCharacterStringMatcher struct {
 }
 
 func (m *zeroOrOneCharacterStringMatcher) Matches(s string) bool {
-	// Zero or one.
-	if len(s) > 1 {
+	// If there's more than one rune in the string, then it can't match.
+	if r, size := utf8.DecodeRuneInString(s); r == utf8.RuneError {
+		// Size is 0 for empty strings, 1 for invalid rune.
+		// Empty string matches, invalid rune matches if there isn't anything else.
+		return size == len(s)
+	} else if size < len(s) {
 		return false
 	}
 
@@ -847,20 +937,24 @@ func (m trueMatcher) Matches(_ string) bool {
 	return true
 }
 
-// optimizeEqualStringMatchers optimize a specific case where all matchers are made by an
-// alternation (orStringMatcher) of strings checked for equality (equalStringMatcher). In
-// this specific case, when we have many strings to match against we can use a map instead
+// optimizeEqualOrPrefixStringMatchers optimize a specific case where all matchers are made by an
+// alternation (orStringMatcher) of strings checked for equality (equalStringMatcher) or
+// with a literal prefix (literalPrefixSensitiveStringMatcher or literalPrefixInsensitiveStringMatcher).
+//
+// In this specific case, when we have many strings to match against we can use a map instead
 // of iterating over the list of strings.
-func optimizeEqualStringMatchers(input StringMatcher, threshold int) StringMatcher {
+func optimizeEqualOrPrefixStringMatchers(input StringMatcher, threshold int) StringMatcher {
 	var (
 		caseSensitive    bool
 		caseSensitiveSet bool
 		numValues        int
+		numPrefixes      int
+		minPrefixLength  int
 	)
 
 	// Analyse the input StringMatcher to count the number of occurrences
 	// and ensure all of them have the same case sensitivity.
-	analyseCallback := func(matcher *equalStringMatcher) bool {
+	analyseEqualMatcherCallback := func(matcher *equalStringMatcher) bool {
 		// Ensure we don't have mixed case sensitivity.
 		if caseSensitiveSet && caseSensitive != matcher.caseSensitive {
 			return false
@@ -873,34 +967,55 @@ func optimizeEqualStringMatchers(input StringMatcher, threshold int) StringMatch
 		return true
 	}
 
-	if !findEqualStringMatchers(input, analyseCallback) {
+	analysePrefixMatcherCallback := func(prefix string, prefixCaseSensitive bool, matcher StringMatcher) bool {
+		// Ensure we don't have mixed case sensitivity.
+		if caseSensitiveSet && caseSensitive != prefixCaseSensitive {
+			return false
+		} else if !caseSensitiveSet {
+			caseSensitive = prefixCaseSensitive
+			caseSensitiveSet = true
+		}
+		if numPrefixes == 0 || len(prefix) < minPrefixLength {
+			minPrefixLength = len(prefix)
+		}
+
+		numPrefixes++
+		return true
+	}
+
+	if !findEqualOrPrefixStringMatchers(input, analyseEqualMatcherCallback, analysePrefixMatcherCallback) {
 		return input
 	}
 
-	// If the number of values found is less than the threshold, then we should skip the optimization.
-	if numValues < threshold {
+	// If the number of values and prefixes found is less than the threshold, then we should skip the optimization.
+	if (numValues + numPrefixes) < threshold {
 		return input
 	}
 
 	// Parse again the input StringMatcher to extract all values and storing them.
 	// We can skip the case sensitivity check because we've already checked it and
 	// if the code reach this point then it means all matchers have the same case sensitivity.
-	multiMatcher := newEqualMultiStringMatcher(caseSensitive, numValues)
+	multiMatcher := newEqualMultiStringMatcher(caseSensitive, numValues, numPrefixes, minPrefixLength)
 
 	// Ignore the return value because we already iterated over the input StringMatcher
 	// and it was all good.
-	findEqualStringMatchers(input, func(matcher *equalStringMatcher) bool {
+	findEqualOrPrefixStringMatchers(input, func(matcher *equalStringMatcher) bool {
 		multiMatcher.add(matcher.s)
 		return true
+	}, func(prefix string, prefixCaseSensitive bool, matcher StringMatcher) bool {
+		multiMatcher.addPrefix(prefix, caseSensitive, matcher)
+		return true
 	})
 
 	return multiMatcher
 }
 
-// findEqualStringMatchers analyze the input StringMatcher and calls the callback for each
-// equalStringMatcher found. Returns true if and only if the input StringMatcher is *only*
-// composed by an alternation of equalStringMatcher.
-func findEqualStringMatchers(input StringMatcher, callback func(matcher *equalStringMatcher) bool) bool {
+// findEqualOrPrefixStringMatchers analyze the input StringMatcher and calls the equalMatcherCallback for each
+// equalStringMatcher found, and prefixMatcherCallback for each literalPrefixSensitiveStringMatcher and literalPrefixInsensitiveStringMatcher found.
+//
+// Returns true if and only if the input StringMatcher is *only* composed by an alternation of equalStringMatcher and/or
+// literal prefix matcher. Returns false if prefixMatcherCallback is nil and a literal prefix matcher is encountered.
+func findEqualOrPrefixStringMatchers(input StringMatcher, equalMatcherCallback func(matcher *equalStringMatcher) bool, prefixMatcherCallback func(prefix string, prefixCaseSensitive bool, matcher StringMatcher) bool) bool {
 	orInput, ok := input.(orStringMatcher)
 	if !ok {
 		return false
@@ -909,17 +1024,27 @@ func findEqualStringMatchers(input StringMatcher, callback func(matcher *equalSt
 	for _, m := range orInput {
 		switch casted := m.(type) {
 		case orStringMatcher:
-			if !findEqualStringMatchers(m, callback) {
+			if !findEqualOrPrefixStringMatchers(m, equalMatcherCallback, prefixMatcherCallback) {
 				return false
 			}
 
 		case *equalStringMatcher:
-			if !callback(casted) {
+			if !equalMatcherCallback(casted) {
+				return false
+			}
+
+		case *literalPrefixSensitiveStringMatcher:
+			if prefixMatcherCallback == nil || !prefixMatcherCallback(casted.prefix, true, casted) {
+				return false
+			}
+
+		case *literalPrefixInsensitiveStringMatcher:
+			if prefixMatcherCallback == nil || !prefixMatcherCallback(casted.prefix, false, casted) {
 				return false
 			}
 
 		default:
-			// It's not an equal string matcher, so we have to stop searching
+			// It's not an equal or prefix string matcher, so we have to stop searching
 			// cause this optimization can't be applied.
 			return false
 		}
@@ -935,3 +1060,27 @@ func hasPrefixCaseInsensitive(s, prefix string) bool {
 func hasSuffixCaseInsensitive(s, suffix string) bool {
 	return len(s) >= len(suffix) && strings.EqualFold(s[len(s)-len(suffix):], suffix)
 }
+
+func containsInOrder(s string, contains []string) bool {
+	// Optimization for the case we only have to look for 1 substring.
+	if len(contains) == 1 {
+		return strings.Contains(s, contains[0])
+	}
+
+	return containsInOrderMulti(s, contains)
+}
+
+func containsInOrderMulti(s string, contains []string) bool {
+	offset := 0
+
+	for _, substr := range contains {
+		at := strings.Index(s[offset:], substr)
+		if at == -1 {
+			return false
+		}
+
+		offset += at + len(substr)
+	}
+
+	return true
+}
diff --git a/model/labels/regexp_test.go b/model/labels/regexp_test.go
index 3a15b52b40..24875e64ef 100644
--- a/model/labels/regexp_test.go
+++ b/model/labels/regexp_test.go
@@ -19,6 +19,7 @@ import (
 	"strings"
 	"testing"
 	"time"
+	"unicode/utf8"
 
 	"github.com/grafana/regexp"
 	"github.com/grafana/regexp/syntax"
@@ -36,6 +37,7 @@ var (
 		".*foo",
 		"^.*foo$",
 		"^.+foo$",
+		".?",
 		".*",
 		".+",
 		"foo.+",
@@ -68,6 +70,9 @@ var (
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 		// A long case insensitive alternation.
 		"(?i:(zQPbMkNO|NNSPdvMi|iWuuSoAl|qbvKMimS|IecrXtPa|seTckYqt|NxnyHkgB|fIDlOgKb|UhlWIygH|OtNoJxHG|cUTkFVIV|mTgFIHjr|jQkoIDtE|PPMKxRXl|AwMfwVkQ|CQyMrTQJ|BzrqxVSi|nTpcWuhF|PertdywG|ZZDgCtXN|WWdDPyyE|uVtNQsKk|BdeCHvPZ|wshRnFlH|aOUIitIp|RxZeCdXT|CFZMslCj|AVBZRDxl|IzIGCnhw|ythYuWiz|oztXVXhl|VbLkwqQx|qvaUgyVC|VawUjPWC|ecloYJuj|boCLTdSU|uPrKeAZx|hrMWLWBq|JOnUNHRM|rYnujkPq|dDEdZhIj|DRrfvugG|yEGfDxVV|YMYdJWuP|PHUQZNWM|AmKNrLis|zTxndVfn|FPsHoJnc|EIulZTua|KlAPhdzg|ScHJJCLt|NtTfMzME|eMCwuFdo|SEpJVJbR|cdhXZeCx|sAVtBwRh|kVFEVcMI|jzJrxraA|tGLHTell|NNWoeSaw|DcOKSetX|UXZAJyka|THpMphDP|rizheevl|kDCBRidd|pCZZRqyu|pSygkitl|SwZGkAaW|wILOrfNX|QkwVOerj|kHOMxPDr|EwOVycJv|AJvtzQFS|yEOjKYYB|LizIINLL|JBRSsfcG|YPiUqqNl|IsdEbvee|MjEpGcBm|OxXZVgEQ|xClXGuxa|UzRCGFEb|buJbvfvA|IPZQxRet|oFYShsMc|oBHffuHO|bzzKrcBR|KAjzrGCl|IPUsAVls|OGMUMbIU|gyDccHuR|bjlalnDd|ZLWjeMna|fdsuIlxQ|dVXtiomV|XxedTjNg|XWMHlNoA|nnyqArQX|opfkWGhb|wYtnhdYb))",
+		"(?i:(AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA|BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB|cccccccccccccccccccccccC|ſſſſſſſſſſſſſſſſſſſſſſſſS|SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSſ))",
+		// A short case insensitive alternation where each entry ends with ".*".
+		"(?i:(zQPbMkNO.*|NNSPdvMi.*|iWuuSoAl.*))",
 		// A long case insensitive alternation where each entry ends with ".*".
 		"(?i:(zQPbMkNO.*|NNSPdvMi.*|iWuuSoAl.*|qbvKMimS.*|IecrXtPa.*|seTckYqt.*|NxnyHkgB.*|fIDlOgKb.*|UhlWIygH.*|OtNoJxHG.*|cUTkFVIV.*|mTgFIHjr.*|jQkoIDtE.*|PPMKxRXl.*|AwMfwVkQ.*|CQyMrTQJ.*|BzrqxVSi.*|nTpcWuhF.*|PertdywG.*|ZZDgCtXN.*|WWdDPyyE.*|uVtNQsKk.*|BdeCHvPZ.*|wshRnFlH.*|aOUIitIp.*|RxZeCdXT.*|CFZMslCj.*|AVBZRDxl.*|IzIGCnhw.*|ythYuWiz.*|oztXVXhl.*|VbLkwqQx.*|qvaUgyVC.*|VawUjPWC.*|ecloYJuj.*|boCLTdSU.*|uPrKeAZx.*|hrMWLWBq.*|JOnUNHRM.*|rYnujkPq.*|dDEdZhIj.*|DRrfvugG.*|yEGfDxVV.*|YMYdJWuP.*|PHUQZNWM.*|AmKNrLis.*|zTxndVfn.*|FPsHoJnc.*|EIulZTua.*|KlAPhdzg.*|ScHJJCLt.*|NtTfMzME.*|eMCwuFdo.*|SEpJVJbR.*|cdhXZeCx.*|sAVtBwRh.*|kVFEVcMI.*|jzJrxraA.*|tGLHTell.*|NNWoeSaw.*|DcOKSetX.*|UXZAJyka.*|THpMphDP.*|rizheevl.*|kDCBRidd.*|pCZZRqyu.*|pSygkitl.*|SwZGkAaW.*|wILOrfNX.*|QkwVOerj.*|kHOMxPDr.*|EwOVycJv.*|AJvtzQFS.*|yEOjKYYB.*|LizIINLL.*|JBRSsfcG.*|YPiUqqNl.*|IsdEbvee.*|MjEpGcBm.*|OxXZVgEQ.*|xClXGuxa.*|UzRCGFEb.*|buJbvfvA.*|IPZQxRet.*|oFYShsMc.*|oBHffuHO.*|bzzKrcBR.*|KAjzrGCl.*|IPUsAVls.*|OGMUMbIU.*|gyDccHuR.*|bjlalnDd.*|ZLWjeMna.*|fdsuIlxQ.*|dVXtiomV.*|XxedTjNg.*|XWMHlNoA.*|nnyqArQX.*|opfkWGhb.*|wYtnhdYb.*))",
 		// A long case insensitive alternation where each entry starts with ".*".
@@ -79,15 +84,27 @@ var (
 		".*foo.?",
 		".?foo.+",
 		"foo.?|bar",
+		"ſſs",
+		// Concat of literals and wildcards.
+		".*-.*-.*-.*-.*",
+		"(.+)-(.+)-(.+)-(.+)-(.+)",
+		"((.*))(?i:f)((.*))o((.*))o((.*))",
+		"((.*))f((.*))(?i:o)((.*))o((.*))",
 	}
 	values = []string{
 		"foo", " foo bar", "bar", "buzz\nbar", "bar foo", "bfoo", "\n", "\nfoo", "foo\n", "hello foo world", "hello foo\n world", "",
-		"FOO", "Foo", "OO", "Oo", "\nfoo\n", strings.Repeat("f", 20), "prometheus", "prometheus_api_v1", "prometheus_api_v1_foo",
+		"FOO", "Foo", "fOo", "foO", "OO", "Oo", "\nfoo\n", strings.Repeat("f", 20), "prometheus", "prometheus_api_v1", "prometheus_api_v1_foo",
 		"10.0.1.20", "10.0.2.10", "10.0.3.30", "10.0.4.40",
-		"foofoo0", "foofoo",
+		"foofoo0", "foofoo", "😀foo0", "ſſs", "ſſS", "AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA", "BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB", "cccccccccccccccccccccccC", "ſſſſſſſſſſſſſſſſſſſſſſſſS", "SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSſ",
 
 		// Values matching / not matching the test regexps on long alternations.
 		"zQPbMkNO", "zQPbMkNo", "jyyfj00j0061", "jyyfj00j006", "jyyfj00j00612", "NNSPdvMi", "NNSPdvMiXXX", "NNSPdvMixxx", "nnSPdvMi", "nnSPdvMiXXX",
+
+		// Invalid utf8
+		"\xfefoo",
+		"foo\xfe",
+		"\xfd",
+		"\xff\xff",
 	}
 )
 
@@ -124,29 +141,29 @@ func TestOptimizeConcatRegex(t *testing.T) {
 		regex    string
 		prefix   string
 		suffix   string
-		contains string
+		contains []string
 	}{
-		{regex: "foo(hello|bar)", prefix: "foo", suffix: "", contains: ""},
-		{regex: "foo(hello|bar)world", prefix: "foo", suffix: "world", contains: ""},
-		{regex: "foo.*", prefix: "foo", suffix: "", contains: ""},
-		{regex: "foo.*hello.*bar", prefix: "foo", suffix: "bar", contains: "hello"},
-		{regex: ".*foo", prefix: "", suffix: "foo", contains: ""},
-		{regex: "^.*foo$", prefix: "", suffix: "foo", contains: ""},
-		{regex: ".*foo.*", prefix: "", suffix: "", contains: "foo"},
-		{regex: ".*foo.*bar.*", prefix: "", suffix: "", contains: "foo"},
-		{regex: ".*(foo|bar).*", prefix: "", suffix: "", contains: ""},
-		{regex: ".*[abc].*", prefix: "", suffix: "", contains: ""},
-		{regex: ".*((?i)abc).*", prefix: "", suffix: "", contains: ""},
-		{regex: ".*(?i:abc).*", prefix: "", suffix: "", contains: ""},
-		{regex: "(?i:abc).*", prefix: "", suffix: "", contains: ""},
-		{regex: ".*(?i:abc)", prefix: "", suffix: "", contains: ""},
-		{regex: ".*(?i:abc)def.*", prefix: "", suffix: "", contains: "def"},
-		{regex: "(?i).*(?-i:abc)def", prefix: "", suffix: "", contains: "abc"},
-		{regex: ".*(?msU:abc).*", prefix: "", suffix: "", contains: "abc"},
-		{regex: "[aA]bc.*", prefix: "", suffix: "", contains: "bc"},
-		{regex: "^5..$", prefix: "5", suffix: "", contains: ""},
-		{regex: "^release.*", prefix: "release", suffix: "", contains: ""},
-		{regex: "^env-[0-9]+laio[1]?[^0-9].*", prefix: "env-", suffix: "", contains: "laio"},
+		{regex: "foo(hello|bar)", prefix: "foo", suffix: "", contains: nil},
+		{regex: "foo(hello|bar)world", prefix: "foo", suffix: "world", contains: nil},
+		{regex: "foo.*", prefix: "foo", suffix: "", contains: nil},
+		{regex: "foo.*hello.*bar", prefix: "foo", suffix: "bar", contains: []string{"hello"}},
+		{regex: ".*foo", prefix: "", suffix: "foo", contains: nil},
+		{regex: "^.*foo$", prefix: "", suffix: "foo", contains: nil},
+		{regex: ".*foo.*", prefix: "", suffix: "", contains: []string{"foo"}},
+		{regex: ".*foo.*bar.*", prefix: "", suffix: "", contains: []string{"foo", "bar"}},
+		{regex: ".*(foo|bar).*", prefix: "", suffix: "", contains: nil},
+		{regex: ".*[abc].*", prefix: "", suffix: "", contains: nil},
+		{regex: ".*((?i)abc).*", prefix: "", suffix: "", contains: nil},
+		{regex: ".*(?i:abc).*", prefix: "", suffix: "", contains: nil},
+		{regex: "(?i:abc).*", prefix: "", suffix: "", contains: nil},
+		{regex: ".*(?i:abc)", prefix: "", suffix: "", contains: nil},
+		{regex: ".*(?i:abc)def.*", prefix: "", suffix: "", contains: []string{"def"}},
+		{regex: "(?i).*(?-i:abc)def", prefix: "", suffix: "", contains: []string{"abc"}},
+		{regex: ".*(?msU:abc).*", prefix: "", suffix: "", contains: []string{"abc"}},
+		{regex: "[aA]bc.*", prefix: "", suffix: "", contains: []string{"bc"}},
+		{regex: "^5..$", prefix: "5", suffix: "", contains: nil},
+		{regex: "^release.*", prefix: "release", suffix: "", contains: nil},
+		{regex: "^env-[0-9]+laio[1]?[^0-9].*", prefix: "env-", suffix: "", contains: []string{"laio"}},
 	}
 
 	for _, c := range cases {
@@ -280,6 +297,52 @@ func BenchmarkFastRegexMatcher(b *testing.B) {
 	}
 }
 
+func BenchmarkToNormalizedLower(b *testing.B) {
+	benchCase := func(l int, uppercase string, asciiOnly bool, alt int) string {
+		chars := "abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz"
+		if !asciiOnly {
+			chars = "aаbбcвdгeдfеgёhжiзjиkйlкmлnмoнpоqпrрsсtтuуvфwхxцyчzш"
+		}
+		// Swap the alphabet to make alternatives.
+		chars = chars[alt%len(chars):] + chars[:alt%len(chars)]
+
+		str := strings.Repeat(chars, l/len(chars)+1)[:l]
+		switch uppercase {
+		case "first":
+			return strings.ToUpper(str[:1]) + str[1:]
+		case "last":
+			return str[:len(str)-1] + strings.ToUpper(str[len(str)-1:])
+		case "all":
+			return strings.ToUpper(str)
+		case "none":
+			return str
+		default:
+			panic("invalid uppercase")
+		}
+	}
+
+	for _, l := range []int{10, 100, 1000, 4000} {
+		b.Run(fmt.Sprintf("length=%d", l), func(b *testing.B) {
+			for _, uppercase := range []string{"none", "first", "last", "all"} {
+				b.Run("uppercase="+uppercase, func(b *testing.B) {
+					for _, asciiOnly := range []bool{true, false} {
+						b.Run(fmt.Sprintf("ascii=%t", asciiOnly), func(b *testing.B) {
+							inputs := make([]string, 10)
+							for i := range inputs {
+								inputs[i] = benchCase(l, uppercase, asciiOnly, i)
+							}
+							b.ResetTimer()
+							for n := 0; n < b.N; n++ {
+								toNormalisedLower(inputs[n%len(inputs)])
+							}
+						})
+					}
+				})
+			}
+		})
+	}
+}
+
 func TestStringMatcherFromRegexp(t *testing.T) {
 	for _, c := range []struct {
 		pattern string
@@ -315,7 +378,7 @@ func TestStringMatcherFromRegexp(t *testing.T) {
 		{"10\\.0\\.(1|2)\\.+", nil},
 		{"10\\.0\\.(1|2).+", &containsStringMatcher{substrings: []string{"10.0.1", "10.0.2"}, left: nil, right: &anyNonEmptyStringMatcher{matchNL: false}}},
 		{"^.+foo", &literalSuffixStringMatcher{left: &anyNonEmptyStringMatcher{}, suffix: "foo", suffixCaseSensitive: true}},
-		{"foo-.*$", &literalPrefixStringMatcher{prefix: "foo-", prefixCaseSensitive: true, right: anyStringWithoutNewlineMatcher{}}},
+		{"foo-.*$", &literalPrefixSensitiveStringMatcher{prefix: "foo-", right: anyStringWithoutNewlineMatcher{}}},
 		{"(prometheus|api_prom)_api_v1_.+", &containsStringMatcher{substrings: []string{"prometheus_api_v1_", "api_prom_api_v1_"}, left: nil, right: &anyNonEmptyStringMatcher{matchNL: false}}},
 		{"^((.*)(bar|b|buzz)(.+)|foo)$", orStringMatcher([]StringMatcher{&containsStringMatcher{substrings: []string{"bar", "b", "buzz"}, left: anyStringWithoutNewlineMatcher{}, right: &anyNonEmptyStringMatcher{matchNL: false}}, &equalStringMatcher{s: "foo", caseSensitive: true}})},
 		{"((fo(bar))|.+foo)", orStringMatcher([]StringMatcher{orStringMatcher([]StringMatcher{&equalStringMatcher{s: "fobar", caseSensitive: true}}), &literalSuffixStringMatcher{suffix: "foo", suffixCaseSensitive: true, left: &anyNonEmptyStringMatcher{matchNL: false}}})},
@@ -330,15 +393,15 @@ func TestStringMatcherFromRegexp(t *testing.T) {
 		{".*foo.*bar.*", nil},
 		{`\d*`, nil},
 		{".", nil},
-		{"/|/bar.*", &literalPrefixStringMatcher{prefix: "/", prefixCaseSensitive: true, right: orStringMatcher{emptyStringMatcher{}, &literalPrefixStringMatcher{prefix: "bar", prefixCaseSensitive: true, right: anyStringWithoutNewlineMatcher{}}}}},
+		{"/|/bar.*", &literalPrefixSensitiveStringMatcher{prefix: "/", right: orStringMatcher{emptyStringMatcher{}, &literalPrefixSensitiveStringMatcher{prefix: "bar", right: anyStringWithoutNewlineMatcher{}}}}},
 		// This one is not supported because  `stringMatcherFromRegexp` is not reentrant for syntax.OpConcat.
 		// It would make the code too complex to handle it.
 		{"(.+)/(foo.*|bar$)", nil},
 		// Case sensitive alternate with same literal prefix and .* suffix.
-		{"(xyz-016a-ixb-dp.*|xyz-016a-ixb-op.*)", &literalPrefixStringMatcher{prefix: "xyz-016a-ixb-", prefixCaseSensitive: true, right: orStringMatcher{&literalPrefixStringMatcher{prefix: "dp", prefixCaseSensitive: true, right: anyStringWithoutNewlineMatcher{}}, &literalPrefixStringMatcher{prefix: "op", prefixCaseSensitive: true, right: anyStringWithoutNewlineMatcher{}}}}},
+		{"(xyz-016a-ixb-dp.*|xyz-016a-ixb-op.*)", &literalPrefixSensitiveStringMatcher{prefix: "xyz-016a-ixb-", right: orStringMatcher{&literalPrefixSensitiveStringMatcher{prefix: "dp", right: anyStringWithoutNewlineMatcher{}}, &literalPrefixSensitiveStringMatcher{prefix: "op", right: anyStringWithoutNewlineMatcher{}}}}},
 		// Case insensitive alternate with same literal prefix and .* suffix.
-		{"(?i:(xyz-016a-ixb-dp.*|xyz-016a-ixb-op.*))", &literalPrefixStringMatcher{prefix: "XYZ-016A-IXB-", prefixCaseSensitive: false, right: orStringMatcher{&literalPrefixStringMatcher{prefix: "DP", prefixCaseSensitive: false, right: anyStringWithoutNewlineMatcher{}}, &literalPrefixStringMatcher{prefix: "OP", prefixCaseSensitive: false, right: anyStringWithoutNewlineMatcher{}}}}},
-		{"(?i)(xyz-016a-ixb-dp.*|xyz-016a-ixb-op.*)", &literalPrefixStringMatcher{prefix: "XYZ-016A-IXB-", prefixCaseSensitive: false, right: orStringMatcher{&literalPrefixStringMatcher{prefix: "DP", prefixCaseSensitive: false, right: anyStringWithoutNewlineMatcher{}}, &literalPrefixStringMatcher{prefix: "OP", prefixCaseSensitive: false, right: anyStringWithoutNewlineMatcher{}}}}},
+		{"(?i:(xyz-016a-ixb-dp.*|xyz-016a-ixb-op.*))", &literalPrefixInsensitiveStringMatcher{prefix: "XYZ-016A-IXB-", right: orStringMatcher{&literalPrefixInsensitiveStringMatcher{prefix: "DP", right: anyStringWithoutNewlineMatcher{}}, &literalPrefixInsensitiveStringMatcher{prefix: "OP", right: anyStringWithoutNewlineMatcher{}}}}},
+		{"(?i)(xyz-016a-ixb-dp.*|xyz-016a-ixb-op.*)", &literalPrefixInsensitiveStringMatcher{prefix: "XYZ-016A-IXB-", right: orStringMatcher{&literalPrefixInsensitiveStringMatcher{prefix: "DP", right: anyStringWithoutNewlineMatcher{}}, &literalPrefixInsensitiveStringMatcher{prefix: "OP", right: anyStringWithoutNewlineMatcher{}}}}},
 		// Concatenated variable length selectors are not supported.
 		{"foo.*.*", nil},
 		{"foo.+.+", nil},
@@ -347,9 +410,9 @@ func TestStringMatcherFromRegexp(t *testing.T) {
 		{"aaa.?.?", nil},
 		{"aaa.?.*", nil},
 		// Regexps with ".?".
-		{"ext.?|xfs", orStringMatcher{&literalPrefixStringMatcher{prefix: "ext", prefixCaseSensitive: true, right: &zeroOrOneCharacterStringMatcher{matchNL: false}}, &equalStringMatcher{s: "xfs", caseSensitive: true}}},
-		{"(?s)(ext.?|xfs)", orStringMatcher{&literalPrefixStringMatcher{prefix: "ext", prefixCaseSensitive: true, right: &zeroOrOneCharacterStringMatcher{matchNL: true}}, &equalStringMatcher{s: "xfs", caseSensitive: true}}},
-		{"foo.?", &literalPrefixStringMatcher{prefix: "foo", prefixCaseSensitive: true, right: &zeroOrOneCharacterStringMatcher{matchNL: false}}},
+		{"ext.?|xfs", orStringMatcher{&literalPrefixSensitiveStringMatcher{prefix: "ext", right: &zeroOrOneCharacterStringMatcher{matchNL: false}}, &equalStringMatcher{s: "xfs", caseSensitive: true}}},
+		{"(?s)(ext.?|xfs)", orStringMatcher{&literalPrefixSensitiveStringMatcher{prefix: "ext", right: &zeroOrOneCharacterStringMatcher{matchNL: true}}, &equalStringMatcher{s: "xfs", caseSensitive: true}}},
+		{"foo.?", &literalPrefixSensitiveStringMatcher{prefix: "foo", right: &zeroOrOneCharacterStringMatcher{matchNL: false}}},
 		{"f.?o", nil},
 	} {
 		c := c
@@ -419,10 +482,13 @@ func TestStringMatcherFromRegexp_LiteralPrefix(t *testing.T) {
 
 			re := regexp.MustCompile("^" + c.pattern + "$")
 
-			// Pre-condition check: ensure it contains literalPrefixStringMatcher.
+			// Pre-condition check: ensure it contains literalPrefixSensitiveStringMatcher or literalPrefixInsensitiveStringMatcher.
 			numPrefixMatchers := 0
 			visitStringMatcher(matcher, func(matcher StringMatcher) {
-				if _, ok := matcher.(*literalPrefixStringMatcher); ok {
+				if _, ok := matcher.(*literalPrefixSensitiveStringMatcher); ok {
+					numPrefixMatchers++
+				}
+				if _, ok := matcher.(*literalPrefixInsensitiveStringMatcher); ok {
 					numPrefixMatchers++
 				}
 			})
@@ -622,7 +688,15 @@ func randStrings(randGenerator *rand.Rand, many, length int) []string {
 	return out
 }
 
-func TestOptimizeEqualStringMatchers(t *testing.T) {
+func randStringsWithSuffix(randGenerator *rand.Rand, many, length int, suffix string) []string {
+	out := randStrings(randGenerator, many, length)
+	for i := range out {
+		out[i] += suffix
+	}
+	return out
+}
+
+func TestOptimizeEqualOrPrefixStringMatchers(t *testing.T) {
 	tests := map[string]struct {
 		input                 StringMatcher
 		expectedValues        []string
@@ -703,7 +777,7 @@ func TestOptimizeEqualStringMatchers(t *testing.T) {
 
 	for testName, testData := range tests {
 		t.Run(testName, func(t *testing.T) {
-			actualMatcher := optimizeEqualStringMatchers(testData.input, 0)
+			actualMatcher := optimizeEqualOrPrefixStringMatchers(testData.input, 0)
 
 			if testData.expectedValues == nil {
 				require.IsType(t, testData.input, actualMatcher)
@@ -718,10 +792,12 @@ func TestOptimizeEqualStringMatchers(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestNewEqualMultiStringMatcher(t *testing.T) {
 	tests := map[string]struct {
-		values             []string
-		caseSensitive      bool
-		expectedValuesMap  map[string]struct{}
-		expectedValuesList []string
+		values                []string
+		caseSensitivePrefixes []*literalPrefixSensitiveStringMatcher
+		caseSensitive         bool
+		expectedValuesMap     map[string]struct{}
+		expectedPrefixesMap   map[string][]StringMatcher
+		expectedValuesList    []string
 	}{
 		"few case sensitive values": {
 			values:             []string{"a", "B"},
@@ -733,27 +809,47 @@ func TestNewEqualMultiStringMatcher(t *testing.T) {
 			caseSensitive:      false,
 			expectedValuesList: []string{"a", "B"},
 		},
+		"few case sensitive values and prefixes": {
+			values:                []string{"a"},
+			caseSensitivePrefixes: []*literalPrefixSensitiveStringMatcher{{prefix: "B", right: anyStringWithoutNewlineMatcher{}}},
+			caseSensitive:         true,
+			expectedValuesMap:     map[string]struct{}{"a": {}},
+			expectedPrefixesMap:   map[string][]StringMatcher{"B": {&literalPrefixSensitiveStringMatcher{prefix: "B", right: anyStringWithoutNewlineMatcher{}}}},
+		},
 		"many case sensitive values": {
-			values:            []string{"a", "B", "c", "D", "e", "F", "g", "H", "i", "L", "m", "N", "o", "P", "q", "r"},
-			caseSensitive:     true,
-			expectedValuesMap: map[string]struct{}{"a": {}, "B": {}, "c": {}, "D": {}, "e": {}, "F": {}, "g": {}, "H": {}, "i": {}, "L": {}, "m": {}, "N": {}, "o": {}, "P": {}, "q": {}, "r": {}},
+			values:              []string{"a", "B", "c", "D", "e", "F", "g", "H", "i", "L", "m", "N", "o", "P", "q", "r"},
+			caseSensitive:       true,
+			expectedValuesMap:   map[string]struct{}{"a": {}, "B": {}, "c": {}, "D": {}, "e": {}, "F": {}, "g": {}, "H": {}, "i": {}, "L": {}, "m": {}, "N": {}, "o": {}, "P": {}, "q": {}, "r": {}},
+			expectedPrefixesMap: map[string][]StringMatcher{},
 		},
 		"many case insensitive values": {
-			values:            []string{"a", "B", "c", "D", "e", "F", "g", "H", "i", "L", "m", "N", "o", "P", "q", "r"},
-			caseSensitive:     false,
-			expectedValuesMap: map[string]struct{}{"a": {}, "b": {}, "c": {}, "d": {}, "e": {}, "f": {}, "g": {}, "h": {}, "i": {}, "l": {}, "m": {}, "n": {}, "o": {}, "p": {}, "q": {}, "r": {}},
+			values:              []string{"a", "B", "c", "D", "e", "F", "g", "H", "i", "L", "m", "N", "o", "P", "q", "r"},
+			caseSensitive:       false,
+			expectedValuesMap:   map[string]struct{}{"a": {}, "b": {}, "c": {}, "d": {}, "e": {}, "f": {}, "g": {}, "h": {}, "i": {}, "l": {}, "m": {}, "n": {}, "o": {}, "p": {}, "q": {}, "r": {}},
+			expectedPrefixesMap: map[string][]StringMatcher{},
 		},
 	}
 
 	for testName, testData := range tests {
 		t.Run(testName, func(t *testing.T) {
-			matcher := newEqualMultiStringMatcher(testData.caseSensitive, len(testData.values))
+			// To keep this test simple, we always assume a min prefix length of 1.
+			minPrefixLength := 0
+			if len(testData.caseSensitivePrefixes) > 0 {
+				minPrefixLength = 1
+			}
+
+			matcher := newEqualMultiStringMatcher(testData.caseSensitive, len(testData.values), len(testData.caseSensitivePrefixes), minPrefixLength)
 			for _, v := range testData.values {
 				matcher.add(v)
 			}
-			if testData.expectedValuesMap != nil {
+			for _, p := range testData.caseSensitivePrefixes {
+				matcher.addPrefix(p.prefix, true, p)
+			}
+
+			if testData.expectedValuesMap != nil || testData.expectedPrefixesMap != nil {
 				require.IsType(t, &equalMultiStringMapMatcher{}, matcher)
 				require.Equal(t, testData.expectedValuesMap, matcher.(*equalMultiStringMapMatcher).values)
+				require.Equal(t, testData.expectedPrefixesMap, matcher.(*equalMultiStringMapMatcher).prefixes)
 				require.Equal(t, testData.caseSensitive, matcher.(*equalMultiStringMapMatcher).caseSensitive)
 			}
 			if testData.expectedValuesList != nil {
@@ -765,9 +861,32 @@ func TestNewEqualMultiStringMatcher(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 }
 
+func TestEqualMultiStringMapMatcher_addPrefix(t *testing.T) {
+	t.Run("should panic if the matcher is case sensitive but the prefix is not case sensitive", func(t *testing.T) {
+		matcher := newEqualMultiStringMatcher(true, 0, 1, 1)
+
+		require.Panics(t, func() {
+			matcher.addPrefix("a", false, &literalPrefixInsensitiveStringMatcher{
+				prefix: "a",
+			})
+		})
+	})
+
+	t.Run("should panic if the matcher is not case sensitive but the prefix is case sensitive", func(t *testing.T) {
+		matcher := newEqualMultiStringMatcher(false, 0, 1, 1)
+
+		require.Panics(t, func() {
+			matcher.addPrefix("a", true, &literalPrefixSensitiveStringMatcher{
+				prefix: "a",
+			})
+		})
+	})
+}
+
 func TestEqualMultiStringMatcher_Matches(t *testing.T) {
 	tests := map[string]struct {
 		values             []string
+		prefixes           []StringMatcher
 		caseSensitive      bool
 		expectedMatches    []string
 		expectedNotMatches []string
@@ -784,6 +903,24 @@ func TestEqualMultiStringMatcher_Matches(t *testing.T) {
 			expectedMatches:    []string{"a", "A", "b", "B"},
 			expectedNotMatches: []string{"c", "C"},
 		},
+		"few case sensitive prefixes": {
+			prefixes: []StringMatcher{
+				&literalPrefixSensitiveStringMatcher{prefix: "a", right: anyStringWithoutNewlineMatcher{}},
+				&literalPrefixSensitiveStringMatcher{prefix: "B", right: anyStringWithoutNewlineMatcher{}},
+			},
+			caseSensitive:      true,
+			expectedMatches:    []string{"a", "aX", "B", "BX"},
+			expectedNotMatches: []string{"A", "b"},
+		},
+		"few case insensitive prefixes": {
+			prefixes: []StringMatcher{
+				&literalPrefixInsensitiveStringMatcher{prefix: "a", right: anyStringWithoutNewlineMatcher{}},
+				&literalPrefixInsensitiveStringMatcher{prefix: "B", right: anyStringWithoutNewlineMatcher{}},
+			},
+			caseSensitive:      false,
+			expectedMatches:    []string{"a", "aX", "A", "AX", "b", "bX", "B", "BX"},
+			expectedNotMatches: []string{"c", "cX", "C", "CX"},
+		},
 		"many case sensitive values": {
 			values:             []string{"a", "B", "c", "D", "e", "F", "g", "H", "i", "L", "m", "N", "o", "P", "q", "r"},
 			caseSensitive:      true,
@@ -796,14 +933,37 @@ func TestEqualMultiStringMatcher_Matches(t *testing.T) {
 			expectedMatches:    []string{"a", "A", "b", "B"},
 			expectedNotMatches: []string{"x", "X"},
 		},
+		"mixed values and prefixes": {
+			values:             []string{"a"},
+			prefixes:           []StringMatcher{&literalPrefixSensitiveStringMatcher{prefix: "B", right: anyStringWithoutNewlineMatcher{}}},
+			caseSensitive:      true,
+			expectedMatches:    []string{"a", "B", "BX"},
+			expectedNotMatches: []string{"aX", "A", "b", "bX"},
+		},
 	}
 
 	for testName, testData := range tests {
 		t.Run(testName, func(t *testing.T) {
-			matcher := newEqualMultiStringMatcher(testData.caseSensitive, len(testData.values))
+			// To keep this test simple, we always assume a min prefix length of 1.
+			minPrefixLength := 0
+			if len(testData.prefixes) > 0 {
+				minPrefixLength = 1
+			}
+
+			matcher := newEqualMultiStringMatcher(testData.caseSensitive, len(testData.values), len(testData.prefixes), minPrefixLength)
 			for _, v := range testData.values {
 				matcher.add(v)
 			}
+			for _, p := range testData.prefixes {
+				switch m := p.(type) {
+				case *literalPrefixSensitiveStringMatcher:
+					matcher.addPrefix(m.prefix, true, p)
+				case *literalPrefixInsensitiveStringMatcher:
+					matcher.addPrefix(m.prefix, false, p)
+				default:
+					panic("Unexpected type in test case")
+				}
+			}
 
 			for _, v := range testData.expectedMatches {
 				require.True(t, matcher.Matches(v), "value: %s", v)
@@ -815,29 +975,33 @@ func TestEqualMultiStringMatcher_Matches(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 }
 
-func TestFindEqualStringMatchers(t *testing.T) {
+func TestFindEqualOrPrefixStringMatchers(t *testing.T) {
 	type match struct {
 		s             string
 		caseSensitive bool
 	}
 
-	// Utility to call findEqualStringMatchers() and collect all callback invocations.
-	findEqualStringMatchersAndCollectMatches := func(input StringMatcher) (matches []match, ok bool) {
-		ok = findEqualStringMatchers(input, func(matcher *equalStringMatcher) bool {
+	// Utility to call findEqualOrPrefixStringMatchers() and collect all callback invocations.
+	findEqualOrPrefixStringMatchersAndCollectMatches := func(input StringMatcher) (matches []match, ok bool) {
+		ok = findEqualOrPrefixStringMatchers(input, func(matcher *equalStringMatcher) bool {
 			matches = append(matches, match{matcher.s, matcher.caseSensitive})
 			return true
+		}, func(prefix string, prefixCaseSensitive bool, right StringMatcher) bool {
+			matches = append(matches, match{prefix, prefixCaseSensitive})
+			return true
 		})
+
 		return
 	}
 
 	t.Run("empty matcher", func(t *testing.T) {
-		actualMatches, actualOk := findEqualStringMatchersAndCollectMatches(emptyStringMatcher{})
+		actualMatches, actualOk := findEqualOrPrefixStringMatchersAndCollectMatches(emptyStringMatcher{})
 		require.False(t, actualOk)
 		require.Empty(t, actualMatches)
 	})
 
 	t.Run("concat of literal matchers (case sensitive)", func(t *testing.T) {
-		actualMatches, actualOk := findEqualStringMatchersAndCollectMatches(
+		actualMatches, actualOk := findEqualOrPrefixStringMatchersAndCollectMatches(
 			orStringMatcher{
 				&equalStringMatcher{s: "test-1", caseSensitive: true},
 				&equalStringMatcher{s: "test-2", caseSensitive: true},
@@ -849,7 +1013,7 @@ func TestFindEqualStringMatchers(t *testing.T) {
 	})
 
 	t.Run("concat of literal matchers (case insensitive)", func(t *testing.T) {
-		actualMatches, actualOk := findEqualStringMatchersAndCollectMatches(
+		actualMatches, actualOk := findEqualOrPrefixStringMatchersAndCollectMatches(
 			orStringMatcher{
 				&equalStringMatcher{s: "test-1", caseSensitive: false},
 				&equalStringMatcher{s: "test-2", caseSensitive: false},
@@ -861,7 +1025,7 @@ func TestFindEqualStringMatchers(t *testing.T) {
 	})
 
 	t.Run("concat of literal matchers (mixed case)", func(t *testing.T) {
-		actualMatches, actualOk := findEqualStringMatchersAndCollectMatches(
+		actualMatches, actualOk := findEqualOrPrefixStringMatchersAndCollectMatches(
 			orStringMatcher{
 				&equalStringMatcher{s: "test-1", caseSensitive: false},
 				&equalStringMatcher{s: "test-2", caseSensitive: true},
@@ -871,11 +1035,59 @@ func TestFindEqualStringMatchers(t *testing.T) {
 		require.True(t, actualOk)
 		require.Equal(t, []match{{"test-1", false}, {"test-2", true}}, actualMatches)
 	})
+
+	t.Run("concat of literal prefix matchers (case sensitive)", func(t *testing.T) {
+		actualMatches, actualOk := findEqualOrPrefixStringMatchersAndCollectMatches(
+			orStringMatcher{
+				&literalPrefixSensitiveStringMatcher{prefix: "test-1"},
+				&literalPrefixSensitiveStringMatcher{prefix: "test-2"},
+			},
+		)
+
+		require.True(t, actualOk)
+		require.Equal(t, []match{{"test-1", true}, {"test-2", true}}, actualMatches)
+	})
+
+	t.Run("concat of literal prefix matchers (case insensitive)", func(t *testing.T) {
+		actualMatches, actualOk := findEqualOrPrefixStringMatchersAndCollectMatches(
+			orStringMatcher{
+				&literalPrefixInsensitiveStringMatcher{prefix: "test-1"},
+				&literalPrefixInsensitiveStringMatcher{prefix: "test-2"},
+			},
+		)
+
+		require.True(t, actualOk)
+		require.Equal(t, []match{{"test-1", false}, {"test-2", false}}, actualMatches)
+	})
+
+	t.Run("concat of literal prefix matchers (mixed case)", func(t *testing.T) {
+		actualMatches, actualOk := findEqualOrPrefixStringMatchersAndCollectMatches(
+			orStringMatcher{
+				&literalPrefixInsensitiveStringMatcher{prefix: "test-1"},
+				&literalPrefixSensitiveStringMatcher{prefix: "test-2"},
+			},
+		)
+
+		require.True(t, actualOk)
+		require.Equal(t, []match{{"test-1", false}, {"test-2", true}}, actualMatches)
+	})
+
+	t.Run("concat of literal string and prefix matchers (case sensitive)", func(t *testing.T) {
+		actualMatches, actualOk := findEqualOrPrefixStringMatchersAndCollectMatches(
+			orStringMatcher{
+				&equalStringMatcher{s: "test-1", caseSensitive: true},
+				&literalPrefixSensitiveStringMatcher{prefix: "test-2"},
+			},
+		)
+
+		require.True(t, actualOk)
+		require.Equal(t, []match{{"test-1", true}, {"test-2", true}}, actualMatches)
+	})
 }
 
 // This benchmark is used to find a good threshold to use to apply the optimization
-// done by optimizeEqualStringMatchers().
-func BenchmarkOptimizeEqualStringMatchers(b *testing.B) {
+// done by optimizeEqualOrPrefixStringMatchers().
+func BenchmarkOptimizeEqualOrPrefixStringMatchers(b *testing.B) {
 	randGenerator := rand.New(rand.NewSource(time.Now().UnixNano()))
 
 	// Generate variable lengths random texts to match against.
@@ -885,76 +1097,151 @@ func BenchmarkOptimizeEqualStringMatchers(b *testing.B) {
 
 	for numAlternations := 2; numAlternations <= 256; numAlternations *= 2 {
 		for _, caseSensitive := range []bool{true, false} {
-			b.Run(fmt.Sprintf("alternations: %d case sensitive: %t", numAlternations, caseSensitive), func(b *testing.B) {
-				// Generate a regex with the expected number of alternations.
-				re := strings.Join(randStrings(randGenerator, numAlternations, 10), "|")
-				if !caseSensitive {
-					re = "(?i:(" + re + "))"
-				}
-
-				parsed, err := syntax.Parse(re, syntax.Perl)
-				require.NoError(b, err)
-
-				unoptimized := stringMatcherFromRegexpInternal(parsed)
-				require.IsType(b, orStringMatcher{}, unoptimized)
-
-				optimized := optimizeEqualStringMatchers(unoptimized, 0)
-				if numAlternations < minEqualMultiStringMatcherMapThreshold {
-					require.IsType(b, &equalMultiStringSliceMatcher{}, optimized)
-				} else {
-					require.IsType(b, &equalMultiStringMapMatcher{}, optimized)
-				}
-
-				b.Run("without optimizeEqualStringMatchers()", func(b *testing.B) {
-					for n := 0; n < b.N; n++ {
-						for _, t := range texts {
-							unoptimized.Matches(t)
-						}
+			for _, prefixMatcher := range []bool{true, false} {
+				b.Run(fmt.Sprintf("alternations: %d case sensitive: %t prefix matcher: %t", numAlternations, caseSensitive, prefixMatcher), func(b *testing.B) {
+					// If the test should run on prefix matchers, we add a wildcard matcher as suffix (prefix will be a literal).
+					suffix := ""
+					if prefixMatcher {
+						suffix = ".*"
 					}
-				})
 
-				b.Run("with optimizeEqualStringMatchers()", func(b *testing.B) {
-					for n := 0; n < b.N; n++ {
-						for _, t := range texts {
-							optimized.Matches(t)
-						}
+					// Generate a regex with the expected number of alternations.
+					re := strings.Join(randStringsWithSuffix(randGenerator, numAlternations, 10, suffix), "|")
+					if !caseSensitive {
+						re = "(?i:(" + re + "))"
 					}
+					b.Logf("regexp: %s", re)
+
+					parsed, err := syntax.Parse(re, syntax.Perl)
+					require.NoError(b, err)
+
+					unoptimized := stringMatcherFromRegexpInternal(parsed)
+					require.IsType(b, orStringMatcher{}, unoptimized)
+
+					optimized := optimizeEqualOrPrefixStringMatchers(unoptimized, 0)
+					if numAlternations < minEqualMultiStringMatcherMapThreshold && !prefixMatcher {
+						require.IsType(b, &equalMultiStringSliceMatcher{}, optimized)
+					} else {
+						require.IsType(b, &equalMultiStringMapMatcher{}, optimized)
+					}
+
+					b.Run("without optimizeEqualOrPrefixStringMatchers()", func(b *testing.B) {
+						for n := 0; n < b.N; n++ {
+							for _, t := range texts {
+								unoptimized.Matches(t)
+							}
+						}
+					})
+
+					b.Run("with optimizeEqualOrPrefixStringMatchers()", func(b *testing.B) {
+						for n := 0; n < b.N; n++ {
+							for _, t := range texts {
+								optimized.Matches(t)
+							}
+						}
+					})
 				})
-			})
+			}
 		}
 	}
 }
 
 func TestZeroOrOneCharacterStringMatcher(t *testing.T) {
-	matcher := &zeroOrOneCharacterStringMatcher{matchNL: true}
-	require.True(t, matcher.Matches(""))
-	require.True(t, matcher.Matches("x"))
-	require.True(t, matcher.Matches("\n"))
-	require.False(t, matcher.Matches("xx"))
-	require.False(t, matcher.Matches("\n\n"))
+	t.Run("match newline", func(t *testing.T) {
+		matcher := &zeroOrOneCharacterStringMatcher{matchNL: true}
+		require.True(t, matcher.Matches(""))
+		require.True(t, matcher.Matches("x"))
+		require.True(t, matcher.Matches("\n"))
+		require.False(t, matcher.Matches("xx"))
+		require.False(t, matcher.Matches("\n\n"))
+	})
 
-	matcher = &zeroOrOneCharacterStringMatcher{matchNL: false}
-	require.True(t, matcher.Matches(""))
-	require.True(t, matcher.Matches("x"))
-	require.False(t, matcher.Matches("\n"))
-	require.False(t, matcher.Matches("xx"))
-	require.False(t, matcher.Matches("\n\n"))
+	t.Run("do not match newline", func(t *testing.T) {
+		matcher := &zeroOrOneCharacterStringMatcher{matchNL: false}
+		require.True(t, matcher.Matches(""))
+		require.True(t, matcher.Matches("x"))
+		require.False(t, matcher.Matches("\n"))
+		require.False(t, matcher.Matches("xx"))
+		require.False(t, matcher.Matches("\n\n"))
+	})
+
+	t.Run("unicode", func(t *testing.T) {
+		// Just for documentation purposes, emoji1 is 1 rune, emoji2 is 2 runes.
+		// Having this in mind, will make future readers fixing tests easier.
+		emoji1 := "😀"
+		emoji2 := "❤️"
+		require.Equal(t, 1, utf8.RuneCountInString(emoji1))
+		require.Equal(t, 2, utf8.RuneCountInString(emoji2))
+
+		matcher := &zeroOrOneCharacterStringMatcher{matchNL: true}
+		require.True(t, matcher.Matches(emoji1))
+		require.False(t, matcher.Matches(emoji2))
+		require.False(t, matcher.Matches(emoji1+emoji1))
+		require.False(t, matcher.Matches("x"+emoji1))
+		require.False(t, matcher.Matches(emoji1+"x"))
+		require.False(t, matcher.Matches(emoji1+emoji2))
+	})
+
+	t.Run("invalid unicode", func(t *testing.T) {
+		// Just for reference, we also compare to what `^.?$` regular expression matches.
+		re := regexp.MustCompile("^.?$")
+		matcher := &zeroOrOneCharacterStringMatcher{matchNL: true}
+
+		requireMatches := func(s string, expected bool) {
+			t.Helper()
+			require.Equal(t, expected, matcher.Matches(s))
+			require.Equal(t, re.MatchString(s), matcher.Matches(s))
+		}
+
+		requireMatches("\xff", true)
+		requireMatches("x\xff", false)
+		requireMatches("\xffx", false)
+		requireMatches("\xff\xfe", false)
+	})
 }
 
-func TestLiteralPrefixStringMatcher(t *testing.T) {
-	m := &literalPrefixStringMatcher{prefix: "mar", prefixCaseSensitive: true, right: &emptyStringMatcher{}}
+func BenchmarkZeroOrOneCharacterStringMatcher(b *testing.B) {
+	type benchCase struct {
+		str     string
+		matches bool
+	}
+
+	emoji1 := "😀"
+	emoji2 := "❤️"
+	cases := []benchCase{
+		{"", true},
+		{"x", true},
+		{"\n", true},
+		{"xx", false},
+		{"\n\n", false},
+		{emoji1, true},
+		{emoji2, false},
+		{emoji1 + emoji1, false},
+		{strings.Repeat("x", 100), false},
+		{strings.Repeat(emoji1, 100), false},
+		{strings.Repeat(emoji2, 100), false},
+	}
+
+	matcher := &zeroOrOneCharacterStringMatcher{matchNL: true}
+	b.ResetTimer()
+
+	for n := 0; n < b.N; n++ {
+		c := cases[n%len(cases)]
+		got := matcher.Matches(c.str)
+		if got != c.matches {
+			b.Fatalf("unexpected result for %q: got %t, want %t", c.str, got, c.matches)
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+func TestLiteralPrefixSensitiveStringMatcher(t *testing.T) {
+	m := &literalPrefixSensitiveStringMatcher{prefix: "mar", right: &emptyStringMatcher{}}
 	require.True(t, m.Matches("mar"))
 	require.False(t, m.Matches("marco"))
 	require.False(t, m.Matches("ma"))
 	require.False(t, m.Matches("mAr"))
 
-	m = &literalPrefixStringMatcher{prefix: "mar", prefixCaseSensitive: false, right: &emptyStringMatcher{}}
-	require.True(t, m.Matches("mar"))
-	require.False(t, m.Matches("marco"))
-	require.False(t, m.Matches("ma"))
-	require.True(t, m.Matches("mAr"))
-
-	m = &literalPrefixStringMatcher{prefix: "mar", prefixCaseSensitive: true, right: &equalStringMatcher{s: "co", caseSensitive: false}}
+	m = &literalPrefixSensitiveStringMatcher{prefix: "mar", right: &equalStringMatcher{s: "co", caseSensitive: false}}
 	require.True(t, m.Matches("marco"))
 	require.True(t, m.Matches("marCO"))
 	require.False(t, m.Matches("MARco"))
@@ -962,6 +1249,14 @@ func TestLiteralPrefixStringMatcher(t *testing.T) {
 	require.False(t, m.Matches("marcopracucci"))
 }
 
+func TestLiteralPrefixInsensitiveStringMatcher(t *testing.T) {
+	m := &literalPrefixInsensitiveStringMatcher{prefix: "mar", right: &emptyStringMatcher{}}
+	require.True(t, m.Matches("mar"))
+	require.False(t, m.Matches("marco"))
+	require.False(t, m.Matches("ma"))
+	require.True(t, m.Matches("mAr"))
+}
+
 func TestLiteralSuffixStringMatcher(t *testing.T) {
 	m := &literalSuffixStringMatcher{left: &emptyStringMatcher{}, suffix: "co", suffixCaseSensitive: true}
 	require.True(t, m.Matches("co"))
@@ -1009,6 +1304,15 @@ func TestHasSuffixCaseInsensitive(t *testing.T) {
 	require.False(t, hasSuffixCaseInsensitive("marco", "abcdefghi"))
 }
 
+func TestContainsInOrder(t *testing.T) {
+	require.True(t, containsInOrder("abcdefghilmno", []string{"ab", "cd", "no"}))
+	require.True(t, containsInOrder("abcdefghilmno", []string{"def", "hil"}))
+
+	require.False(t, containsInOrder("abcdefghilmno", []string{"ac"}))
+	require.False(t, containsInOrder("abcdefghilmno", []string{"ab", "cd", "de"}))
+	require.False(t, containsInOrder("abcdefghilmno", []string{"cd", "ab"}))
+}
+
 func getTestNameFromRegexp(re string) string {
 	if len(re) > 32 {
 		return re[:32]
@@ -1042,7 +1346,10 @@ func visitStringMatcher(matcher StringMatcher, callback func(matcher StringMatch
 			visitStringMatcher(casted.right, callback)
 		}
 
-	case *literalPrefixStringMatcher:
+	case *literalPrefixSensitiveStringMatcher:
+		visitStringMatcher(casted.right, callback)
+
+	case *literalPrefixInsensitiveStringMatcher:
 		visitStringMatcher(casted.right, callback)
 
 	case *literalSuffixStringMatcher:
@@ -1054,12 +1361,35 @@ func visitStringMatcher(matcher StringMatcher, callback func(matcher StringMatch
 		}
 
 	// No nested matchers for the following ones.
+	case *equalMultiStringMapMatcher:
+		for _, prefixes := range casted.prefixes {
+			for _, matcher := range prefixes {
+				visitStringMatcher(matcher, callback)
+			}
+		}
+
 	case emptyStringMatcher:
 	case *equalStringMatcher:
 	case *equalMultiStringSliceMatcher:
-	case *equalMultiStringMapMatcher:
 	case anyStringWithoutNewlineMatcher:
 	case *anyNonEmptyStringMatcher:
 	case trueMatcher:
 	}
 }
+
+func TestToNormalisedLower(t *testing.T) {
+	testCases := map[string]string{
+		"foo":                      "foo",
+		"FOO":                      "foo",
+		"Foo":                      "foo",
+		"foO":                      "foo",
+		"fOo":                      "foo",
+		"AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA": "aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa",
+		"cccccccccccccccccccccccC": "cccccccccccccccccccccccc",
+		"ſſſſſſſſſſſſſſſſſſſſſſſſS": "sssssssssssssssssssssssss",
+		"ſſAſſa": "ssassa",
+	}
+	for input, expectedOutput := range testCases {
+		require.Equal(t, expectedOutput, toNormalisedLower(input))
+	}
+}
diff --git a/model/relabel/relabel.go b/model/relabel/relabel.go
index d29c3d07ae..4f33edda43 100644
--- a/model/relabel/relabel.go
+++ b/model/relabel/relabel.go
@@ -17,6 +17,7 @@ import (
 	"crypto/md5"
 	"encoding/binary"
 	"fmt"
+	"strconv"
 	"strings"
 
 	"github.com/grafana/regexp"
@@ -48,7 +49,7 @@ const (
 	Drop Action = "drop"
 	// KeepEqual drops targets for which the input does not match the target.
 	KeepEqual Action = "keepequal"
-	// Drop drops targets for which the input does match the target.
+	// DropEqual drops targets for which the input does match the target.
 	DropEqual Action = "dropequal"
 	// HashMod sets a label to the modulus of a hash of labels.
 	HashMod Action = "hashmod"
@@ -205,6 +206,11 @@ func (re Regexp) MarshalYAML() (interface{}, error) {
 	return nil, nil
 }
 
+// IsZero implements the yaml.IsZeroer interface.
+func (re Regexp) IsZero() bool {
+	return re.Regexp == DefaultRelabelConfig.Regex.Regexp
+}
+
 // String returns the original string used to compile the regular expression.
 func (re Regexp) String() string {
 	str := re.Regexp.String()
@@ -290,7 +296,7 @@ func relabel(cfg *Config, lb *labels.Builder) (keep bool) {
 		hash := md5.Sum([]byte(val))
 		// Use only the last 8 bytes of the hash to give the same result as earlier versions of this code.
 		mod := binary.BigEndian.Uint64(hash[8:]) % cfg.Modulus
-		lb.Set(cfg.TargetLabel, fmt.Sprintf("%d", mod))
+		lb.Set(cfg.TargetLabel, strconv.FormatUint(mod, 10))
 	case LabelMap:
 		lb.Range(func(l labels.Label) {
 			if cfg.Regex.MatchString(l.Name) {
diff --git a/model/relabel/relabel_test.go b/model/relabel/relabel_test.go
index 6798fb02a5..0f11f7068d 100644
--- a/model/relabel/relabel_test.go
+++ b/model/relabel/relabel_test.go
@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@
 package relabel
 
 import (
-	"fmt"
+	"strconv"
 	"testing"
 
 	"github.com/prometheus/common/model"
@@ -657,7 +657,7 @@ func TestRelabelValidate(t *testing.T) {
 		},
 	}
 	for i, test := range tests {
-		t.Run(fmt.Sprint(i), func(t *testing.T) {
+		t.Run(strconv.Itoa(i), func(t *testing.T) {
 			err := test.config.Validate()
 			if test.expected == "" {
 				require.NoError(t, err)
@@ -851,3 +851,52 @@ func BenchmarkRelabel(b *testing.B) {
 		})
 	}
 }
+
+func TestConfig_UnmarshalThenMarshal(t *testing.T) {
+	tests := []struct {
+		name      string
+		inputYaml string
+	}{
+		{
+			name: "Values provided",
+			inputYaml: `source_labels: [__meta_kubernetes_pod_annotation_prometheus_io_port]
+separator: ;
+regex: \\d+
+target_label: __meta_kubernetes_pod_container_port_number
+replacement: $1
+action: replace
+`,
+		},
+		{
+			name: "No regex provided",
+			inputYaml: `source_labels: [__meta_kubernetes_pod_annotation_prometheus_io_port]
+separator: ;
+target_label: __meta_kubernetes_pod_container_port_number
+replacement: $1
+action: keepequal
+`,
+		},
+		{
+			name: "Default regex provided",
+			inputYaml: `source_labels: [__meta_kubernetes_pod_annotation_prometheus_io_port]
+separator: ;
+regex: (.*)
+target_label: __meta_kubernetes_pod_container_port_number
+replacement: $1
+action: replace
+`,
+		},
+	}
+	for _, test := range tests {
+		t.Run(test.name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			unmarshalled := Config{}
+			err := yaml.Unmarshal([]byte(test.inputYaml), &unmarshalled)
+			require.NoError(t, err)
+
+			marshalled, err := yaml.Marshal(&unmarshalled)
+			require.NoError(t, err)
+
+			require.Equal(t, test.inputYaml, string(marshalled))
+		})
+	}
+}
diff --git a/model/rulefmt/rulefmt.go b/model/rulefmt/rulefmt.go
index 4ed1619d64..bfb85ce740 100644
--- a/model/rulefmt/rulefmt.go
+++ b/model/rulefmt/rulefmt.go
@@ -136,10 +136,11 @@ func (g *RuleGroups) Validate(node ruleGroups) (errs []error) {
 
 // RuleGroup is a list of sequentially evaluated recording and alerting rules.
 type RuleGroup struct {
-	Name     string         `yaml:"name"`
-	Interval model.Duration `yaml:"interval,omitempty"`
-	Limit    int            `yaml:"limit,omitempty"`
-	Rules    []RuleNode     `yaml:"rules"`
+	Name        string          `yaml:"name"`
+	Interval    model.Duration  `yaml:"interval,omitempty"`
+	QueryOffset *model.Duration `yaml:"query_offset,omitempty"`
+	Limit       int             `yaml:"limit,omitempty"`
+	Rules       []RuleNode      `yaml:"rules"`
 }
 
 // Rule describes an alerting or recording rule.
diff --git a/notifier/notifier.go b/notifier/notifier.go
index 4cf376aa05..68b0d4961e 100644
--- a/notifier/notifier.go
+++ b/notifier/notifier.go
@@ -110,10 +110,11 @@ type Manager struct {
 
 	metrics *alertMetrics
 
-	more   chan struct{}
-	mtx    sync.RWMutex
-	ctx    context.Context
-	cancel func()
+	more chan struct{}
+	mtx  sync.RWMutex
+
+	stopOnce      *sync.Once
+	stopRequested chan struct{}
 
 	alertmanagers map[string]*alertmanagerSet
 	logger        log.Logger
@@ -121,9 +122,10 @@ type Manager struct {
 
 // Options are the configurable parameters of a Handler.
 type Options struct {
-	QueueCapacity  int
-	ExternalLabels labels.Labels
-	RelabelConfigs []*relabel.Config
+	QueueCapacity   int
+	DrainOnShutdown bool
+	ExternalLabels  labels.Labels
+	RelabelConfigs  []*relabel.Config
 	// Used for sending HTTP requests to the Alertmanager.
 	Do func(ctx context.Context, client *http.Client, req *http.Request) (*http.Response, error)
 
@@ -217,8 +219,6 @@ func do(ctx context.Context, client *http.Client, req *http.Request) (*http.Resp
 
 // NewManager is the manager constructor.
 func NewManager(o *Options, logger log.Logger) *Manager {
-	ctx, cancel := context.WithCancel(context.Background())
-
 	if o.Do == nil {
 		o.Do = do
 	}
@@ -227,12 +227,12 @@ func NewManager(o *Options, logger log.Logger) *Manager {
 	}
 
 	n := &Manager{
-		queue:  make([]*Alert, 0, o.QueueCapacity),
-		ctx:    ctx,
-		cancel: cancel,
-		more:   make(chan struct{}, 1),
-		opts:   o,
-		logger: logger,
+		queue:         make([]*Alert, 0, o.QueueCapacity),
+		more:          make(chan struct{}, 1),
+		stopRequested: make(chan struct{}),
+		stopOnce:      &sync.Once{},
+		opts:          o,
+		logger:        logger,
 	}
 
 	queueLenFunc := func() float64 { return float64(n.queueLen()) }
@@ -298,38 +298,100 @@ func (n *Manager) nextBatch() []*Alert {
 	return alerts
 }
 
-// Run dispatches notifications continuously.
+// Run dispatches notifications continuously, returning once Stop has been called and all
+// pending notifications have been drained from the queue (if draining is enabled).
+//
+// Dispatching of notifications occurs in parallel to processing target updates to avoid one starving the other.
+// Refer to https://github.com/prometheus/prometheus/issues/13676 for more details.
 func (n *Manager) Run(tsets <-chan map[string][]*targetgroup.Group) {
+	wg := sync.WaitGroup{}
+	wg.Add(2)
+
+	go func() {
+		defer wg.Done()
+		n.targetUpdateLoop(tsets)
+	}()
+
+	go func() {
+		defer wg.Done()
+		n.sendLoop()
+		n.drainQueue()
+	}()
+
+	wg.Wait()
+	level.Info(n.logger).Log("msg", "Notification manager stopped")
+}
+
+// sendLoop continuously consumes the notifications queue and sends alerts to
+// the configured Alertmanagers.
+func (n *Manager) sendLoop() {
 	for {
-		// The select is split in two parts, such as we will first try to read
-		// new alertmanager targets if they are available, before sending new
-		// alerts.
+		// If we've been asked to stop, that takes priority over sending any further notifications.
 		select {
-		case <-n.ctx.Done():
+		case <-n.stopRequested:
 			return
-		case ts := <-tsets:
-			n.reload(ts)
 		default:
 			select {
-			case <-n.ctx.Done():
+			case <-n.stopRequested:
+				return
+
+			case <-n.more:
+				n.sendOneBatch()
+
+				// If the queue still has items left, kick off the next iteration.
+				if n.queueLen() > 0 {
+					n.setMore()
+				}
+			}
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+// targetUpdateLoop receives updates of target groups and triggers a reload.
+func (n *Manager) targetUpdateLoop(tsets <-chan map[string][]*targetgroup.Group) {
+	for {
+		// If we've been asked to stop, that takes priority over processing any further target group updates.
+		select {
+		case <-n.stopRequested:
+			return
+		default:
+			select {
+			case <-n.stopRequested:
 				return
 			case ts := <-tsets:
 				n.reload(ts)
-			case <-n.more:
 			}
 		}
-		alerts := n.nextBatch()
-
-		if !n.sendAll(alerts...) {
-			n.metrics.dropped.Add(float64(len(alerts)))
-		}
-		// If the queue still has items left, kick off the next iteration.
-		if n.queueLen() > 0 {
-			n.setMore()
-		}
 	}
 }
 
+func (n *Manager) sendOneBatch() {
+	alerts := n.nextBatch()
+
+	if !n.sendAll(alerts...) {
+		n.metrics.dropped.Add(float64(len(alerts)))
+	}
+}
+
+func (n *Manager) drainQueue() {
+	if !n.opts.DrainOnShutdown {
+		if n.queueLen() > 0 {
+			level.Warn(n.logger).Log("msg", "Draining remaining notifications on shutdown is disabled, and some notifications have been dropped", "count", n.queueLen())
+			n.metrics.dropped.Add(float64(n.queueLen()))
+		}
+
+		return
+	}
+
+	level.Info(n.logger).Log("msg", "Draining any remaining notifications...")
+
+	for n.queueLen() > 0 {
+		n.sendOneBatch()
+	}
+
+	level.Info(n.logger).Log("msg", "Remaining notifications drained")
+}
+
 func (n *Manager) reload(tgs map[string][]*targetgroup.Group) {
 	n.mtx.Lock()
 	defer n.mtx.Unlock()
@@ -471,10 +533,6 @@ func (n *Manager) sendAll(alerts ...*Alert) bool {
 		numSuccess atomic.Uint64
 	)
 	for _, ams := range amSets {
-		if len(ams.ams) == 0 {
-			continue
-		}
-
 		var (
 			payload  []byte
 			err      error
@@ -483,6 +541,11 @@ func (n *Manager) sendAll(alerts ...*Alert) bool {
 
 		ams.mtx.RLock()
 
+		if len(ams.ams) == 0 {
+			ams.mtx.RUnlock()
+			continue
+		}
+
 		if len(ams.cfg.AlertRelabelConfigs) > 0 {
 			amAlerts = relabelAlerts(ams.cfg.AlertRelabelConfigs, labels.Labels{}, alerts)
 			if len(amAlerts) == 0 {
@@ -541,7 +604,7 @@ func (n *Manager) sendAll(alerts ...*Alert) bool {
 		for _, am := range ams.ams {
 			wg.Add(1)
 
-			ctx, cancel := context.WithTimeout(n.ctx, time.Duration(ams.cfg.Timeout))
+			ctx, cancel := context.WithTimeout(context.Background(), time.Duration(ams.cfg.Timeout))
 			defer cancel()
 
 			go func(ctx context.Context, client *http.Client, url string, payload []byte, count int) {
@@ -611,6 +674,7 @@ func (n *Manager) sendOne(ctx context.Context, c *http.Client, url string, b []b
 	}()
 
 	// Any HTTP status 2xx is OK.
+	//nolint:usestdlibvars
 	if resp.StatusCode/100 != 2 {
 		return fmt.Errorf("bad response status %s", resp.Status)
 	}
@@ -618,10 +682,19 @@ func (n *Manager) sendOne(ctx context.Context, c *http.Client, url string, b []b
 	return nil
 }
 
-// Stop shuts down the notification handler.
+// Stop signals the notification manager to shut down and immediately returns.
+//
+// Run will return once the notification manager has successfully shut down.
+//
+// The manager will optionally drain any queued notifications before shutting down.
+//
+// Stop is safe to call multiple times.
 func (n *Manager) Stop() {
 	level.Info(n.logger).Log("msg", "Stopping notification manager...")
-	n.cancel()
+
+	n.stopOnce.Do(func() {
+		close(n.stopRequested)
+	})
 }
 
 // Alertmanager holds Alertmanager endpoint information.
diff --git a/notifier/notifier_test.go b/notifier/notifier_test.go
index e7a9243bc2..2cdaa9e06d 100644
--- a/notifier/notifier_test.go
+++ b/notifier/notifier_test.go
@@ -26,13 +26,17 @@ import (
 	"testing"
 	"time"
 
+	"github.com/go-kit/log"
 	"github.com/prometheus/alertmanager/api/v2/models"
+	"github.com/prometheus/client_golang/prometheus"
 	config_util "github.com/prometheus/common/config"
 	"github.com/prometheus/common/model"
 	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
 	"go.uber.org/atomic"
 	"gopkg.in/yaml.v2"
 
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/discovery"
+
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/config"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/discovery/targetgroup"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/labels"
@@ -74,7 +78,7 @@ func TestHandlerNextBatch(t *testing.T) {
 
 	for i := range make([]struct{}, 2*maxBatchSize+1) {
 		h.queue = append(h.queue, &Alert{
-			Labels: labels.FromStrings("alertname", fmt.Sprintf("%d", i)),
+			Labels: labels.FromStrings("alertname", strconv.Itoa(i)),
 		})
 	}
 
@@ -186,10 +190,10 @@ func TestHandlerSendAll(t *testing.T) {
 
 	for i := range make([]struct{}, maxBatchSize) {
 		h.queue = append(h.queue, &Alert{
-			Labels: labels.FromStrings("alertname", fmt.Sprintf("%d", i)),
+			Labels: labels.FromStrings("alertname", strconv.Itoa(i)),
 		})
 		expected = append(expected, &Alert{
-			Labels: labels.FromStrings("alertname", fmt.Sprintf("%d", i)),
+			Labels: labels.FromStrings("alertname", strconv.Itoa(i)),
 		})
 	}
 
@@ -297,23 +301,23 @@ func TestHandlerSendAllRemapPerAm(t *testing.T) {
 	for i := range make([]struct{}, maxBatchSize/2) {
 		h.queue = append(h.queue,
 			&Alert{
-				Labels: labels.FromStrings("alertname", fmt.Sprintf("%d", i)),
+				Labels: labels.FromStrings("alertname", strconv.Itoa(i)),
 			},
 			&Alert{
-				Labels: labels.FromStrings("alertname", "test", "alertnamedrop", fmt.Sprintf("%d", i)),
+				Labels: labels.FromStrings("alertname", "test", "alertnamedrop", strconv.Itoa(i)),
 			},
 		)
 
 		expected1 = append(expected1,
 			&Alert{
-				Labels: labels.FromStrings("alertname", fmt.Sprintf("%d", i)),
+				Labels: labels.FromStrings("alertname", strconv.Itoa(i)),
 			}, &Alert{
-				Labels: labels.FromStrings("alertname", "test", "alertnamedrop", fmt.Sprintf("%d", i)),
+				Labels: labels.FromStrings("alertname", "test", "alertnamedrop", strconv.Itoa(i)),
 			},
 		)
 
 		expected2 = append(expected2, &Alert{
-			Labels: labels.FromStrings("alertname", fmt.Sprintf("%d", i)),
+			Labels: labels.FromStrings("alertname", strconv.Itoa(i)),
 		})
 	}
 
@@ -502,7 +506,7 @@ func TestHandlerQueuing(t *testing.T) {
 	var alerts []*Alert
 	for i := range make([]struct{}, 20*maxBatchSize) {
 		alerts = append(alerts, &Alert{
-			Labels: labels.FromStrings("alertname", fmt.Sprintf("%d", i)),
+			Labels: labels.FromStrings("alertname", strconv.Itoa(i)),
 		})
 	}
 
@@ -697,117 +701,319 @@ func TestLabelsToOpenAPILabelSet(t *testing.T) {
 	require.Equal(t, models.LabelSet{"aaa": "111", "bbb": "222"}, labelsToOpenAPILabelSet(labels.FromStrings("aaa", "111", "bbb", "222")))
 }
 
-// TestHangingNotifier validates that targets updates happen even when there are
-// queued alerts.
+// TestHangingNotifier ensures that the notifier takes into account SD changes even when there are
+// queued alerts. This test reproduces the issue described in https://github.com/prometheus/prometheus/issues/13676.
+// and https://github.com/prometheus/prometheus/issues/8768.
 func TestHangingNotifier(t *testing.T) {
-	// Note: When targets are not updated in time, this test is flaky because go
-	// selects are not deterministic. Therefore we run 10 subtests to run into the issue.
-	for i := 0; i < 10; i++ {
-		t.Run(strconv.Itoa(i), func(t *testing.T) {
-			var (
-				done    = make(chan struct{})
-				changed = make(chan struct{})
-				syncCh  = make(chan map[string][]*targetgroup.Group)
-			)
+	const (
+		batches     = 100
+		alertsCount = maxBatchSize * batches
+	)
 
-			defer func() {
-				close(done)
-			}()
+	var (
+		sendTimeout = 10 * time.Millisecond
+		sdUpdatert  = sendTimeout / 2
 
-			var calledOnce bool
-			// Setting up a bad server. This server hangs for 2 seconds.
-			badServer := httptest.NewServer(http.HandlerFunc(func(w http.ResponseWriter, r *http.Request) {
-				if calledOnce {
-					t.Fatal("hanging server called multiple times")
-				}
-				calledOnce = true
-				select {
-				case <-done:
-				case <-time.After(2 * time.Second):
-				}
-			}))
-			badURL, err := url.Parse(badServer.URL)
-			require.NoError(t, err)
-			badAddress := badURL.Host // Used for __name__ label in targets.
+		done = make(chan struct{})
+	)
 
-			// Setting up a bad server. This server returns fast, signaling requests on
-			// by closing the changed channel.
-			goodServer := httptest.NewServer(http.HandlerFunc(func(w http.ResponseWriter, r *http.Request) {
-				close(changed)
-			}))
-			goodURL, err := url.Parse(goodServer.URL)
-			require.NoError(t, err)
-			goodAddress := goodURL.Host // Used for __name__ label in targets.
+	defer func() {
+		close(done)
+	}()
 
-			h := NewManager(
-				&Options{
-					QueueCapacity: 20 * maxBatchSize,
-				},
-				nil,
-			)
+	// Set up a faulty Alertmanager.
+	var faultyCalled atomic.Bool
+	faultyServer := httptest.NewServer(http.HandlerFunc(func(w http.ResponseWriter, r *http.Request) {
+		faultyCalled.Store(true)
+		select {
+		case <-done:
+		case <-time.After(time.Hour):
+		}
+	}))
+	faultyURL, err := url.Parse(faultyServer.URL)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
 
-			h.alertmanagers = make(map[string]*alertmanagerSet)
+	// Set up a functional Alertmanager.
+	var functionalCalled atomic.Bool
+	functionalServer := httptest.NewServer(http.HandlerFunc(func(w http.ResponseWriter, r *http.Request) {
+		functionalCalled.Store(true)
+	}))
+	functionalURL, err := url.Parse(functionalServer.URL)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
 
-			am1Cfg := config.DefaultAlertmanagerConfig
-			am1Cfg.Timeout = model.Duration(200 * time.Millisecond)
+	// Initialize the discovery manager
+	// This is relevant as the updates aren't sent continually in real life, but only each updatert.
+	// The old implementation of TestHangingNotifier didn't take that into acount.
+	ctx, cancel := context.WithCancel(context.Background())
+	defer cancel()
+	reg := prometheus.NewRegistry()
+	sdMetrics, err := discovery.RegisterSDMetrics(reg, discovery.NewRefreshMetrics(reg))
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	sdManager := discovery.NewManager(
+		ctx,
+		log.NewNopLogger(),
+		reg,
+		sdMetrics,
+		discovery.Name("sd-manager"),
+		discovery.Updatert(sdUpdatert),
+	)
+	go sdManager.Run()
 
-			h.alertmanagers["config-0"] = &alertmanagerSet{
-				ams:     []alertmanager{},
-				cfg:     &am1Cfg,
-				metrics: h.metrics,
-			}
-			go h.Run(syncCh)
-			defer h.Stop()
+	// Set up the notifier with both faulty and functional Alertmanagers.
+	notifier := NewManager(
+		&Options{
+			QueueCapacity: alertsCount,
+		},
+		nil,
+	)
+	notifier.alertmanagers = make(map[string]*alertmanagerSet)
+	amCfg := config.DefaultAlertmanagerConfig
+	amCfg.Timeout = model.Duration(sendTimeout)
+	notifier.alertmanagers["config-0"] = &alertmanagerSet{
+		ams: []alertmanager{
+			alertmanagerMock{
+				urlf: func() string { return faultyURL.String() },
+			},
+			alertmanagerMock{
+				urlf: func() string { return functionalURL.String() },
+			},
+		},
+		cfg:     &amCfg,
+		metrics: notifier.metrics,
+	}
+	go notifier.Run(sdManager.SyncCh())
+	defer notifier.Stop()
 
-			var alerts []*Alert
-			for i := range make([]struct{}, 20*maxBatchSize) {
-				alerts = append(alerts, &Alert{
-					Labels: labels.FromStrings("alertname", fmt.Sprintf("%d", i)),
-				})
-			}
+	require.Len(t, notifier.Alertmanagers(), 2)
 
-			// Injecting the hanging server URL.
-			syncCh <- map[string][]*targetgroup.Group{
-				"config-0": {
-					{
-						Targets: []model.LabelSet{
-							{
-								model.AddressLabel: model.LabelValue(badAddress),
-							},
-						},
-					},
-				},
-			}
-
-			// Queing alerts.
-			h.Send(alerts...)
-
-			// Updating with a working alertmanager target.
-			go func() {
-				select {
-				case syncCh <- map[string][]*targetgroup.Group{
-					"config-0": {
-						{
-							Targets: []model.LabelSet{
-								{
-									model.AddressLabel: model.LabelValue(goodAddress),
-								},
-							},
-						},
-					},
-				}:
-				case <-done:
-				}
-			}()
-
-			select {
-			case <-time.After(1 * time.Second):
-				t.Fatalf("Timeout after 1 second, targets not synced in time.")
-			case <-changed:
-				// The good server has been hit in less than 3 seconds, therefore
-				// targets have been updated before a second call could be made to the
-				// bad server.
-			}
+	// Enqueue the alerts.
+	var alerts []*Alert
+	for i := range make([]struct{}, alertsCount) {
+		alerts = append(alerts, &Alert{
+			Labels: labels.FromStrings("alertname", strconv.Itoa(i)),
 		})
 	}
+	notifier.Send(alerts...)
+
+	// Wait for the Alertmanagers to start receiving alerts.
+	// 10*sdUpdatert is used as an arbitrary timeout here.
+	timeout := time.After(10 * sdUpdatert)
+loop1:
+	for {
+		select {
+		case <-timeout:
+			t.Fatalf("Timeout waiting for the alertmanagers to be reached for the first time.")
+		default:
+			if faultyCalled.Load() && functionalCalled.Load() {
+				break loop1
+			}
+		}
+	}
+
+	// Request to remove the faulty Alertmanager.
+	c := map[string]discovery.Configs{
+		"config-0": {
+			discovery.StaticConfig{
+				&targetgroup.Group{
+					Targets: []model.LabelSet{
+						{
+							model.AddressLabel: model.LabelValue(functionalURL.Host),
+						},
+					},
+				},
+			},
+		},
+	}
+	require.NoError(t, sdManager.ApplyConfig(c))
+
+	// The notifier should not wait until the alerts queue is empty to apply the discovery changes
+	// A faulty Alertmanager could cause each alert sending cycle to take up to AlertmanagerConfig.Timeout
+	// The queue may never be emptied, as the arrival rate could be larger than the departure rate
+	// It could even overflow and alerts could be dropped.
+	timeout = time.After(batches * sendTimeout)
+loop2:
+	for {
+		select {
+		case <-timeout:
+			t.Fatalf("Timeout, the faulty alertmanager not removed on time.")
+		default:
+			// The faulty alertmanager was dropped.
+			if len(notifier.Alertmanagers()) == 1 {
+				// Prevent from TOCTOU.
+				require.Positive(t, notifier.queueLen())
+				break loop2
+			}
+			require.Positive(t, notifier.queueLen(), "The faulty alertmanager wasn't dropped before the alerts queue was emptied.")
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+func TestStop_DrainingDisabled(t *testing.T) {
+	releaseReceiver := make(chan struct{})
+	receiverReceivedRequest := make(chan struct{}, 2)
+	alertsReceived := atomic.NewInt64(0)
+
+	server := httptest.NewServer(http.HandlerFunc(func(w http.ResponseWriter, r *http.Request) {
+		// Let the test know we've received a request.
+		receiverReceivedRequest <- struct{}{}
+
+		var alerts []*Alert
+
+		b, err := io.ReadAll(r.Body)
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+
+		err = json.Unmarshal(b, &alerts)
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+
+		alertsReceived.Add(int64(len(alerts)))
+
+		// Wait for the test to release us.
+		<-releaseReceiver
+
+		w.WriteHeader(http.StatusOK)
+	}))
+	defer func() {
+		server.Close()
+	}()
+
+	m := NewManager(
+		&Options{
+			QueueCapacity:   10,
+			DrainOnShutdown: false,
+		},
+		nil,
+	)
+
+	m.alertmanagers = make(map[string]*alertmanagerSet)
+
+	am1Cfg := config.DefaultAlertmanagerConfig
+	am1Cfg.Timeout = model.Duration(time.Second)
+
+	m.alertmanagers["1"] = &alertmanagerSet{
+		ams: []alertmanager{
+			alertmanagerMock{
+				urlf: func() string { return server.URL },
+			},
+		},
+		cfg: &am1Cfg,
+	}
+
+	notificationManagerStopped := make(chan struct{})
+
+	go func() {
+		defer close(notificationManagerStopped)
+		m.Run(nil)
+	}()
+
+	// Queue two alerts. The first should be immediately sent to the receiver, which should block until we release it later.
+	m.Send(&Alert{Labels: labels.FromStrings(labels.AlertName, "alert-1")})
+
+	select {
+	case <-receiverReceivedRequest:
+		// Nothing more to do.
+	case <-time.After(time.Second):
+		require.FailNow(t, "gave up waiting for receiver to receive notification of first alert")
+	}
+
+	m.Send(&Alert{Labels: labels.FromStrings(labels.AlertName, "alert-2")})
+
+	// Stop the notification manager, pause to allow the shutdown to be observed, and then allow the receiver to proceed.
+	m.Stop()
+	time.Sleep(time.Second)
+	close(releaseReceiver)
+
+	// Wait for the notification manager to stop and confirm only the first notification was sent.
+	// The second notification should be dropped.
+	select {
+	case <-notificationManagerStopped:
+		// Nothing more to do.
+	case <-time.After(time.Second):
+		require.FailNow(t, "gave up waiting for notification manager to stop")
+	}
+
+	require.Equal(t, int64(1), alertsReceived.Load())
+}
+
+func TestStop_DrainingEnabled(t *testing.T) {
+	releaseReceiver := make(chan struct{})
+	receiverReceivedRequest := make(chan struct{}, 2)
+	alertsReceived := atomic.NewInt64(0)
+
+	server := httptest.NewServer(http.HandlerFunc(func(w http.ResponseWriter, r *http.Request) {
+		// Let the test know we've received a request.
+		receiverReceivedRequest <- struct{}{}
+
+		var alerts []*Alert
+
+		b, err := io.ReadAll(r.Body)
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+
+		err = json.Unmarshal(b, &alerts)
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+
+		alertsReceived.Add(int64(len(alerts)))
+
+		// Wait for the test to release us.
+		<-releaseReceiver
+
+		w.WriteHeader(http.StatusOK)
+	}))
+	defer func() {
+		server.Close()
+	}()
+
+	m := NewManager(
+		&Options{
+			QueueCapacity:   10,
+			DrainOnShutdown: true,
+		},
+		nil,
+	)
+
+	m.alertmanagers = make(map[string]*alertmanagerSet)
+
+	am1Cfg := config.DefaultAlertmanagerConfig
+	am1Cfg.Timeout = model.Duration(time.Second)
+
+	m.alertmanagers["1"] = &alertmanagerSet{
+		ams: []alertmanager{
+			alertmanagerMock{
+				urlf: func() string { return server.URL },
+			},
+		},
+		cfg: &am1Cfg,
+	}
+
+	notificationManagerStopped := make(chan struct{})
+
+	go func() {
+		defer close(notificationManagerStopped)
+		m.Run(nil)
+	}()
+
+	// Queue two alerts. The first should be immediately sent to the receiver, which should block until we release it later.
+	m.Send(&Alert{Labels: labels.FromStrings(labels.AlertName, "alert-1")})
+
+	select {
+	case <-receiverReceivedRequest:
+		// Nothing more to do.
+	case <-time.After(time.Second):
+		require.FailNow(t, "gave up waiting for receiver to receive notification of first alert")
+	}
+
+	m.Send(&Alert{Labels: labels.FromStrings(labels.AlertName, "alert-2")})
+
+	// Stop the notification manager and allow the receiver to proceed.
+	m.Stop()
+	close(releaseReceiver)
+
+	// Wait for the notification manager to stop and confirm both notifications were sent.
+	select {
+	case <-notificationManagerStopped:
+		// Nothing more to do.
+	case <-time.After(200 * time.Millisecond):
+		require.FailNow(t, "gave up waiting for notification manager to stop")
+	}
+
+	require.Equal(t, int64(2), alertsReceived.Load())
 }
diff --git a/prompb/codec.go b/prompb/codec.go
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..ad30cd5e7b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/prompb/codec.go
@@ -0,0 +1,201 @@
+// Copyright 2024 Prometheus Team
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+//
+// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+
+package prompb
+
+import (
+	"strings"
+
+	"github.com/prometheus/common/model"
+
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/exemplar"
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/histogram"
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/labels"
+)
+
+// NOTE(bwplotka): This file's code is tested in /prompb/rwcommon.
+
+// ToLabels return model labels.Labels from timeseries' remote labels.
+func (m TimeSeries) ToLabels(b *labels.ScratchBuilder, _ []string) labels.Labels {
+	return labelProtosToLabels(b, m.GetLabels())
+}
+
+// ToLabels return model labels.Labels from timeseries' remote labels.
+func (m ChunkedSeries) ToLabels(b *labels.ScratchBuilder, _ []string) labels.Labels {
+	return labelProtosToLabels(b, m.GetLabels())
+}
+
+func labelProtosToLabels(b *labels.ScratchBuilder, labelPairs []Label) labels.Labels {
+	b.Reset()
+	for _, l := range labelPairs {
+		b.Add(l.Name, l.Value)
+	}
+	b.Sort()
+	return b.Labels()
+}
+
+// FromLabels transforms labels into prompb labels. The buffer slice
+// will be used to avoid allocations if it is big enough to store the labels.
+func FromLabels(lbls labels.Labels, buf []Label) []Label {
+	result := buf[:0]
+	lbls.Range(func(l labels.Label) {
+		result = append(result, Label{
+			Name:  l.Name,
+			Value: l.Value,
+		})
+	})
+	return result
+}
+
+// FromMetadataType transforms a Prometheus metricType into prompb metricType. Since the former is a string we need to transform it to an enum.
+func FromMetadataType(t model.MetricType) MetricMetadata_MetricType {
+	mt := strings.ToUpper(string(t))
+	v, ok := MetricMetadata_MetricType_value[mt]
+	if !ok {
+		return MetricMetadata_UNKNOWN
+	}
+	return MetricMetadata_MetricType(v)
+}
+
+// IsFloatHistogram returns true if the histogram is float.
+func (h Histogram) IsFloatHistogram() bool {
+	_, ok := h.GetCount().(*Histogram_CountFloat)
+	return ok
+}
+
+// ToIntHistogram returns integer Prometheus histogram from the remote implementation
+// of integer histogram. If it's a float histogram, the method returns nil.
+func (h Histogram) ToIntHistogram() *histogram.Histogram {
+	if h.IsFloatHistogram() {
+		return nil
+	}
+	return &histogram.Histogram{
+		CounterResetHint: histogram.CounterResetHint(h.ResetHint),
+		Schema:           h.Schema,
+		ZeroThreshold:    h.ZeroThreshold,
+		ZeroCount:        h.GetZeroCountInt(),
+		Count:            h.GetCountInt(),
+		Sum:              h.Sum,
+		PositiveSpans:    spansProtoToSpans(h.GetPositiveSpans()),
+		PositiveBuckets:  h.GetPositiveDeltas(),
+		NegativeSpans:    spansProtoToSpans(h.GetNegativeSpans()),
+		NegativeBuckets:  h.GetNegativeDeltas(),
+	}
+}
+
+// ToFloatHistogram returns float Prometheus histogram from the remote implementation
+// of float histogram. If the underlying implementation is an integer histogram, a
+// conversion is performed.
+func (h Histogram) ToFloatHistogram() *histogram.FloatHistogram {
+	if h.IsFloatHistogram() {
+		return &histogram.FloatHistogram{
+			CounterResetHint: histogram.CounterResetHint(h.ResetHint),
+			Schema:           h.Schema,
+			ZeroThreshold:    h.ZeroThreshold,
+			ZeroCount:        h.GetZeroCountFloat(),
+			Count:            h.GetCountFloat(),
+			Sum:              h.Sum,
+			PositiveSpans:    spansProtoToSpans(h.GetPositiveSpans()),
+			PositiveBuckets:  h.GetPositiveCounts(),
+			NegativeSpans:    spansProtoToSpans(h.GetNegativeSpans()),
+			NegativeBuckets:  h.GetNegativeCounts(),
+		}
+	}
+	// Conversion from integer histogram.
+	return &histogram.FloatHistogram{
+		CounterResetHint: histogram.CounterResetHint(h.ResetHint),
+		Schema:           h.Schema,
+		ZeroThreshold:    h.ZeroThreshold,
+		ZeroCount:        float64(h.GetZeroCountInt()),
+		Count:            float64(h.GetCountInt()),
+		Sum:              h.Sum,
+		PositiveSpans:    spansProtoToSpans(h.GetPositiveSpans()),
+		PositiveBuckets:  deltasToCounts(h.GetPositiveDeltas()),
+		NegativeSpans:    spansProtoToSpans(h.GetNegativeSpans()),
+		NegativeBuckets:  deltasToCounts(h.GetNegativeDeltas()),
+	}
+}
+
+func spansProtoToSpans(s []BucketSpan) []histogram.Span {
+	spans := make([]histogram.Span, len(s))
+	for i := 0; i < len(s); i++ {
+		spans[i] = histogram.Span{Offset: s[i].Offset, Length: s[i].Length}
+	}
+
+	return spans
+}
+
+func deltasToCounts(deltas []int64) []float64 {
+	counts := make([]float64, len(deltas))
+	var cur float64
+	for i, d := range deltas {
+		cur += float64(d)
+		counts[i] = cur
+	}
+	return counts
+}
+
+// FromIntHistogram returns remote Histogram from the integer Histogram.
+func FromIntHistogram(timestamp int64, h *histogram.Histogram) Histogram {
+	return Histogram{
+		Count:          &Histogram_CountInt{CountInt: h.Count},
+		Sum:            h.Sum,
+		Schema:         h.Schema,
+		ZeroThreshold:  h.ZeroThreshold,
+		ZeroCount:      &Histogram_ZeroCountInt{ZeroCountInt: h.ZeroCount},
+		NegativeSpans:  spansToSpansProto(h.NegativeSpans),
+		NegativeDeltas: h.NegativeBuckets,
+		PositiveSpans:  spansToSpansProto(h.PositiveSpans),
+		PositiveDeltas: h.PositiveBuckets,
+		ResetHint:      Histogram_ResetHint(h.CounterResetHint),
+		Timestamp:      timestamp,
+	}
+}
+
+// FromFloatHistogram returns remote Histogram from the float Histogram.
+func FromFloatHistogram(timestamp int64, fh *histogram.FloatHistogram) Histogram {
+	return Histogram{
+		Count:          &Histogram_CountFloat{CountFloat: fh.Count},
+		Sum:            fh.Sum,
+		Schema:         fh.Schema,
+		ZeroThreshold:  fh.ZeroThreshold,
+		ZeroCount:      &Histogram_ZeroCountFloat{ZeroCountFloat: fh.ZeroCount},
+		NegativeSpans:  spansToSpansProto(fh.NegativeSpans),
+		NegativeCounts: fh.NegativeBuckets,
+		PositiveSpans:  spansToSpansProto(fh.PositiveSpans),
+		PositiveCounts: fh.PositiveBuckets,
+		ResetHint:      Histogram_ResetHint(fh.CounterResetHint),
+		Timestamp:      timestamp,
+	}
+}
+
+func spansToSpansProto(s []histogram.Span) []BucketSpan {
+	spans := make([]BucketSpan, len(s))
+	for i := 0; i < len(s); i++ {
+		spans[i] = BucketSpan{Offset: s[i].Offset, Length: s[i].Length}
+	}
+
+	return spans
+}
+
+// ToExemplar converts remote exemplar to model exemplar.
+func (m Exemplar) ToExemplar(b *labels.ScratchBuilder, _ []string) exemplar.Exemplar {
+	timestamp := m.Timestamp
+
+	return exemplar.Exemplar{
+		Labels: labelProtosToLabels(b, m.GetLabels()),
+		Value:  m.Value,
+		Ts:     timestamp,
+		HasTs:  timestamp != 0,
+	}
+}
diff --git a/prompb/custom.go b/prompb/custom.go
index 13d6e0f0cd..f73ddd446b 100644
--- a/prompb/custom.go
+++ b/prompb/custom.go
@@ -17,14 +17,6 @@ import (
 	"sync"
 )
 
-func (m Sample) T() int64   { return m.Timestamp }
-func (m Sample) V() float64 { return m.Value }
-
-func (h Histogram) IsFloatHistogram() bool {
-	_, ok := h.GetCount().(*Histogram_CountFloat)
-	return ok
-}
-
 func (r *ChunkedReadResponse) PooledMarshal(p *sync.Pool) ([]byte, error) {
 	size := r.Size()
 	data, ok := p.Get().(*[]byte)
diff --git a/prompb/io/prometheus/write/v2/codec.go b/prompb/io/prometheus/write/v2/codec.go
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..25fa0d4035
--- /dev/null
+++ b/prompb/io/prometheus/write/v2/codec.go
@@ -0,0 +1,216 @@
+// Copyright 2024 Prometheus Team
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+//
+// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+
+package writev2
+
+import (
+	"github.com/prometheus/common/model"
+
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/exemplar"
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/histogram"
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/labels"
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/metadata"
+)
+
+// NOTE(bwplotka): This file's code is tested in /prompb/rwcommon.
+
+// ToLabels return model labels.Labels from timeseries' remote labels.
+func (m TimeSeries) ToLabels(b *labels.ScratchBuilder, symbols []string) labels.Labels {
+	return desymbolizeLabels(b, m.GetLabelsRefs(), symbols)
+}
+
+// ToMetadata return model metadata from timeseries' remote metadata.
+func (m TimeSeries) ToMetadata(symbols []string) metadata.Metadata {
+	typ := model.MetricTypeUnknown
+	switch m.Metadata.Type {
+	case Metadata_METRIC_TYPE_COUNTER:
+		typ = model.MetricTypeCounter
+	case Metadata_METRIC_TYPE_GAUGE:
+		typ = model.MetricTypeGauge
+	case Metadata_METRIC_TYPE_HISTOGRAM:
+		typ = model.MetricTypeHistogram
+	case Metadata_METRIC_TYPE_GAUGEHISTOGRAM:
+		typ = model.MetricTypeGaugeHistogram
+	case Metadata_METRIC_TYPE_SUMMARY:
+		typ = model.MetricTypeSummary
+	case Metadata_METRIC_TYPE_INFO:
+		typ = model.MetricTypeInfo
+	case Metadata_METRIC_TYPE_STATESET:
+		typ = model.MetricTypeStateset
+	}
+	return metadata.Metadata{
+		Type: typ,
+		Unit: symbols[m.Metadata.UnitRef],
+		Help: symbols[m.Metadata.HelpRef],
+	}
+}
+
+// FromMetadataType transforms a Prometheus metricType into writev2 metricType.
+// Since the former is a string we need to transform it to an enum.
+func FromMetadataType(t model.MetricType) Metadata_MetricType {
+	switch t {
+	case model.MetricTypeCounter:
+		return Metadata_METRIC_TYPE_COUNTER
+	case model.MetricTypeGauge:
+		return Metadata_METRIC_TYPE_GAUGE
+	case model.MetricTypeHistogram:
+		return Metadata_METRIC_TYPE_HISTOGRAM
+	case model.MetricTypeGaugeHistogram:
+		return Metadata_METRIC_TYPE_GAUGEHISTOGRAM
+	case model.MetricTypeSummary:
+		return Metadata_METRIC_TYPE_SUMMARY
+	case model.MetricTypeInfo:
+		return Metadata_METRIC_TYPE_INFO
+	case model.MetricTypeStateset:
+		return Metadata_METRIC_TYPE_STATESET
+	default:
+		return Metadata_METRIC_TYPE_UNSPECIFIED
+	}
+}
+
+// IsFloatHistogram returns true if the histogram is float.
+func (h Histogram) IsFloatHistogram() bool {
+	_, ok := h.GetCount().(*Histogram_CountFloat)
+	return ok
+}
+
+// ToIntHistogram returns integer Prometheus histogram from the remote implementation
+// of integer histogram. If it's a float histogram, the method returns nil.
+func (h Histogram) ToIntHistogram() *histogram.Histogram {
+	if h.IsFloatHistogram() {
+		return nil
+	}
+	return &histogram.Histogram{
+		CounterResetHint: histogram.CounterResetHint(h.ResetHint),
+		Schema:           h.Schema,
+		ZeroThreshold:    h.ZeroThreshold,
+		ZeroCount:        h.GetZeroCountInt(),
+		Count:            h.GetCountInt(),
+		Sum:              h.Sum,
+		PositiveSpans:    spansProtoToSpans(h.GetPositiveSpans()),
+		PositiveBuckets:  h.GetPositiveDeltas(),
+		NegativeSpans:    spansProtoToSpans(h.GetNegativeSpans()),
+		NegativeBuckets:  h.GetNegativeDeltas(),
+		CustomValues:     h.GetCustomValues(),
+	}
+}
+
+// ToFloatHistogram returns float Prometheus histogram from the remote implementation
+// of float histogram. If the underlying implementation is an integer histogram, a
+// conversion is performed.
+func (h Histogram) ToFloatHistogram() *histogram.FloatHistogram {
+	if h.IsFloatHistogram() {
+		return &histogram.FloatHistogram{
+			CounterResetHint: histogram.CounterResetHint(h.ResetHint),
+			Schema:           h.Schema,
+			ZeroThreshold:    h.ZeroThreshold,
+			ZeroCount:        h.GetZeroCountFloat(),
+			Count:            h.GetCountFloat(),
+			Sum:              h.Sum,
+			PositiveSpans:    spansProtoToSpans(h.GetPositiveSpans()),
+			PositiveBuckets:  h.GetPositiveCounts(),
+			NegativeSpans:    spansProtoToSpans(h.GetNegativeSpans()),
+			NegativeBuckets:  h.GetNegativeCounts(),
+			CustomValues:     h.GetCustomValues(),
+		}
+	}
+	// Conversion from integer histogram.
+	return &histogram.FloatHistogram{
+		CounterResetHint: histogram.CounterResetHint(h.ResetHint),
+		Schema:           h.Schema,
+		ZeroThreshold:    h.ZeroThreshold,
+		ZeroCount:        float64(h.GetZeroCountInt()),
+		Count:            float64(h.GetCountInt()),
+		Sum:              h.Sum,
+		PositiveSpans:    spansProtoToSpans(h.GetPositiveSpans()),
+		PositiveBuckets:  deltasToCounts(h.GetPositiveDeltas()),
+		NegativeSpans:    spansProtoToSpans(h.GetNegativeSpans()),
+		NegativeBuckets:  deltasToCounts(h.GetNegativeDeltas()),
+		CustomValues:     h.GetCustomValues(),
+	}
+}
+
+func spansProtoToSpans(s []BucketSpan) []histogram.Span {
+	spans := make([]histogram.Span, len(s))
+	for i := 0; i < len(s); i++ {
+		spans[i] = histogram.Span{Offset: s[i].Offset, Length: s[i].Length}
+	}
+
+	return spans
+}
+
+func deltasToCounts(deltas []int64) []float64 {
+	counts := make([]float64, len(deltas))
+	var cur float64
+	for i, d := range deltas {
+		cur += float64(d)
+		counts[i] = cur
+	}
+	return counts
+}
+
+// FromIntHistogram returns remote Histogram from the integer Histogram.
+func FromIntHistogram(timestamp int64, h *histogram.Histogram) Histogram {
+	return Histogram{
+		Count:          &Histogram_CountInt{CountInt: h.Count},
+		Sum:            h.Sum,
+		Schema:         h.Schema,
+		ZeroThreshold:  h.ZeroThreshold,
+		ZeroCount:      &Histogram_ZeroCountInt{ZeroCountInt: h.ZeroCount},
+		NegativeSpans:  spansToSpansProto(h.NegativeSpans),
+		NegativeDeltas: h.NegativeBuckets,
+		PositiveSpans:  spansToSpansProto(h.PositiveSpans),
+		PositiveDeltas: h.PositiveBuckets,
+		ResetHint:      Histogram_ResetHint(h.CounterResetHint),
+		CustomValues:   h.CustomValues,
+		Timestamp:      timestamp,
+	}
+}
+
+// FromFloatHistogram returns remote Histogram from the float Histogram.
+func FromFloatHistogram(timestamp int64, fh *histogram.FloatHistogram) Histogram {
+	return Histogram{
+		Count:          &Histogram_CountFloat{CountFloat: fh.Count},
+		Sum:            fh.Sum,
+		Schema:         fh.Schema,
+		ZeroThreshold:  fh.ZeroThreshold,
+		ZeroCount:      &Histogram_ZeroCountFloat{ZeroCountFloat: fh.ZeroCount},
+		NegativeSpans:  spansToSpansProto(fh.NegativeSpans),
+		NegativeCounts: fh.NegativeBuckets,
+		PositiveSpans:  spansToSpansProto(fh.PositiveSpans),
+		PositiveCounts: fh.PositiveBuckets,
+		ResetHint:      Histogram_ResetHint(fh.CounterResetHint),
+		CustomValues:   fh.CustomValues,
+		Timestamp:      timestamp,
+	}
+}
+
+func spansToSpansProto(s []histogram.Span) []BucketSpan {
+	spans := make([]BucketSpan, len(s))
+	for i := 0; i < len(s); i++ {
+		spans[i] = BucketSpan{Offset: s[i].Offset, Length: s[i].Length}
+	}
+
+	return spans
+}
+
+func (m Exemplar) ToExemplar(b *labels.ScratchBuilder, symbols []string) exemplar.Exemplar {
+	timestamp := m.Timestamp
+
+	return exemplar.Exemplar{
+		Labels: desymbolizeLabels(b, m.LabelsRefs, symbols),
+		Value:  m.Value,
+		Ts:     timestamp,
+		HasTs:  timestamp != 0,
+	}
+}
diff --git a/prompb/io/prometheus/write/v2/custom.go b/prompb/io/prometheus/write/v2/custom.go
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..3aa778eb60
--- /dev/null
+++ b/prompb/io/prometheus/write/v2/custom.go
@@ -0,0 +1,165 @@
+// Copyright 2024 The Prometheus Authors
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+//
+// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+
+package writev2
+
+import (
+	"slices"
+)
+
+func (m Sample) T() int64   { return m.Timestamp }
+func (m Sample) V() float64 { return m.Value }
+
+func (m *Request) OptimizedMarshal(dst []byte) ([]byte, error) {
+	siz := m.Size()
+	if cap(dst) < siz {
+		dst = make([]byte, siz)
+	}
+	n, err := m.OptimizedMarshalToSizedBuffer(dst[:siz])
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+	return dst[:n], nil
+}
+
+// OptimizedMarshalToSizedBuffer is mostly a copy of the generated MarshalToSizedBuffer,
+// but calls OptimizedMarshalToSizedBuffer on the timeseries.
+func (m *Request) OptimizedMarshalToSizedBuffer(dAtA []byte) (int, error) {
+	i := len(dAtA)
+	_ = i
+	var l int
+	_ = l
+	if m.XXX_unrecognized != nil {
+		i -= len(m.XXX_unrecognized)
+		copy(dAtA[i:], m.XXX_unrecognized)
+	}
+	if len(m.Timeseries) > 0 {
+		for iNdEx := len(m.Timeseries) - 1; iNdEx >= 0; iNdEx-- {
+			{
+				size, err := m.Timeseries[iNdEx].OptimizedMarshalToSizedBuffer(dAtA[:i])
+				if err != nil {
+					return 0, err
+				}
+				i -= size
+				i = encodeVarintTypes(dAtA, i, uint64(size))
+			}
+			i--
+			dAtA[i] = 0x2a
+		}
+	}
+	if len(m.Symbols) > 0 {
+		for iNdEx := len(m.Symbols) - 1; iNdEx >= 0; iNdEx-- {
+			i -= len(m.Symbols[iNdEx])
+			copy(dAtA[i:], m.Symbols[iNdEx])
+			i = encodeVarintTypes(dAtA, i, uint64(len(m.Symbols[iNdEx])))
+			i--
+			dAtA[i] = 0x22
+		}
+	}
+	return len(dAtA) - i, nil
+}
+
+// OptimizedMarshalToSizedBuffer is mostly a copy of the generated MarshalToSizedBuffer,
+// but marshals m.LabelsRefs in place without extra allocations.
+func (m *TimeSeries) OptimizedMarshalToSizedBuffer(dAtA []byte) (int, error) {
+	i := len(dAtA)
+	_ = i
+	var l int
+	_ = l
+	if m.XXX_unrecognized != nil {
+		i -= len(m.XXX_unrecognized)
+		copy(dAtA[i:], m.XXX_unrecognized)
+	}
+	if m.CreatedTimestamp != 0 {
+		i = encodeVarintTypes(dAtA, i, uint64(m.CreatedTimestamp))
+		i--
+		dAtA[i] = 0x30
+	}
+	{
+		size, err := m.Metadata.MarshalToSizedBuffer(dAtA[:i])
+		if err != nil {
+			return 0, err
+		}
+		i -= size
+		i = encodeVarintTypes(dAtA, i, uint64(size))
+	}
+	i--
+	dAtA[i] = 0x2a
+	if len(m.Histograms) > 0 {
+		for iNdEx := len(m.Histograms) - 1; iNdEx >= 0; iNdEx-- {
+			{
+				size, err := m.Histograms[iNdEx].MarshalToSizedBuffer(dAtA[:i])
+				if err != nil {
+					return 0, err
+				}
+				i -= size
+				i = encodeVarintTypes(dAtA, i, uint64(size))
+			}
+			i--
+			dAtA[i] = 0x1a
+		}
+	}
+	if len(m.Exemplars) > 0 {
+		for iNdEx := len(m.Exemplars) - 1; iNdEx >= 0; iNdEx-- {
+			{
+				size, err := m.Exemplars[iNdEx].MarshalToSizedBuffer(dAtA[:i])
+				if err != nil {
+					return 0, err
+				}
+				i -= size
+				i = encodeVarintTypes(dAtA, i, uint64(size))
+			}
+			i--
+			dAtA[i] = 0x22
+		}
+	}
+	if len(m.Samples) > 0 {
+		for iNdEx := len(m.Samples) - 1; iNdEx >= 0; iNdEx-- {
+			{
+				size, err := m.Samples[iNdEx].MarshalToSizedBuffer(dAtA[:i])
+				if err != nil {
+					return 0, err
+				}
+				i -= size
+				i = encodeVarintTypes(dAtA, i, uint64(size))
+			}
+			i--
+			dAtA[i] = 0x12
+		}
+	}
+
+	if len(m.LabelsRefs) > 0 {
+		// This is the trick: encode the varints in reverse order to make it easier
+		// to do it in place. Then reverse the whole thing.
+		var j10 int
+		start := i
+		for _, num := range m.LabelsRefs {
+			for num >= 1<<7 {
+				dAtA[i-1] = uint8(uint64(num)&0x7f | 0x80)
+				num >>= 7
+				i--
+				j10++
+			}
+			dAtA[i-1] = uint8(num)
+			i--
+			j10++
+		}
+		slices.Reverse(dAtA[i:start])
+		// --- end of trick
+
+		i = encodeVarintTypes(dAtA, i, uint64(j10))
+		i--
+		dAtA[i] = 0xa
+	}
+	return len(dAtA) - i, nil
+}
diff --git a/prompb/io/prometheus/write/v2/custom_test.go b/prompb/io/prometheus/write/v2/custom_test.go
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..139cbfb225
--- /dev/null
+++ b/prompb/io/prometheus/write/v2/custom_test.go
@@ -0,0 +1,97 @@
+// Copyright 2023 The Prometheus Authors
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+//
+// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+package writev2
+
+import (
+	"testing"
+
+	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
+)
+
+func TestOptimizedMarshal(t *testing.T) {
+	for _, tt := range []struct {
+		name string
+		m    *Request
+	}{
+		{
+			name: "empty",
+			m:    &Request{},
+		},
+		{
+			name: "simple",
+			m: &Request{
+				Timeseries: []TimeSeries{
+					{
+						LabelsRefs: []uint32{
+							0, 1,
+							2, 3,
+							4, 5,
+							6, 7,
+							8, 9,
+							10, 11,
+							12, 13,
+							14, 15,
+						},
+
+						Samples:    []Sample{{Value: 1, Timestamp: 0}},
+						Exemplars:  []Exemplar{{LabelsRefs: []uint32{0, 1}, Value: 1, Timestamp: 0}},
+						Histograms: nil,
+					},
+					{
+						LabelsRefs: []uint32{
+							0, 1,
+							2, 3,
+							4, 5,
+							6, 7,
+							8, 9,
+							10, 11,
+							12, 13,
+							14, 15,
+						},
+						Samples:    []Sample{{Value: 2, Timestamp: 1}},
+						Exemplars:  []Exemplar{{LabelsRefs: []uint32{0, 1}, Value: 2, Timestamp: 1}},
+						Histograms: nil,
+					},
+				},
+				Symbols: []string{
+					"a", "b",
+					"c", "d",
+					"e", "f",
+					"g", "h",
+					"i", "j",
+					"k", "l",
+					"m", "n",
+					"o", "p",
+				},
+			},
+		},
+	} {
+		t.Run(tt.name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			// Keep the slice allocated to mimic what std Marshal
+			// would give to sized Marshal.
+			got := make([]byte, 0)
+
+			// Should be the same as the standard marshal.
+			expected, err := tt.m.Marshal()
+			require.NoError(t, err)
+			got, err = tt.m.OptimizedMarshal(got)
+			require.NoError(t, err)
+			require.Equal(t, expected, got)
+
+			// Unmarshal should work too.
+			m := &Request{}
+			require.NoError(t, m.Unmarshal(got))
+			require.Equal(t, tt.m, m)
+		})
+	}
+}
diff --git a/prompb/io/prometheus/write/v2/symbols.go b/prompb/io/prometheus/write/v2/symbols.go
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..f316a976f2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/prompb/io/prometheus/write/v2/symbols.go
@@ -0,0 +1,83 @@
+// Copyright 2024 Prometheus Team
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+//
+// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+
+package writev2
+
+import "github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/labels"
+
+// SymbolsTable implements table for easy symbol use.
+type SymbolsTable struct {
+	strings    []string
+	symbolsMap map[string]uint32
+}
+
+// NewSymbolTable returns a symbol table.
+func NewSymbolTable() SymbolsTable {
+	return SymbolsTable{
+		// Empty string is required as a first element.
+		symbolsMap: map[string]uint32{"": 0},
+		strings:    []string{""},
+	}
+}
+
+// Symbolize adds (if not added before) a string to the symbols table,
+// while returning its reference number.
+func (t *SymbolsTable) Symbolize(str string) uint32 {
+	if ref, ok := t.symbolsMap[str]; ok {
+		return ref
+	}
+	ref := uint32(len(t.strings))
+	t.strings = append(t.strings, str)
+	t.symbolsMap[str] = ref
+	return ref
+}
+
+// SymbolizeLabels symbolize Prometheus labels.
+func (t *SymbolsTable) SymbolizeLabels(lbls labels.Labels, buf []uint32) []uint32 {
+	result := buf[:0]
+	lbls.Range(func(l labels.Label) {
+		off := t.Symbolize(l.Name)
+		result = append(result, off)
+		off = t.Symbolize(l.Value)
+		result = append(result, off)
+	})
+	return result
+}
+
+// Symbols returns computes symbols table to put in e.g. Request.Symbols.
+// As per spec, order does not matter.
+func (t *SymbolsTable) Symbols() []string {
+	return t.strings
+}
+
+// Reset clears symbols table.
+func (t *SymbolsTable) Reset() {
+	// NOTE: Make sure to keep empty symbol.
+	t.strings = t.strings[:1]
+	for k := range t.symbolsMap {
+		if k == "" {
+			continue
+		}
+		delete(t.symbolsMap, k)
+	}
+}
+
+// desymbolizeLabels decodes label references, with given symbols to labels.
+func desymbolizeLabels(b *labels.ScratchBuilder, labelRefs []uint32, symbols []string) labels.Labels {
+	b.Reset()
+	for i := 0; i < len(labelRefs); i += 2 {
+		b.Add(symbols[labelRefs[i]], symbols[labelRefs[i+1]])
+	}
+	b.Sort()
+	return b.Labels()
+}
diff --git a/prompb/io/prometheus/write/v2/symbols_test.go b/prompb/io/prometheus/write/v2/symbols_test.go
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..3d852e88f1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/prompb/io/prometheus/write/v2/symbols_test.go
@@ -0,0 +1,60 @@
+// Copyright 2024 Prometheus Team
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+//
+// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+
+package writev2
+
+import (
+	"testing"
+
+	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
+
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/labels"
+)
+
+func TestSymbolsTable(t *testing.T) {
+	s := NewSymbolTable()
+	require.Equal(t, []string{""}, s.Symbols(), "required empty reference does not exist")
+	require.Equal(t, uint32(0), s.Symbolize(""))
+	require.Equal(t, []string{""}, s.Symbols())
+
+	require.Equal(t, uint32(1), s.Symbolize("abc"))
+	require.Equal(t, []string{"", "abc"}, s.Symbols())
+
+	require.Equal(t, uint32(2), s.Symbolize("__name__"))
+	require.Equal(t, []string{"", "abc", "__name__"}, s.Symbols())
+
+	require.Equal(t, uint32(3), s.Symbolize("foo"))
+	require.Equal(t, []string{"", "abc", "__name__", "foo"}, s.Symbols())
+
+	s.Reset()
+	require.Equal(t, []string{""}, s.Symbols(), "required empty reference does not exist")
+	require.Equal(t, uint32(0), s.Symbolize(""))
+
+	require.Equal(t, uint32(1), s.Symbolize("__name__"))
+	require.Equal(t, []string{"", "__name__"}, s.Symbols())
+
+	require.Equal(t, uint32(2), s.Symbolize("abc"))
+	require.Equal(t, []string{"", "__name__", "abc"}, s.Symbols())
+
+	ls := labels.FromStrings("__name__", "qwer", "zxcv", "1234")
+	encoded := s.SymbolizeLabels(ls, nil)
+	require.Equal(t, []uint32{1, 3, 4, 5}, encoded)
+	b := labels.NewScratchBuilder(len(encoded))
+	decoded := desymbolizeLabels(&b, encoded, s.Symbols())
+	require.Equal(t, ls, decoded)
+
+	// Different buf.
+	ls = labels.FromStrings("__name__", "qwer", "zxcv2222", "1234")
+	encoded = s.SymbolizeLabels(ls, []uint32{1, 3, 4, 5})
+	require.Equal(t, []uint32{1, 3, 6, 5}, encoded)
+}
diff --git a/prompb/io/prometheus/write/v2/types.pb.go b/prompb/io/prometheus/write/v2/types.pb.go
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..d6ea8398f7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/prompb/io/prometheus/write/v2/types.pb.go
@@ -0,0 +1,3241 @@
+// Code generated by protoc-gen-gogo. DO NOT EDIT.
+// source: io/prometheus/write/v2/types.proto
+
+package writev2
+
+import (
+	encoding_binary "encoding/binary"
+	fmt "fmt"
+	_ "github.com/gogo/protobuf/gogoproto"
+	proto "github.com/gogo/protobuf/proto"
+	io "io"
+	math "math"
+	math_bits "math/bits"
+)
+
+// Reference imports to suppress errors if they are not otherwise used.
+var _ = proto.Marshal
+var _ = fmt.Errorf
+var _ = math.Inf
+
+// This is a compile-time assertion to ensure that this generated file
+// is compatible with the proto package it is being compiled against.
+// A compilation error at this line likely means your copy of the
+// proto package needs to be updated.
+const _ = proto.GoGoProtoPackageIsVersion3 // please upgrade the proto package
+
+type Metadata_MetricType int32
+
+const (
+	Metadata_METRIC_TYPE_UNSPECIFIED    Metadata_MetricType = 0
+	Metadata_METRIC_TYPE_COUNTER        Metadata_MetricType = 1
+	Metadata_METRIC_TYPE_GAUGE          Metadata_MetricType = 2
+	Metadata_METRIC_TYPE_HISTOGRAM      Metadata_MetricType = 3
+	Metadata_METRIC_TYPE_GAUGEHISTOGRAM Metadata_MetricType = 4
+	Metadata_METRIC_TYPE_SUMMARY        Metadata_MetricType = 5
+	Metadata_METRIC_TYPE_INFO           Metadata_MetricType = 6
+	Metadata_METRIC_TYPE_STATESET       Metadata_MetricType = 7
+)
+
+var Metadata_MetricType_name = map[int32]string{
+	0: "METRIC_TYPE_UNSPECIFIED",
+	1: "METRIC_TYPE_COUNTER",
+	2: "METRIC_TYPE_GAUGE",
+	3: "METRIC_TYPE_HISTOGRAM",
+	4: "METRIC_TYPE_GAUGEHISTOGRAM",
+	5: "METRIC_TYPE_SUMMARY",
+	6: "METRIC_TYPE_INFO",
+	7: "METRIC_TYPE_STATESET",
+}
+
+var Metadata_MetricType_value = map[string]int32{
+	"METRIC_TYPE_UNSPECIFIED":    0,
+	"METRIC_TYPE_COUNTER":        1,
+	"METRIC_TYPE_GAUGE":          2,
+	"METRIC_TYPE_HISTOGRAM":      3,
+	"METRIC_TYPE_GAUGEHISTOGRAM": 4,
+	"METRIC_TYPE_SUMMARY":        5,
+	"METRIC_TYPE_INFO":           6,
+	"METRIC_TYPE_STATESET":       7,
+}
+
+func (x Metadata_MetricType) String() string {
+	return proto.EnumName(Metadata_MetricType_name, int32(x))
+}
+
+func (Metadata_MetricType) EnumDescriptor() ([]byte, []int) {
+	return fileDescriptor_f139519efd9fa8d7, []int{4, 0}
+}
+
+type Histogram_ResetHint int32
+
+const (
+	Histogram_RESET_HINT_UNSPECIFIED Histogram_ResetHint = 0
+	Histogram_RESET_HINT_YES         Histogram_ResetHint = 1
+	Histogram_RESET_HINT_NO          Histogram_ResetHint = 2
+	Histogram_RESET_HINT_GAUGE       Histogram_ResetHint = 3
+)
+
+var Histogram_ResetHint_name = map[int32]string{
+	0: "RESET_HINT_UNSPECIFIED",
+	1: "RESET_HINT_YES",
+	2: "RESET_HINT_NO",
+	3: "RESET_HINT_GAUGE",
+}
+
+var Histogram_ResetHint_value = map[string]int32{
+	"RESET_HINT_UNSPECIFIED": 0,
+	"RESET_HINT_YES":         1,
+	"RESET_HINT_NO":          2,
+	"RESET_HINT_GAUGE":       3,
+}
+
+func (x Histogram_ResetHint) String() string {
+	return proto.EnumName(Histogram_ResetHint_name, int32(x))
+}
+
+func (Histogram_ResetHint) EnumDescriptor() ([]byte, []int) {
+	return fileDescriptor_f139519efd9fa8d7, []int{5, 0}
+}
+
+// Request represents a request to write the given timeseries to a remote destination.
+// This message was introduced in the Remote Write 2.0 specification:
+// https://prometheus.io/docs/concepts/remote_write_spec_2_0/
+//
+// The canonical Content-Type request header value for this message is
+// "application/x-protobuf;proto=io.prometheus.write.v2.Request"
+//
+// NOTE: gogoproto options might change in future for this file, they
+// are not part of the spec proto (they only modify the generated Go code, not
+// the serialized message). See: https://github.com/prometheus/prometheus/issues/11908
+type Request struct {
+	// symbols contains a de-duplicated array of string elements used for various
+	// items in a Request message, like labels and metadata items. For the sender's convenience
+	// around empty values for optional fields like unit_ref, symbols array MUST start with
+	// empty string.
+	//
+	// To decode each of the symbolized strings, referenced, by "ref(s)" suffix, you
+	// need to lookup the actual string by index from symbols array. The order of
+	// strings is up to the sender. The receiver should not assume any particular encoding.
+	Symbols []string `protobuf:"bytes,4,rep,name=symbols,proto3" json:"symbols,omitempty"`
+	// timeseries represents an array of distinct series with 0 or more samples.
+	Timeseries           []TimeSeries `protobuf:"bytes,5,rep,name=timeseries,proto3" json:"timeseries"`
+	XXX_NoUnkeyedLiteral struct{}     `json:"-"`
+	XXX_unrecognized     []byte       `json:"-"`
+	XXX_sizecache        int32        `json:"-"`
+}
+
+func (m *Request) Reset()         { *m = Request{} }
+func (m *Request) String() string { return proto.CompactTextString(m) }
+func (*Request) ProtoMessage()    {}
+func (*Request) Descriptor() ([]byte, []int) {
+	return fileDescriptor_f139519efd9fa8d7, []int{0}
+}
+func (m *Request) XXX_Unmarshal(b []byte) error {
+	return m.Unmarshal(b)
+}
+func (m *Request) XXX_Marshal(b []byte, deterministic bool) ([]byte, error) {
+	if deterministic {
+		return xxx_messageInfo_Request.Marshal(b, m, deterministic)
+	} else {
+		b = b[:cap(b)]
+		n, err := m.MarshalToSizedBuffer(b)
+		if err != nil {
+			return nil, err
+		}
+		return b[:n], nil
+	}
+}
+func (m *Request) XXX_Merge(src proto.Message) {
+	xxx_messageInfo_Request.Merge(m, src)
+}
+func (m *Request) XXX_Size() int {
+	return m.Size()
+}
+func (m *Request) XXX_DiscardUnknown() {
+	xxx_messageInfo_Request.DiscardUnknown(m)
+}
+
+var xxx_messageInfo_Request proto.InternalMessageInfo
+
+func (m *Request) GetSymbols() []string {
+	if m != nil {
+		return m.Symbols
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (m *Request) GetTimeseries() []TimeSeries {
+	if m != nil {
+		return m.Timeseries
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+
+// TimeSeries represents a single series.
+type TimeSeries struct {
+	// labels_refs is a list of label name-value pair references, encoded
+	// as indices to the Request.symbols array. This list's length is always
+	// a multiple of two, and the underlying labels should be sorted lexicographically.
+	//
+	// Note that there might be multiple TimeSeries objects in the same
+	// Requests with the same labels e.g. for different exemplars, metadata
+	// or created timestamp.
+	LabelsRefs []uint32 `protobuf:"varint,1,rep,packed,name=labels_refs,json=labelsRefs,proto3" json:"labels_refs,omitempty"`
+	// Timeseries messages can either specify samples or (native) histogram samples
+	// (histogram field), but not both. For a typical sender (real-time metric
+	// streaming), in healthy cases, there will be only one sample or histogram.
+	//
+	// Samples and histograms are sorted by timestamp (older first).
+	Samples    []Sample    `protobuf:"bytes,2,rep,name=samples,proto3" json:"samples"`
+	Histograms []Histogram `protobuf:"bytes,3,rep,name=histograms,proto3" json:"histograms"`
+	// exemplars represents an optional set of exemplars attached to this series' samples.
+	Exemplars []Exemplar `protobuf:"bytes,4,rep,name=exemplars,proto3" json:"exemplars"`
+	// metadata represents the metadata associated with the given series' samples.
+	Metadata Metadata `protobuf:"bytes,5,opt,name=metadata,proto3" json:"metadata"`
+	// created_timestamp represents an optional created timestamp associated with
+	// this series' samples in ms format, typically for counter or histogram type
+	// metrics. Created timestamp represents the time when the counter started
+	// counting (sometimes referred to as start timestamp), which can increase
+	// the accuracy of query results.
+	//
+	// Note that some receivers might require this and in return fail to
+	// ingest such samples within the Request.
+	//
+	// For Go, see github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/timestamp/timestamp.go
+	// for conversion from/to time.Time to Prometheus timestamp.
+	//
+	// Note that the "optional" keyword is omitted due to
+	// https://cloud.google.com/apis/design/design_patterns.md#optional_primitive_fields
+	// Zero value means value not set. If you need to use exactly zero value for
+	// the timestamp, use 1 millisecond before or after.
+	CreatedTimestamp     int64    `protobuf:"varint,6,opt,name=created_timestamp,json=createdTimestamp,proto3" json:"created_timestamp,omitempty"`
+	XXX_NoUnkeyedLiteral struct{} `json:"-"`
+	XXX_unrecognized     []byte   `json:"-"`
+	XXX_sizecache        int32    `json:"-"`
+}
+
+func (m *TimeSeries) Reset()         { *m = TimeSeries{} }
+func (m *TimeSeries) String() string { return proto.CompactTextString(m) }
+func (*TimeSeries) ProtoMessage()    {}
+func (*TimeSeries) Descriptor() ([]byte, []int) {
+	return fileDescriptor_f139519efd9fa8d7, []int{1}
+}
+func (m *TimeSeries) XXX_Unmarshal(b []byte) error {
+	return m.Unmarshal(b)
+}
+func (m *TimeSeries) XXX_Marshal(b []byte, deterministic bool) ([]byte, error) {
+	if deterministic {
+		return xxx_messageInfo_TimeSeries.Marshal(b, m, deterministic)
+	} else {
+		b = b[:cap(b)]
+		n, err := m.MarshalToSizedBuffer(b)
+		if err != nil {
+			return nil, err
+		}
+		return b[:n], nil
+	}
+}
+func (m *TimeSeries) XXX_Merge(src proto.Message) {
+	xxx_messageInfo_TimeSeries.Merge(m, src)
+}
+func (m *TimeSeries) XXX_Size() int {
+	return m.Size()
+}
+func (m *TimeSeries) XXX_DiscardUnknown() {
+	xxx_messageInfo_TimeSeries.DiscardUnknown(m)
+}
+
+var xxx_messageInfo_TimeSeries proto.InternalMessageInfo
+
+func (m *TimeSeries) GetLabelsRefs() []uint32 {
+	if m != nil {
+		return m.LabelsRefs
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (m *TimeSeries) GetSamples() []Sample {
+	if m != nil {
+		return m.Samples
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (m *TimeSeries) GetHistograms() []Histogram {
+	if m != nil {
+		return m.Histograms
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (m *TimeSeries) GetExemplars() []Exemplar {
+	if m != nil {
+		return m.Exemplars
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (m *TimeSeries) GetMetadata() Metadata {
+	if m != nil {
+		return m.Metadata
+	}
+	return Metadata{}
+}
+
+func (m *TimeSeries) GetCreatedTimestamp() int64 {
+	if m != nil {
+		return m.CreatedTimestamp
+	}
+	return 0
+}
+
+// Exemplar is an additional information attached to some series' samples.
+// It is typically used to attach an example trace or request ID associated with
+// the metric changes.
+type Exemplar struct {
+	// labels_refs is an optional list of label name-value pair references, encoded
+	// as indices to the Request.symbols array. This list's len is always
+	// a multiple of 2, and the underlying labels should be sorted lexicographically.
+	// If the exemplar references a trace it should use the `trace_id` label name, as a best practice.
+	LabelsRefs []uint32 `protobuf:"varint,1,rep,packed,name=labels_refs,json=labelsRefs,proto3" json:"labels_refs,omitempty"`
+	// value represents an exact example value. This can be useful when the exemplar
+	// is attached to a histogram, which only gives an estimated value through buckets.
+	Value float64 `protobuf:"fixed64,2,opt,name=value,proto3" json:"value,omitempty"`
+	// timestamp represents an optional timestamp of the sample in ms.
+	//
+	// For Go, see github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/timestamp/timestamp.go
+	// for conversion from/to time.Time to Prometheus timestamp.
+	//
+	// Note that the "optional" keyword is omitted due to
+	// https://cloud.google.com/apis/design/design_patterns.md#optional_primitive_fields
+	// Zero value means value not set. If you need to use exactly zero value for
+	// the timestamp, use 1 millisecond before or after.
+	Timestamp            int64    `protobuf:"varint,3,opt,name=timestamp,proto3" json:"timestamp,omitempty"`
+	XXX_NoUnkeyedLiteral struct{} `json:"-"`
+	XXX_unrecognized     []byte   `json:"-"`
+	XXX_sizecache        int32    `json:"-"`
+}
+
+func (m *Exemplar) Reset()         { *m = Exemplar{} }
+func (m *Exemplar) String() string { return proto.CompactTextString(m) }
+func (*Exemplar) ProtoMessage()    {}
+func (*Exemplar) Descriptor() ([]byte, []int) {
+	return fileDescriptor_f139519efd9fa8d7, []int{2}
+}
+func (m *Exemplar) XXX_Unmarshal(b []byte) error {
+	return m.Unmarshal(b)
+}
+func (m *Exemplar) XXX_Marshal(b []byte, deterministic bool) ([]byte, error) {
+	if deterministic {
+		return xxx_messageInfo_Exemplar.Marshal(b, m, deterministic)
+	} else {
+		b = b[:cap(b)]
+		n, err := m.MarshalToSizedBuffer(b)
+		if err != nil {
+			return nil, err
+		}
+		return b[:n], nil
+	}
+}
+func (m *Exemplar) XXX_Merge(src proto.Message) {
+	xxx_messageInfo_Exemplar.Merge(m, src)
+}
+func (m *Exemplar) XXX_Size() int {
+	return m.Size()
+}
+func (m *Exemplar) XXX_DiscardUnknown() {
+	xxx_messageInfo_Exemplar.DiscardUnknown(m)
+}
+
+var xxx_messageInfo_Exemplar proto.InternalMessageInfo
+
+func (m *Exemplar) GetLabelsRefs() []uint32 {
+	if m != nil {
+		return m.LabelsRefs
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (m *Exemplar) GetValue() float64 {
+	if m != nil {
+		return m.Value
+	}
+	return 0
+}
+
+func (m *Exemplar) GetTimestamp() int64 {
+	if m != nil {
+		return m.Timestamp
+	}
+	return 0
+}
+
+// Sample represents series sample.
+type Sample struct {
+	// value of the sample.
+	Value float64 `protobuf:"fixed64,1,opt,name=value,proto3" json:"value,omitempty"`
+	// timestamp represents timestamp of the sample in ms.
+	//
+	// For Go, see github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/timestamp/timestamp.go
+	// for conversion from/to time.Time to Prometheus timestamp.
+	Timestamp            int64    `protobuf:"varint,2,opt,name=timestamp,proto3" json:"timestamp,omitempty"`
+	XXX_NoUnkeyedLiteral struct{} `json:"-"`
+	XXX_unrecognized     []byte   `json:"-"`
+	XXX_sizecache        int32    `json:"-"`
+}
+
+func (m *Sample) Reset()         { *m = Sample{} }
+func (m *Sample) String() string { return proto.CompactTextString(m) }
+func (*Sample) ProtoMessage()    {}
+func (*Sample) Descriptor() ([]byte, []int) {
+	return fileDescriptor_f139519efd9fa8d7, []int{3}
+}
+func (m *Sample) XXX_Unmarshal(b []byte) error {
+	return m.Unmarshal(b)
+}
+func (m *Sample) XXX_Marshal(b []byte, deterministic bool) ([]byte, error) {
+	if deterministic {
+		return xxx_messageInfo_Sample.Marshal(b, m, deterministic)
+	} else {
+		b = b[:cap(b)]
+		n, err := m.MarshalToSizedBuffer(b)
+		if err != nil {
+			return nil, err
+		}
+		return b[:n], nil
+	}
+}
+func (m *Sample) XXX_Merge(src proto.Message) {
+	xxx_messageInfo_Sample.Merge(m, src)
+}
+func (m *Sample) XXX_Size() int {
+	return m.Size()
+}
+func (m *Sample) XXX_DiscardUnknown() {
+	xxx_messageInfo_Sample.DiscardUnknown(m)
+}
+
+var xxx_messageInfo_Sample proto.InternalMessageInfo
+
+func (m *Sample) GetValue() float64 {
+	if m != nil {
+		return m.Value
+	}
+	return 0
+}
+
+func (m *Sample) GetTimestamp() int64 {
+	if m != nil {
+		return m.Timestamp
+	}
+	return 0
+}
+
+// Metadata represents the metadata associated with the given series' samples.
+type Metadata struct {
+	Type Metadata_MetricType `protobuf:"varint,1,opt,name=type,proto3,enum=io.prometheus.write.v2.Metadata_MetricType" json:"type,omitempty"`
+	// help_ref is a reference to the Request.symbols array representing help
+	// text for the metric. Help is optional, reference should point to an empty string in
+	// such a case.
+	HelpRef uint32 `protobuf:"varint,3,opt,name=help_ref,json=helpRef,proto3" json:"help_ref,omitempty"`
+	// unit_ref is a reference to the Request.symbols array representing a unit
+	// for the metric. Unit is optional, reference should point to an empty string in
+	// such a case.
+	UnitRef              uint32   `protobuf:"varint,4,opt,name=unit_ref,json=unitRef,proto3" json:"unit_ref,omitempty"`
+	XXX_NoUnkeyedLiteral struct{} `json:"-"`
+	XXX_unrecognized     []byte   `json:"-"`
+	XXX_sizecache        int32    `json:"-"`
+}
+
+func (m *Metadata) Reset()         { *m = Metadata{} }
+func (m *Metadata) String() string { return proto.CompactTextString(m) }
+func (*Metadata) ProtoMessage()    {}
+func (*Metadata) Descriptor() ([]byte, []int) {
+	return fileDescriptor_f139519efd9fa8d7, []int{4}
+}
+func (m *Metadata) XXX_Unmarshal(b []byte) error {
+	return m.Unmarshal(b)
+}
+func (m *Metadata) XXX_Marshal(b []byte, deterministic bool) ([]byte, error) {
+	if deterministic {
+		return xxx_messageInfo_Metadata.Marshal(b, m, deterministic)
+	} else {
+		b = b[:cap(b)]
+		n, err := m.MarshalToSizedBuffer(b)
+		if err != nil {
+			return nil, err
+		}
+		return b[:n], nil
+	}
+}
+func (m *Metadata) XXX_Merge(src proto.Message) {
+	xxx_messageInfo_Metadata.Merge(m, src)
+}
+func (m *Metadata) XXX_Size() int {
+	return m.Size()
+}
+func (m *Metadata) XXX_DiscardUnknown() {
+	xxx_messageInfo_Metadata.DiscardUnknown(m)
+}
+
+var xxx_messageInfo_Metadata proto.InternalMessageInfo
+
+func (m *Metadata) GetType() Metadata_MetricType {
+	if m != nil {
+		return m.Type
+	}
+	return Metadata_METRIC_TYPE_UNSPECIFIED
+}
+
+func (m *Metadata) GetHelpRef() uint32 {
+	if m != nil {
+		return m.HelpRef
+	}
+	return 0
+}
+
+func (m *Metadata) GetUnitRef() uint32 {
+	if m != nil {
+		return m.UnitRef
+	}
+	return 0
+}
+
+// A native histogram, also known as a sparse histogram.
+// Original design doc:
+// https://docs.google.com/document/d/1cLNv3aufPZb3fNfaJgdaRBZsInZKKIHo9E6HinJVbpM/edit
+// The appendix of this design doc also explains the concept of float
+// histograms. This Histogram message can represent both, the usual
+// integer histogram as well as a float histogram.
+type Histogram struct {
+	// Types that are valid to be assigned to Count:
+	//
+	//	*Histogram_CountInt
+	//	*Histogram_CountFloat
+	Count isHistogram_Count `protobuf_oneof:"count"`
+	Sum   float64           `protobuf:"fixed64,3,opt,name=sum,proto3" json:"sum,omitempty"`
+	// The schema defines the bucket schema. Currently, valid numbers
+	// are -53 and numbers in range of -4 <= n <= 8. More valid numbers might be
+	// added in future for new bucketing layouts.
+	//
+	// The schema equal to -53 means custom buckets. See
+	// custom_values field description for more details.
+	//
+	// Values between -4 and 8 represent base-2 bucket schema, where 1
+	// is a bucket boundary in each case, and then each power of two is
+	// divided into 2^n (n is schema value) logarithmic buckets. Or in other words,
+	// each bucket boundary is the previous boundary times 2^(2^-n).
+	Schema        int32   `protobuf:"zigzag32,4,opt,name=schema,proto3" json:"schema,omitempty"`
+	ZeroThreshold float64 `protobuf:"fixed64,5,opt,name=zero_threshold,json=zeroThreshold,proto3" json:"zero_threshold,omitempty"`
+	// Types that are valid to be assigned to ZeroCount:
+	//
+	//	*Histogram_ZeroCountInt
+	//	*Histogram_ZeroCountFloat
+	ZeroCount isHistogram_ZeroCount `protobuf_oneof:"zero_count"`
+	// Negative Buckets.
+	NegativeSpans []BucketSpan `protobuf:"bytes,8,rep,name=negative_spans,json=negativeSpans,proto3" json:"negative_spans"`
+	// Use either "negative_deltas" or "negative_counts", the former for
+	// regular histograms with integer counts, the latter for
+	// float histograms.
+	NegativeDeltas []int64   `protobuf:"zigzag64,9,rep,packed,name=negative_deltas,json=negativeDeltas,proto3" json:"negative_deltas,omitempty"`
+	NegativeCounts []float64 `protobuf:"fixed64,10,rep,packed,name=negative_counts,json=negativeCounts,proto3" json:"negative_counts,omitempty"`
+	// Positive Buckets.
+	//
+	// In case of custom buckets (-53 schema value) the positive buckets are interpreted as follows:
+	// * The span offset+length points to an the index of the custom_values array
+	// or +Inf if pointing to the len of the array.
+	// * The counts and deltas have the same meaning as for exponential histograms.
+	PositiveSpans []BucketSpan `protobuf:"bytes,11,rep,name=positive_spans,json=positiveSpans,proto3" json:"positive_spans"`
+	// Use either "positive_deltas" or "positive_counts", the former for
+	// regular histograms with integer counts, the latter for
+	// float histograms.
+	PositiveDeltas []int64             `protobuf:"zigzag64,12,rep,packed,name=positive_deltas,json=positiveDeltas,proto3" json:"positive_deltas,omitempty"`
+	PositiveCounts []float64           `protobuf:"fixed64,13,rep,packed,name=positive_counts,json=positiveCounts,proto3" json:"positive_counts,omitempty"`
+	ResetHint      Histogram_ResetHint `protobuf:"varint,14,opt,name=reset_hint,json=resetHint,proto3,enum=io.prometheus.write.v2.Histogram_ResetHint" json:"reset_hint,omitempty"`
+	// timestamp represents timestamp of the sample in ms.
+	//
+	// For Go, see github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/timestamp/timestamp.go
+	// for conversion from/to time.Time to Prometheus timestamp.
+	Timestamp int64 `protobuf:"varint,15,opt,name=timestamp,proto3" json:"timestamp,omitempty"`
+	// custom_values is an additional field used by non-exponential bucketing layouts.
+	//
+	// For custom buckets (-53 schema value) custom_values specify monotonically
+	// increasing upper inclusive boundaries for the bucket counts with arbitrary
+	// widths for this histogram. In other words, custom_values represents custom,
+	// explicit bucketing that could have been converted from the classic histograms.
+	//
+	// Those bounds are then referenced by spans in positive_spans with corresponding positive
+	// counts of deltas (refer to positive_spans for more details). This way we can
+	// have encode sparse histograms with custom bucketing (many buckets are often
+	// not used).
+	//
+	// Note that for custom bounds, even negative observations are placed in the positive
+	// counts to simplify the implementation and avoid ambiguity of where to place
+	// an underflow bucket, e.g. (-2, 1]. Therefore negative buckets and
+	// the zero bucket are unused, if the schema indicates custom bucketing.
+	//
+	// For each upper boundary the previous boundary represent the lower exclusive
+	// boundary for that bucket. The first element is the upper inclusive boundary
+	// for the first bucket, which implicitly has a lower inclusive bound of -Inf.
+	// This is similar to "le" label semantics on classic histograms. You may add a
+	// bucket with an upper bound of 0 to make sure that you really have no negative
+	// observations, but in practice, native histogram rendering will show both with
+	// or without first upper boundary 0 and no negative counts as the same case.
+	//
+	// The last element is not only the upper inclusive bound of the last regular
+	// bucket, but implicitly the lower exclusive bound of the +Inf bucket.
+	CustomValues         []float64 `protobuf:"fixed64,16,rep,packed,name=custom_values,json=customValues,proto3" json:"custom_values,omitempty"`
+	XXX_NoUnkeyedLiteral struct{}  `json:"-"`
+	XXX_unrecognized     []byte    `json:"-"`
+	XXX_sizecache        int32     `json:"-"`
+}
+
+func (m *Histogram) Reset()         { *m = Histogram{} }
+func (m *Histogram) String() string { return proto.CompactTextString(m) }
+func (*Histogram) ProtoMessage()    {}
+func (*Histogram) Descriptor() ([]byte, []int) {
+	return fileDescriptor_f139519efd9fa8d7, []int{5}
+}
+func (m *Histogram) XXX_Unmarshal(b []byte) error {
+	return m.Unmarshal(b)
+}
+func (m *Histogram) XXX_Marshal(b []byte, deterministic bool) ([]byte, error) {
+	if deterministic {
+		return xxx_messageInfo_Histogram.Marshal(b, m, deterministic)
+	} else {
+		b = b[:cap(b)]
+		n, err := m.MarshalToSizedBuffer(b)
+		if err != nil {
+			return nil, err
+		}
+		return b[:n], nil
+	}
+}
+func (m *Histogram) XXX_Merge(src proto.Message) {
+	xxx_messageInfo_Histogram.Merge(m, src)
+}
+func (m *Histogram) XXX_Size() int {
+	return m.Size()
+}
+func (m *Histogram) XXX_DiscardUnknown() {
+	xxx_messageInfo_Histogram.DiscardUnknown(m)
+}
+
+var xxx_messageInfo_Histogram proto.InternalMessageInfo
+
+type isHistogram_Count interface {
+	isHistogram_Count()
+	MarshalTo([]byte) (int, error)
+	Size() int
+}
+type isHistogram_ZeroCount interface {
+	isHistogram_ZeroCount()
+	MarshalTo([]byte) (int, error)
+	Size() int
+}
+
+type Histogram_CountInt struct {
+	CountInt uint64 `protobuf:"varint,1,opt,name=count_int,json=countInt,proto3,oneof" json:"count_int,omitempty"`
+}
+type Histogram_CountFloat struct {
+	CountFloat float64 `protobuf:"fixed64,2,opt,name=count_float,json=countFloat,proto3,oneof" json:"count_float,omitempty"`
+}
+type Histogram_ZeroCountInt struct {
+	ZeroCountInt uint64 `protobuf:"varint,6,opt,name=zero_count_int,json=zeroCountInt,proto3,oneof" json:"zero_count_int,omitempty"`
+}
+type Histogram_ZeroCountFloat struct {
+	ZeroCountFloat float64 `protobuf:"fixed64,7,opt,name=zero_count_float,json=zeroCountFloat,proto3,oneof" json:"zero_count_float,omitempty"`
+}
+
+func (*Histogram_CountInt) isHistogram_Count()           {}
+func (*Histogram_CountFloat) isHistogram_Count()         {}
+func (*Histogram_ZeroCountInt) isHistogram_ZeroCount()   {}
+func (*Histogram_ZeroCountFloat) isHistogram_ZeroCount() {}
+
+func (m *Histogram) GetCount() isHistogram_Count {
+	if m != nil {
+		return m.Count
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+func (m *Histogram) GetZeroCount() isHistogram_ZeroCount {
+	if m != nil {
+		return m.ZeroCount
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (m *Histogram) GetCountInt() uint64 {
+	if x, ok := m.GetCount().(*Histogram_CountInt); ok {
+		return x.CountInt
+	}
+	return 0
+}
+
+func (m *Histogram) GetCountFloat() float64 {
+	if x, ok := m.GetCount().(*Histogram_CountFloat); ok {
+		return x.CountFloat
+	}
+	return 0
+}
+
+func (m *Histogram) GetSum() float64 {
+	if m != nil {
+		return m.Sum
+	}
+	return 0
+}
+
+func (m *Histogram) GetSchema() int32 {
+	if m != nil {
+		return m.Schema
+	}
+	return 0
+}
+
+func (m *Histogram) GetZeroThreshold() float64 {
+	if m != nil {
+		return m.ZeroThreshold
+	}
+	return 0
+}
+
+func (m *Histogram) GetZeroCountInt() uint64 {
+	if x, ok := m.GetZeroCount().(*Histogram_ZeroCountInt); ok {
+		return x.ZeroCountInt
+	}
+	return 0
+}
+
+func (m *Histogram) GetZeroCountFloat() float64 {
+	if x, ok := m.GetZeroCount().(*Histogram_ZeroCountFloat); ok {
+		return x.ZeroCountFloat
+	}
+	return 0
+}
+
+func (m *Histogram) GetNegativeSpans() []BucketSpan {
+	if m != nil {
+		return m.NegativeSpans
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (m *Histogram) GetNegativeDeltas() []int64 {
+	if m != nil {
+		return m.NegativeDeltas
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (m *Histogram) GetNegativeCounts() []float64 {
+	if m != nil {
+		return m.NegativeCounts
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (m *Histogram) GetPositiveSpans() []BucketSpan {
+	if m != nil {
+		return m.PositiveSpans
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (m *Histogram) GetPositiveDeltas() []int64 {
+	if m != nil {
+		return m.PositiveDeltas
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (m *Histogram) GetPositiveCounts() []float64 {
+	if m != nil {
+		return m.PositiveCounts
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (m *Histogram) GetResetHint() Histogram_ResetHint {
+	if m != nil {
+		return m.ResetHint
+	}
+	return Histogram_RESET_HINT_UNSPECIFIED
+}
+
+func (m *Histogram) GetTimestamp() int64 {
+	if m != nil {
+		return m.Timestamp
+	}
+	return 0
+}
+
+func (m *Histogram) GetCustomValues() []float64 {
+	if m != nil {
+		return m.CustomValues
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+
+// XXX_OneofWrappers is for the internal use of the proto package.
+func (*Histogram) XXX_OneofWrappers() []interface{} {
+	return []interface{}{
+		(*Histogram_CountInt)(nil),
+		(*Histogram_CountFloat)(nil),
+		(*Histogram_ZeroCountInt)(nil),
+		(*Histogram_ZeroCountFloat)(nil),
+	}
+}
+
+// A BucketSpan defines a number of consecutive buckets with their
+// offset. Logically, it would be more straightforward to include the
+// bucket counts in the Span. However, the protobuf representation is
+// more compact in the way the data is structured here (with all the
+// buckets in a single array separate from the Spans).
+type BucketSpan struct {
+	Offset               int32    `protobuf:"zigzag32,1,opt,name=offset,proto3" json:"offset,omitempty"`
+	Length               uint32   `protobuf:"varint,2,opt,name=length,proto3" json:"length,omitempty"`
+	XXX_NoUnkeyedLiteral struct{} `json:"-"`
+	XXX_unrecognized     []byte   `json:"-"`
+	XXX_sizecache        int32    `json:"-"`
+}
+
+func (m *BucketSpan) Reset()         { *m = BucketSpan{} }
+func (m *BucketSpan) String() string { return proto.CompactTextString(m) }
+func (*BucketSpan) ProtoMessage()    {}
+func (*BucketSpan) Descriptor() ([]byte, []int) {
+	return fileDescriptor_f139519efd9fa8d7, []int{6}
+}
+func (m *BucketSpan) XXX_Unmarshal(b []byte) error {
+	return m.Unmarshal(b)
+}
+func (m *BucketSpan) XXX_Marshal(b []byte, deterministic bool) ([]byte, error) {
+	if deterministic {
+		return xxx_messageInfo_BucketSpan.Marshal(b, m, deterministic)
+	} else {
+		b = b[:cap(b)]
+		n, err := m.MarshalToSizedBuffer(b)
+		if err != nil {
+			return nil, err
+		}
+		return b[:n], nil
+	}
+}
+func (m *BucketSpan) XXX_Merge(src proto.Message) {
+	xxx_messageInfo_BucketSpan.Merge(m, src)
+}
+func (m *BucketSpan) XXX_Size() int {
+	return m.Size()
+}
+func (m *BucketSpan) XXX_DiscardUnknown() {
+	xxx_messageInfo_BucketSpan.DiscardUnknown(m)
+}
+
+var xxx_messageInfo_BucketSpan proto.InternalMessageInfo
+
+func (m *BucketSpan) GetOffset() int32 {
+	if m != nil {
+		return m.Offset
+	}
+	return 0
+}
+
+func (m *BucketSpan) GetLength() uint32 {
+	if m != nil {
+		return m.Length
+	}
+	return 0
+}
+
+func init() {
+	proto.RegisterEnum("io.prometheus.write.v2.Metadata_MetricType", Metadata_MetricType_name, Metadata_MetricType_value)
+	proto.RegisterEnum("io.prometheus.write.v2.Histogram_ResetHint", Histogram_ResetHint_name, Histogram_ResetHint_value)
+	proto.RegisterType((*Request)(nil), "io.prometheus.write.v2.Request")
+	proto.RegisterType((*TimeSeries)(nil), "io.prometheus.write.v2.TimeSeries")
+	proto.RegisterType((*Exemplar)(nil), "io.prometheus.write.v2.Exemplar")
+	proto.RegisterType((*Sample)(nil), "io.prometheus.write.v2.Sample")
+	proto.RegisterType((*Metadata)(nil), "io.prometheus.write.v2.Metadata")
+	proto.RegisterType((*Histogram)(nil), "io.prometheus.write.v2.Histogram")
+	proto.RegisterType((*BucketSpan)(nil), "io.prometheus.write.v2.BucketSpan")
+}
+
+func init() {
+	proto.RegisterFile("io/prometheus/write/v2/types.proto", fileDescriptor_f139519efd9fa8d7)
+}
+
+var fileDescriptor_f139519efd9fa8d7 = []byte{
+	// 926 bytes of a gzipped FileDescriptorProto
+	0x1f, 0x8b, 0x08, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x02, 0xff, 0x94, 0x55, 0x5d, 0x6f, 0xe3, 0x44,
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+	0xd3, 0x2d, 0xeb, 0xfd, 0x14, 0x3a, 0x9c, 0xf6, 0x76, 0xfd, 0x1e, 0xbf, 0x0d, 0x28, 0xeb, 0x06,
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+}
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+func (m *Request) MarshalTo(dAtA []byte) (int, error) {
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+}
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+			i -= len(m.Symbols[iNdEx])
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+			i = encodeVarintTypes(dAtA, i, uint64(len(m.Symbols[iNdEx])))
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+}
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+func (m *TimeSeries) Marshal() (dAtA []byte, err error) {
+	size := m.Size()
+	dAtA = make([]byte, size)
+	n, err := m.MarshalToSizedBuffer(dAtA[:size])
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+}
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+func (m *TimeSeries) MarshalTo(dAtA []byte) (int, error) {
+	size := m.Size()
+	return m.MarshalToSizedBuffer(dAtA[:size])
+}
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+func (m *TimeSeries) MarshalToSizedBuffer(dAtA []byte) (int, error) {
+	i := len(dAtA)
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+		copy(dAtA[i:], m.XXX_unrecognized)
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+		i = encodeVarintTypes(dAtA, i, uint64(size))
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+	dAtA[i] = 0x2a
+	if len(m.Exemplars) > 0 {
+		for iNdEx := len(m.Exemplars) - 1; iNdEx >= 0; iNdEx-- {
+			{
+				size, err := m.Exemplars[iNdEx].MarshalToSizedBuffer(dAtA[:i])
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+				i -= size
+				i = encodeVarintTypes(dAtA, i, uint64(size))
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+	if len(m.Histograms) > 0 {
+		for iNdEx := len(m.Histograms) - 1; iNdEx >= 0; iNdEx-- {
+			{
+				size, err := m.Histograms[iNdEx].MarshalToSizedBuffer(dAtA[:i])
+				if err != nil {
+					return 0, err
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+				i -= size
+				i = encodeVarintTypes(dAtA, i, uint64(size))
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+			dAtA[i] = 0x1a
+		}
+	}
+	if len(m.Samples) > 0 {
+		for iNdEx := len(m.Samples) - 1; iNdEx >= 0; iNdEx-- {
+			{
+				size, err := m.Samples[iNdEx].MarshalToSizedBuffer(dAtA[:i])
+				if err != nil {
+					return 0, err
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+				i -= size
+				i = encodeVarintTypes(dAtA, i, uint64(size))
+			}
+			i--
+			dAtA[i] = 0x12
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+	if len(m.LabelsRefs) > 0 {
+		dAtA3 := make([]byte, len(m.LabelsRefs)*10)
+		var j2 int
+		for _, num := range m.LabelsRefs {
+			for num >= 1<<7 {
+				dAtA3[j2] = uint8(uint64(num)&0x7f | 0x80)
+				num >>= 7
+				j2++
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+			dAtA3[j2] = uint8(num)
+			j2++
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+		copy(dAtA[i:], dAtA3[:j2])
+		i = encodeVarintTypes(dAtA, i, uint64(j2))
+		i--
+		dAtA[i] = 0xa
+	}
+	return len(dAtA) - i, nil
+}
+
+func (m *Exemplar) Marshal() (dAtA []byte, err error) {
+	size := m.Size()
+	dAtA = make([]byte, size)
+	n, err := m.MarshalToSizedBuffer(dAtA[:size])
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+	return dAtA[:n], nil
+}
+
+func (m *Exemplar) MarshalTo(dAtA []byte) (int, error) {
+	size := m.Size()
+	return m.MarshalToSizedBuffer(dAtA[:size])
+}
+
+func (m *Exemplar) MarshalToSizedBuffer(dAtA []byte) (int, error) {
+	i := len(dAtA)
+	_ = i
+	var l int
+	_ = l
+	if m.XXX_unrecognized != nil {
+		i -= len(m.XXX_unrecognized)
+		copy(dAtA[i:], m.XXX_unrecognized)
+	}
+	if m.Timestamp != 0 {
+		i = encodeVarintTypes(dAtA, i, uint64(m.Timestamp))
+		i--
+		dAtA[i] = 0x18
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+	if m.Value != 0 {
+		i -= 8
+		encoding_binary.LittleEndian.PutUint64(dAtA[i:], uint64(math.Float64bits(float64(m.Value))))
+		i--
+		dAtA[i] = 0x11
+	}
+	if len(m.LabelsRefs) > 0 {
+		dAtA5 := make([]byte, len(m.LabelsRefs)*10)
+		var j4 int
+		for _, num := range m.LabelsRefs {
+			for num >= 1<<7 {
+				dAtA5[j4] = uint8(uint64(num)&0x7f | 0x80)
+				num >>= 7
+				j4++
+			}
+			dAtA5[j4] = uint8(num)
+			j4++
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+		i -= j4
+		copy(dAtA[i:], dAtA5[:j4])
+		i = encodeVarintTypes(dAtA, i, uint64(j4))
+		i--
+		dAtA[i] = 0xa
+	}
+	return len(dAtA) - i, nil
+}
+
+func (m *Sample) Marshal() (dAtA []byte, err error) {
+	size := m.Size()
+	dAtA = make([]byte, size)
+	n, err := m.MarshalToSizedBuffer(dAtA[:size])
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+	return dAtA[:n], nil
+}
+
+func (m *Sample) MarshalTo(dAtA []byte) (int, error) {
+	size := m.Size()
+	return m.MarshalToSizedBuffer(dAtA[:size])
+}
+
+func (m *Sample) MarshalToSizedBuffer(dAtA []byte) (int, error) {
+	i := len(dAtA)
+	_ = i
+	var l int
+	_ = l
+	if m.XXX_unrecognized != nil {
+		i -= len(m.XXX_unrecognized)
+		copy(dAtA[i:], m.XXX_unrecognized)
+	}
+	if m.Timestamp != 0 {
+		i = encodeVarintTypes(dAtA, i, uint64(m.Timestamp))
+		i--
+		dAtA[i] = 0x10
+	}
+	if m.Value != 0 {
+		i -= 8
+		encoding_binary.LittleEndian.PutUint64(dAtA[i:], uint64(math.Float64bits(float64(m.Value))))
+		i--
+		dAtA[i] = 0x9
+	}
+	return len(dAtA) - i, nil
+}
+
+func (m *Metadata) Marshal() (dAtA []byte, err error) {
+	size := m.Size()
+	dAtA = make([]byte, size)
+	n, err := m.MarshalToSizedBuffer(dAtA[:size])
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+	return dAtA[:n], nil
+}
+
+func (m *Metadata) MarshalTo(dAtA []byte) (int, error) {
+	size := m.Size()
+	return m.MarshalToSizedBuffer(dAtA[:size])
+}
+
+func (m *Metadata) MarshalToSizedBuffer(dAtA []byte) (int, error) {
+	i := len(dAtA)
+	_ = i
+	var l int
+	_ = l
+	if m.XXX_unrecognized != nil {
+		i -= len(m.XXX_unrecognized)
+		copy(dAtA[i:], m.XXX_unrecognized)
+	}
+	if m.UnitRef != 0 {
+		i = encodeVarintTypes(dAtA, i, uint64(m.UnitRef))
+		i--
+		dAtA[i] = 0x20
+	}
+	if m.HelpRef != 0 {
+		i = encodeVarintTypes(dAtA, i, uint64(m.HelpRef))
+		i--
+		dAtA[i] = 0x18
+	}
+	if m.Type != 0 {
+		i = encodeVarintTypes(dAtA, i, uint64(m.Type))
+		i--
+		dAtA[i] = 0x8
+	}
+	return len(dAtA) - i, nil
+}
+
+func (m *Histogram) Marshal() (dAtA []byte, err error) {
+	size := m.Size()
+	dAtA = make([]byte, size)
+	n, err := m.MarshalToSizedBuffer(dAtA[:size])
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+	return dAtA[:n], nil
+}
+
+func (m *Histogram) MarshalTo(dAtA []byte) (int, error) {
+	size := m.Size()
+	return m.MarshalToSizedBuffer(dAtA[:size])
+}
+
+func (m *Histogram) MarshalToSizedBuffer(dAtA []byte) (int, error) {
+	i := len(dAtA)
+	_ = i
+	var l int
+	_ = l
+	if m.XXX_unrecognized != nil {
+		i -= len(m.XXX_unrecognized)
+		copy(dAtA[i:], m.XXX_unrecognized)
+	}
+	if len(m.CustomValues) > 0 {
+		for iNdEx := len(m.CustomValues) - 1; iNdEx >= 0; iNdEx-- {
+			f6 := math.Float64bits(float64(m.CustomValues[iNdEx]))
+			i -= 8
+			encoding_binary.LittleEndian.PutUint64(dAtA[i:], uint64(f6))
+		}
+		i = encodeVarintTypes(dAtA, i, uint64(len(m.CustomValues)*8))
+		i--
+		dAtA[i] = 0x1
+		i--
+		dAtA[i] = 0x82
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+	if m.Timestamp != 0 {
+		i = encodeVarintTypes(dAtA, i, uint64(m.Timestamp))
+		i--
+		dAtA[i] = 0x78
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+	if m.ResetHint != 0 {
+		i = encodeVarintTypes(dAtA, i, uint64(m.ResetHint))
+		i--
+		dAtA[i] = 0x70
+	}
+	if len(m.PositiveCounts) > 0 {
+		for iNdEx := len(m.PositiveCounts) - 1; iNdEx >= 0; iNdEx-- {
+			f7 := math.Float64bits(float64(m.PositiveCounts[iNdEx]))
+			i -= 8
+			encoding_binary.LittleEndian.PutUint64(dAtA[i:], uint64(f7))
+		}
+		i = encodeVarintTypes(dAtA, i, uint64(len(m.PositiveCounts)*8))
+		i--
+		dAtA[i] = 0x6a
+	}
+	if len(m.PositiveDeltas) > 0 {
+		var j8 int
+		dAtA10 := make([]byte, len(m.PositiveDeltas)*10)
+		for _, num := range m.PositiveDeltas {
+			x9 := (uint64(num) << 1) ^ uint64((num >> 63))
+			for x9 >= 1<<7 {
+				dAtA10[j8] = uint8(uint64(x9)&0x7f | 0x80)
+				j8++
+				x9 >>= 7
+			}
+			dAtA10[j8] = uint8(x9)
+			j8++
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+		i -= j8
+		copy(dAtA[i:], dAtA10[:j8])
+		i = encodeVarintTypes(dAtA, i, uint64(j8))
+		i--
+		dAtA[i] = 0x62
+	}
+	if len(m.PositiveSpans) > 0 {
+		for iNdEx := len(m.PositiveSpans) - 1; iNdEx >= 0; iNdEx-- {
+			{
+				size, err := m.PositiveSpans[iNdEx].MarshalToSizedBuffer(dAtA[:i])
+				if err != nil {
+					return 0, err
+				}
+				i -= size
+				i = encodeVarintTypes(dAtA, i, uint64(size))
+			}
+			i--
+			dAtA[i] = 0x5a
+		}
+	}
+	if len(m.NegativeCounts) > 0 {
+		for iNdEx := len(m.NegativeCounts) - 1; iNdEx >= 0; iNdEx-- {
+			f11 := math.Float64bits(float64(m.NegativeCounts[iNdEx]))
+			i -= 8
+			encoding_binary.LittleEndian.PutUint64(dAtA[i:], uint64(f11))
+		}
+		i = encodeVarintTypes(dAtA, i, uint64(len(m.NegativeCounts)*8))
+		i--
+		dAtA[i] = 0x52
+	}
+	if len(m.NegativeDeltas) > 0 {
+		var j12 int
+		dAtA14 := make([]byte, len(m.NegativeDeltas)*10)
+		for _, num := range m.NegativeDeltas {
+			x13 := (uint64(num) << 1) ^ uint64((num >> 63))
+			for x13 >= 1<<7 {
+				dAtA14[j12] = uint8(uint64(x13)&0x7f | 0x80)
+				j12++
+				x13 >>= 7
+			}
+			dAtA14[j12] = uint8(x13)
+			j12++
+		}
+		i -= j12
+		copy(dAtA[i:], dAtA14[:j12])
+		i = encodeVarintTypes(dAtA, i, uint64(j12))
+		i--
+		dAtA[i] = 0x4a
+	}
+	if len(m.NegativeSpans) > 0 {
+		for iNdEx := len(m.NegativeSpans) - 1; iNdEx >= 0; iNdEx-- {
+			{
+				size, err := m.NegativeSpans[iNdEx].MarshalToSizedBuffer(dAtA[:i])
+				if err != nil {
+					return 0, err
+				}
+				i -= size
+				i = encodeVarintTypes(dAtA, i, uint64(size))
+			}
+			i--
+			dAtA[i] = 0x42
+		}
+	}
+	if m.ZeroCount != nil {
+		{
+			size := m.ZeroCount.Size()
+			i -= size
+			if _, err := m.ZeroCount.MarshalTo(dAtA[i:]); err != nil {
+				return 0, err
+			}
+		}
+	}
+	if m.ZeroThreshold != 0 {
+		i -= 8
+		encoding_binary.LittleEndian.PutUint64(dAtA[i:], uint64(math.Float64bits(float64(m.ZeroThreshold))))
+		i--
+		dAtA[i] = 0x29
+	}
+	if m.Schema != 0 {
+		i = encodeVarintTypes(dAtA, i, uint64((uint32(m.Schema)<<1)^uint32((m.Schema>>31))))
+		i--
+		dAtA[i] = 0x20
+	}
+	if m.Sum != 0 {
+		i -= 8
+		encoding_binary.LittleEndian.PutUint64(dAtA[i:], uint64(math.Float64bits(float64(m.Sum))))
+		i--
+		dAtA[i] = 0x19
+	}
+	if m.Count != nil {
+		{
+			size := m.Count.Size()
+			i -= size
+			if _, err := m.Count.MarshalTo(dAtA[i:]); err != nil {
+				return 0, err
+			}
+		}
+	}
+	return len(dAtA) - i, nil
+}
+
+func (m *Histogram_CountInt) MarshalTo(dAtA []byte) (int, error) {
+	size := m.Size()
+	return m.MarshalToSizedBuffer(dAtA[:size])
+}
+
+func (m *Histogram_CountInt) MarshalToSizedBuffer(dAtA []byte) (int, error) {
+	i := len(dAtA)
+	i = encodeVarintTypes(dAtA, i, uint64(m.CountInt))
+	i--
+	dAtA[i] = 0x8
+	return len(dAtA) - i, nil
+}
+func (m *Histogram_CountFloat) MarshalTo(dAtA []byte) (int, error) {
+	size := m.Size()
+	return m.MarshalToSizedBuffer(dAtA[:size])
+}
+
+func (m *Histogram_CountFloat) MarshalToSizedBuffer(dAtA []byte) (int, error) {
+	i := len(dAtA)
+	i -= 8
+	encoding_binary.LittleEndian.PutUint64(dAtA[i:], uint64(math.Float64bits(float64(m.CountFloat))))
+	i--
+	dAtA[i] = 0x11
+	return len(dAtA) - i, nil
+}
+func (m *Histogram_ZeroCountInt) MarshalTo(dAtA []byte) (int, error) {
+	size := m.Size()
+	return m.MarshalToSizedBuffer(dAtA[:size])
+}
+
+func (m *Histogram_ZeroCountInt) MarshalToSizedBuffer(dAtA []byte) (int, error) {
+	i := len(dAtA)
+	i = encodeVarintTypes(dAtA, i, uint64(m.ZeroCountInt))
+	i--
+	dAtA[i] = 0x30
+	return len(dAtA) - i, nil
+}
+func (m *Histogram_ZeroCountFloat) MarshalTo(dAtA []byte) (int, error) {
+	size := m.Size()
+	return m.MarshalToSizedBuffer(dAtA[:size])
+}
+
+func (m *Histogram_ZeroCountFloat) MarshalToSizedBuffer(dAtA []byte) (int, error) {
+	i := len(dAtA)
+	i -= 8
+	encoding_binary.LittleEndian.PutUint64(dAtA[i:], uint64(math.Float64bits(float64(m.ZeroCountFloat))))
+	i--
+	dAtA[i] = 0x39
+	return len(dAtA) - i, nil
+}
+func (m *BucketSpan) Marshal() (dAtA []byte, err error) {
+	size := m.Size()
+	dAtA = make([]byte, size)
+	n, err := m.MarshalToSizedBuffer(dAtA[:size])
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+	return dAtA[:n], nil
+}
+
+func (m *BucketSpan) MarshalTo(dAtA []byte) (int, error) {
+	size := m.Size()
+	return m.MarshalToSizedBuffer(dAtA[:size])
+}
+
+func (m *BucketSpan) MarshalToSizedBuffer(dAtA []byte) (int, error) {
+	i := len(dAtA)
+	_ = i
+	var l int
+	_ = l
+	if m.XXX_unrecognized != nil {
+		i -= len(m.XXX_unrecognized)
+		copy(dAtA[i:], m.XXX_unrecognized)
+	}
+	if m.Length != 0 {
+		i = encodeVarintTypes(dAtA, i, uint64(m.Length))
+		i--
+		dAtA[i] = 0x10
+	}
+	if m.Offset != 0 {
+		i = encodeVarintTypes(dAtA, i, uint64((uint32(m.Offset)<<1)^uint32((m.Offset>>31))))
+		i--
+		dAtA[i] = 0x8
+	}
+	return len(dAtA) - i, nil
+}
+
+func encodeVarintTypes(dAtA []byte, offset int, v uint64) int {
+	offset -= sovTypes(v)
+	base := offset
+	for v >= 1<<7 {
+		dAtA[offset] = uint8(v&0x7f | 0x80)
+		v >>= 7
+		offset++
+	}
+	dAtA[offset] = uint8(v)
+	return base
+}
+func (m *Request) Size() (n int) {
+	if m == nil {
+		return 0
+	}
+	var l int
+	_ = l
+	if len(m.Symbols) > 0 {
+		for _, s := range m.Symbols {
+			l = len(s)
+			n += 1 + l + sovTypes(uint64(l))
+		}
+	}
+	if len(m.Timeseries) > 0 {
+		for _, e := range m.Timeseries {
+			l = e.Size()
+			n += 1 + l + sovTypes(uint64(l))
+		}
+	}
+	if m.XXX_unrecognized != nil {
+		n += len(m.XXX_unrecognized)
+	}
+	return n
+}
+
+func (m *TimeSeries) Size() (n int) {
+	if m == nil {
+		return 0
+	}
+	var l int
+	_ = l
+	if len(m.LabelsRefs) > 0 {
+		l = 0
+		for _, e := range m.LabelsRefs {
+			l += sovTypes(uint64(e))
+		}
+		n += 1 + sovTypes(uint64(l)) + l
+	}
+	if len(m.Samples) > 0 {
+		for _, e := range m.Samples {
+			l = e.Size()
+			n += 1 + l + sovTypes(uint64(l))
+		}
+	}
+	if len(m.Histograms) > 0 {
+		for _, e := range m.Histograms {
+			l = e.Size()
+			n += 1 + l + sovTypes(uint64(l))
+		}
+	}
+	if len(m.Exemplars) > 0 {
+		for _, e := range m.Exemplars {
+			l = e.Size()
+			n += 1 + l + sovTypes(uint64(l))
+		}
+	}
+	l = m.Metadata.Size()
+	n += 1 + l + sovTypes(uint64(l))
+	if m.CreatedTimestamp != 0 {
+		n += 1 + sovTypes(uint64(m.CreatedTimestamp))
+	}
+	if m.XXX_unrecognized != nil {
+		n += len(m.XXX_unrecognized)
+	}
+	return n
+}
+
+func (m *Exemplar) Size() (n int) {
+	if m == nil {
+		return 0
+	}
+	var l int
+	_ = l
+	if len(m.LabelsRefs) > 0 {
+		l = 0
+		for _, e := range m.LabelsRefs {
+			l += sovTypes(uint64(e))
+		}
+		n += 1 + sovTypes(uint64(l)) + l
+	}
+	if m.Value != 0 {
+		n += 9
+	}
+	if m.Timestamp != 0 {
+		n += 1 + sovTypes(uint64(m.Timestamp))
+	}
+	if m.XXX_unrecognized != nil {
+		n += len(m.XXX_unrecognized)
+	}
+	return n
+}
+
+func (m *Sample) Size() (n int) {
+	if m == nil {
+		return 0
+	}
+	var l int
+	_ = l
+	if m.Value != 0 {
+		n += 9
+	}
+	if m.Timestamp != 0 {
+		n += 1 + sovTypes(uint64(m.Timestamp))
+	}
+	if m.XXX_unrecognized != nil {
+		n += len(m.XXX_unrecognized)
+	}
+	return n
+}
+
+func (m *Metadata) Size() (n int) {
+	if m == nil {
+		return 0
+	}
+	var l int
+	_ = l
+	if m.Type != 0 {
+		n += 1 + sovTypes(uint64(m.Type))
+	}
+	if m.HelpRef != 0 {
+		n += 1 + sovTypes(uint64(m.HelpRef))
+	}
+	if m.UnitRef != 0 {
+		n += 1 + sovTypes(uint64(m.UnitRef))
+	}
+	if m.XXX_unrecognized != nil {
+		n += len(m.XXX_unrecognized)
+	}
+	return n
+}
+
+func (m *Histogram) Size() (n int) {
+	if m == nil {
+		return 0
+	}
+	var l int
+	_ = l
+	if m.Count != nil {
+		n += m.Count.Size()
+	}
+	if m.Sum != 0 {
+		n += 9
+	}
+	if m.Schema != 0 {
+		n += 1 + sozTypes(uint64(m.Schema))
+	}
+	if m.ZeroThreshold != 0 {
+		n += 9
+	}
+	if m.ZeroCount != nil {
+		n += m.ZeroCount.Size()
+	}
+	if len(m.NegativeSpans) > 0 {
+		for _, e := range m.NegativeSpans {
+			l = e.Size()
+			n += 1 + l + sovTypes(uint64(l))
+		}
+	}
+	if len(m.NegativeDeltas) > 0 {
+		l = 0
+		for _, e := range m.NegativeDeltas {
+			l += sozTypes(uint64(e))
+		}
+		n += 1 + sovTypes(uint64(l)) + l
+	}
+	if len(m.NegativeCounts) > 0 {
+		n += 1 + sovTypes(uint64(len(m.NegativeCounts)*8)) + len(m.NegativeCounts)*8
+	}
+	if len(m.PositiveSpans) > 0 {
+		for _, e := range m.PositiveSpans {
+			l = e.Size()
+			n += 1 + l + sovTypes(uint64(l))
+		}
+	}
+	if len(m.PositiveDeltas) > 0 {
+		l = 0
+		for _, e := range m.PositiveDeltas {
+			l += sozTypes(uint64(e))
+		}
+		n += 1 + sovTypes(uint64(l)) + l
+	}
+	if len(m.PositiveCounts) > 0 {
+		n += 1 + sovTypes(uint64(len(m.PositiveCounts)*8)) + len(m.PositiveCounts)*8
+	}
+	if m.ResetHint != 0 {
+		n += 1 + sovTypes(uint64(m.ResetHint))
+	}
+	if m.Timestamp != 0 {
+		n += 1 + sovTypes(uint64(m.Timestamp))
+	}
+	if len(m.CustomValues) > 0 {
+		n += 2 + sovTypes(uint64(len(m.CustomValues)*8)) + len(m.CustomValues)*8
+	}
+	if m.XXX_unrecognized != nil {
+		n += len(m.XXX_unrecognized)
+	}
+	return n
+}
+
+func (m *Histogram_CountInt) Size() (n int) {
+	if m == nil {
+		return 0
+	}
+	var l int
+	_ = l
+	n += 1 + sovTypes(uint64(m.CountInt))
+	return n
+}
+func (m *Histogram_CountFloat) Size() (n int) {
+	if m == nil {
+		return 0
+	}
+	var l int
+	_ = l
+	n += 9
+	return n
+}
+func (m *Histogram_ZeroCountInt) Size() (n int) {
+	if m == nil {
+		return 0
+	}
+	var l int
+	_ = l
+	n += 1 + sovTypes(uint64(m.ZeroCountInt))
+	return n
+}
+func (m *Histogram_ZeroCountFloat) Size() (n int) {
+	if m == nil {
+		return 0
+	}
+	var l int
+	_ = l
+	n += 9
+	return n
+}
+func (m *BucketSpan) Size() (n int) {
+	if m == nil {
+		return 0
+	}
+	var l int
+	_ = l
+	if m.Offset != 0 {
+		n += 1 + sozTypes(uint64(m.Offset))
+	}
+	if m.Length != 0 {
+		n += 1 + sovTypes(uint64(m.Length))
+	}
+	if m.XXX_unrecognized != nil {
+		n += len(m.XXX_unrecognized)
+	}
+	return n
+}
+
+func sovTypes(x uint64) (n int) {
+	return (math_bits.Len64(x|1) + 6) / 7
+}
+func sozTypes(x uint64) (n int) {
+	return sovTypes(uint64((x << 1) ^ uint64((int64(x) >> 63))))
+}
+func (m *Request) Unmarshal(dAtA []byte) error {
+	l := len(dAtA)
+	iNdEx := 0
+	for iNdEx < l {
+		preIndex := iNdEx
+		var wire uint64
+		for shift := uint(0); ; shift += 7 {
+			if shift >= 64 {
+				return ErrIntOverflowTypes
+			}
+			if iNdEx >= l {
+				return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+			}
+			b := dAtA[iNdEx]
+			iNdEx++
+			wire |= uint64(b&0x7F) << shift
+			if b < 0x80 {
+				break
+			}
+		}
+		fieldNum := int32(wire >> 3)
+		wireType := int(wire & 0x7)
+		if wireType == 4 {
+			return fmt.Errorf("proto: Request: wiretype end group for non-group")
+		}
+		if fieldNum <= 0 {
+			return fmt.Errorf("proto: Request: illegal tag %d (wire type %d)", fieldNum, wire)
+		}
+		switch fieldNum {
+		case 4:
+			if wireType != 2 {
+				return fmt.Errorf("proto: wrong wireType = %d for field Symbols", wireType)
+			}
+			var stringLen uint64
+			for shift := uint(0); ; shift += 7 {
+				if shift >= 64 {
+					return ErrIntOverflowTypes
+				}
+				if iNdEx >= l {
+					return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+				}
+				b := dAtA[iNdEx]
+				iNdEx++
+				stringLen |= uint64(b&0x7F) << shift
+				if b < 0x80 {
+					break
+				}
+			}
+			intStringLen := int(stringLen)
+			if intStringLen < 0 {
+				return ErrInvalidLengthTypes
+			}
+			postIndex := iNdEx + intStringLen
+			if postIndex < 0 {
+				return ErrInvalidLengthTypes
+			}
+			if postIndex > l {
+				return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+			}
+			m.Symbols = append(m.Symbols, string(dAtA[iNdEx:postIndex]))
+			iNdEx = postIndex
+		case 5:
+			if wireType != 2 {
+				return fmt.Errorf("proto: wrong wireType = %d for field Timeseries", wireType)
+			}
+			var msglen int
+			for shift := uint(0); ; shift += 7 {
+				if shift >= 64 {
+					return ErrIntOverflowTypes
+				}
+				if iNdEx >= l {
+					return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+				}
+				b := dAtA[iNdEx]
+				iNdEx++
+				msglen |= int(b&0x7F) << shift
+				if b < 0x80 {
+					break
+				}
+			}
+			if msglen < 0 {
+				return ErrInvalidLengthTypes
+			}
+			postIndex := iNdEx + msglen
+			if postIndex < 0 {
+				return ErrInvalidLengthTypes
+			}
+			if postIndex > l {
+				return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+			}
+			m.Timeseries = append(m.Timeseries, TimeSeries{})
+			if err := m.Timeseries[len(m.Timeseries)-1].Unmarshal(dAtA[iNdEx:postIndex]); err != nil {
+				return err
+			}
+			iNdEx = postIndex
+		default:
+			iNdEx = preIndex
+			skippy, err := skipTypes(dAtA[iNdEx:])
+			if err != nil {
+				return err
+			}
+			if (skippy < 0) || (iNdEx+skippy) < 0 {
+				return ErrInvalidLengthTypes
+			}
+			if (iNdEx + skippy) > l {
+				return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+			}
+			m.XXX_unrecognized = append(m.XXX_unrecognized, dAtA[iNdEx:iNdEx+skippy]...)
+			iNdEx += skippy
+		}
+	}
+
+	if iNdEx > l {
+		return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+func (m *TimeSeries) Unmarshal(dAtA []byte) error {
+	l := len(dAtA)
+	iNdEx := 0
+	for iNdEx < l {
+		preIndex := iNdEx
+		var wire uint64
+		for shift := uint(0); ; shift += 7 {
+			if shift >= 64 {
+				return ErrIntOverflowTypes
+			}
+			if iNdEx >= l {
+				return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+			}
+			b := dAtA[iNdEx]
+			iNdEx++
+			wire |= uint64(b&0x7F) << shift
+			if b < 0x80 {
+				break
+			}
+		}
+		fieldNum := int32(wire >> 3)
+		wireType := int(wire & 0x7)
+		if wireType == 4 {
+			return fmt.Errorf("proto: TimeSeries: wiretype end group for non-group")
+		}
+		if fieldNum <= 0 {
+			return fmt.Errorf("proto: TimeSeries: illegal tag %d (wire type %d)", fieldNum, wire)
+		}
+		switch fieldNum {
+		case 1:
+			if wireType == 0 {
+				var v uint32
+				for shift := uint(0); ; shift += 7 {
+					if shift >= 64 {
+						return ErrIntOverflowTypes
+					}
+					if iNdEx >= l {
+						return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+					}
+					b := dAtA[iNdEx]
+					iNdEx++
+					v |= uint32(b&0x7F) << shift
+					if b < 0x80 {
+						break
+					}
+				}
+				m.LabelsRefs = append(m.LabelsRefs, v)
+			} else if wireType == 2 {
+				var packedLen int
+				for shift := uint(0); ; shift += 7 {
+					if shift >= 64 {
+						return ErrIntOverflowTypes
+					}
+					if iNdEx >= l {
+						return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+					}
+					b := dAtA[iNdEx]
+					iNdEx++
+					packedLen |= int(b&0x7F) << shift
+					if b < 0x80 {
+						break
+					}
+				}
+				if packedLen < 0 {
+					return ErrInvalidLengthTypes
+				}
+				postIndex := iNdEx + packedLen
+				if postIndex < 0 {
+					return ErrInvalidLengthTypes
+				}
+				if postIndex > l {
+					return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+				}
+				var elementCount int
+				var count int
+				for _, integer := range dAtA[iNdEx:postIndex] {
+					if integer < 128 {
+						count++
+					}
+				}
+				elementCount = count
+				if elementCount != 0 && len(m.LabelsRefs) == 0 {
+					m.LabelsRefs = make([]uint32, 0, elementCount)
+				}
+				for iNdEx < postIndex {
+					var v uint32
+					for shift := uint(0); ; shift += 7 {
+						if shift >= 64 {
+							return ErrIntOverflowTypes
+						}
+						if iNdEx >= l {
+							return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+						}
+						b := dAtA[iNdEx]
+						iNdEx++
+						v |= uint32(b&0x7F) << shift
+						if b < 0x80 {
+							break
+						}
+					}
+					m.LabelsRefs = append(m.LabelsRefs, v)
+				}
+			} else {
+				return fmt.Errorf("proto: wrong wireType = %d for field LabelsRefs", wireType)
+			}
+		case 2:
+			if wireType != 2 {
+				return fmt.Errorf("proto: wrong wireType = %d for field Samples", wireType)
+			}
+			var msglen int
+			for shift := uint(0); ; shift += 7 {
+				if shift >= 64 {
+					return ErrIntOverflowTypes
+				}
+				if iNdEx >= l {
+					return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+				}
+				b := dAtA[iNdEx]
+				iNdEx++
+				msglen |= int(b&0x7F) << shift
+				if b < 0x80 {
+					break
+				}
+			}
+			if msglen < 0 {
+				return ErrInvalidLengthTypes
+			}
+			postIndex := iNdEx + msglen
+			if postIndex < 0 {
+				return ErrInvalidLengthTypes
+			}
+			if postIndex > l {
+				return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+			}
+			m.Samples = append(m.Samples, Sample{})
+			if err := m.Samples[len(m.Samples)-1].Unmarshal(dAtA[iNdEx:postIndex]); err != nil {
+				return err
+			}
+			iNdEx = postIndex
+		case 3:
+			if wireType != 2 {
+				return fmt.Errorf("proto: wrong wireType = %d for field Histograms", wireType)
+			}
+			var msglen int
+			for shift := uint(0); ; shift += 7 {
+				if shift >= 64 {
+					return ErrIntOverflowTypes
+				}
+				if iNdEx >= l {
+					return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+				}
+				b := dAtA[iNdEx]
+				iNdEx++
+				msglen |= int(b&0x7F) << shift
+				if b < 0x80 {
+					break
+				}
+			}
+			if msglen < 0 {
+				return ErrInvalidLengthTypes
+			}
+			postIndex := iNdEx + msglen
+			if postIndex < 0 {
+				return ErrInvalidLengthTypes
+			}
+			if postIndex > l {
+				return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+			}
+			m.Histograms = append(m.Histograms, Histogram{})
+			if err := m.Histograms[len(m.Histograms)-1].Unmarshal(dAtA[iNdEx:postIndex]); err != nil {
+				return err
+			}
+			iNdEx = postIndex
+		case 4:
+			if wireType != 2 {
+				return fmt.Errorf("proto: wrong wireType = %d for field Exemplars", wireType)
+			}
+			var msglen int
+			for shift := uint(0); ; shift += 7 {
+				if shift >= 64 {
+					return ErrIntOverflowTypes
+				}
+				if iNdEx >= l {
+					return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+				}
+				b := dAtA[iNdEx]
+				iNdEx++
+				msglen |= int(b&0x7F) << shift
+				if b < 0x80 {
+					break
+				}
+			}
+			if msglen < 0 {
+				return ErrInvalidLengthTypes
+			}
+			postIndex := iNdEx + msglen
+			if postIndex < 0 {
+				return ErrInvalidLengthTypes
+			}
+			if postIndex > l {
+				return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+			}
+			m.Exemplars = append(m.Exemplars, Exemplar{})
+			if err := m.Exemplars[len(m.Exemplars)-1].Unmarshal(dAtA[iNdEx:postIndex]); err != nil {
+				return err
+			}
+			iNdEx = postIndex
+		case 5:
+			if wireType != 2 {
+				return fmt.Errorf("proto: wrong wireType = %d for field Metadata", wireType)
+			}
+			var msglen int
+			for shift := uint(0); ; shift += 7 {
+				if shift >= 64 {
+					return ErrIntOverflowTypes
+				}
+				if iNdEx >= l {
+					return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+				}
+				b := dAtA[iNdEx]
+				iNdEx++
+				msglen |= int(b&0x7F) << shift
+				if b < 0x80 {
+					break
+				}
+			}
+			if msglen < 0 {
+				return ErrInvalidLengthTypes
+			}
+			postIndex := iNdEx + msglen
+			if postIndex < 0 {
+				return ErrInvalidLengthTypes
+			}
+			if postIndex > l {
+				return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+			}
+			if err := m.Metadata.Unmarshal(dAtA[iNdEx:postIndex]); err != nil {
+				return err
+			}
+			iNdEx = postIndex
+		case 6:
+			if wireType != 0 {
+				return fmt.Errorf("proto: wrong wireType = %d for field CreatedTimestamp", wireType)
+			}
+			m.CreatedTimestamp = 0
+			for shift := uint(0); ; shift += 7 {
+				if shift >= 64 {
+					return ErrIntOverflowTypes
+				}
+				if iNdEx >= l {
+					return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+				}
+				b := dAtA[iNdEx]
+				iNdEx++
+				m.CreatedTimestamp |= int64(b&0x7F) << shift
+				if b < 0x80 {
+					break
+				}
+			}
+		default:
+			iNdEx = preIndex
+			skippy, err := skipTypes(dAtA[iNdEx:])
+			if err != nil {
+				return err
+			}
+			if (skippy < 0) || (iNdEx+skippy) < 0 {
+				return ErrInvalidLengthTypes
+			}
+			if (iNdEx + skippy) > l {
+				return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+			}
+			m.XXX_unrecognized = append(m.XXX_unrecognized, dAtA[iNdEx:iNdEx+skippy]...)
+			iNdEx += skippy
+		}
+	}
+
+	if iNdEx > l {
+		return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+func (m *Exemplar) Unmarshal(dAtA []byte) error {
+	l := len(dAtA)
+	iNdEx := 0
+	for iNdEx < l {
+		preIndex := iNdEx
+		var wire uint64
+		for shift := uint(0); ; shift += 7 {
+			if shift >= 64 {
+				return ErrIntOverflowTypes
+			}
+			if iNdEx >= l {
+				return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+			}
+			b := dAtA[iNdEx]
+			iNdEx++
+			wire |= uint64(b&0x7F) << shift
+			if b < 0x80 {
+				break
+			}
+		}
+		fieldNum := int32(wire >> 3)
+		wireType := int(wire & 0x7)
+		if wireType == 4 {
+			return fmt.Errorf("proto: Exemplar: wiretype end group for non-group")
+		}
+		if fieldNum <= 0 {
+			return fmt.Errorf("proto: Exemplar: illegal tag %d (wire type %d)", fieldNum, wire)
+		}
+		switch fieldNum {
+		case 1:
+			if wireType == 0 {
+				var v uint32
+				for shift := uint(0); ; shift += 7 {
+					if shift >= 64 {
+						return ErrIntOverflowTypes
+					}
+					if iNdEx >= l {
+						return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+					}
+					b := dAtA[iNdEx]
+					iNdEx++
+					v |= uint32(b&0x7F) << shift
+					if b < 0x80 {
+						break
+					}
+				}
+				m.LabelsRefs = append(m.LabelsRefs, v)
+			} else if wireType == 2 {
+				var packedLen int
+				for shift := uint(0); ; shift += 7 {
+					if shift >= 64 {
+						return ErrIntOverflowTypes
+					}
+					if iNdEx >= l {
+						return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+					}
+					b := dAtA[iNdEx]
+					iNdEx++
+					packedLen |= int(b&0x7F) << shift
+					if b < 0x80 {
+						break
+					}
+				}
+				if packedLen < 0 {
+					return ErrInvalidLengthTypes
+				}
+				postIndex := iNdEx + packedLen
+				if postIndex < 0 {
+					return ErrInvalidLengthTypes
+				}
+				if postIndex > l {
+					return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+				}
+				var elementCount int
+				var count int
+				for _, integer := range dAtA[iNdEx:postIndex] {
+					if integer < 128 {
+						count++
+					}
+				}
+				elementCount = count
+				if elementCount != 0 && len(m.LabelsRefs) == 0 {
+					m.LabelsRefs = make([]uint32, 0, elementCount)
+				}
+				for iNdEx < postIndex {
+					var v uint32
+					for shift := uint(0); ; shift += 7 {
+						if shift >= 64 {
+							return ErrIntOverflowTypes
+						}
+						if iNdEx >= l {
+							return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+						}
+						b := dAtA[iNdEx]
+						iNdEx++
+						v |= uint32(b&0x7F) << shift
+						if b < 0x80 {
+							break
+						}
+					}
+					m.LabelsRefs = append(m.LabelsRefs, v)
+				}
+			} else {
+				return fmt.Errorf("proto: wrong wireType = %d for field LabelsRefs", wireType)
+			}
+		case 2:
+			if wireType != 1 {
+				return fmt.Errorf("proto: wrong wireType = %d for field Value", wireType)
+			}
+			var v uint64
+			if (iNdEx + 8) > l {
+				return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+			}
+			v = uint64(encoding_binary.LittleEndian.Uint64(dAtA[iNdEx:]))
+			iNdEx += 8
+			m.Value = float64(math.Float64frombits(v))
+		case 3:
+			if wireType != 0 {
+				return fmt.Errorf("proto: wrong wireType = %d for field Timestamp", wireType)
+			}
+			m.Timestamp = 0
+			for shift := uint(0); ; shift += 7 {
+				if shift >= 64 {
+					return ErrIntOverflowTypes
+				}
+				if iNdEx >= l {
+					return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+				}
+				b := dAtA[iNdEx]
+				iNdEx++
+				m.Timestamp |= int64(b&0x7F) << shift
+				if b < 0x80 {
+					break
+				}
+			}
+		default:
+			iNdEx = preIndex
+			skippy, err := skipTypes(dAtA[iNdEx:])
+			if err != nil {
+				return err
+			}
+			if (skippy < 0) || (iNdEx+skippy) < 0 {
+				return ErrInvalidLengthTypes
+			}
+			if (iNdEx + skippy) > l {
+				return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+			}
+			m.XXX_unrecognized = append(m.XXX_unrecognized, dAtA[iNdEx:iNdEx+skippy]...)
+			iNdEx += skippy
+		}
+	}
+
+	if iNdEx > l {
+		return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+func (m *Sample) Unmarshal(dAtA []byte) error {
+	l := len(dAtA)
+	iNdEx := 0
+	for iNdEx < l {
+		preIndex := iNdEx
+		var wire uint64
+		for shift := uint(0); ; shift += 7 {
+			if shift >= 64 {
+				return ErrIntOverflowTypes
+			}
+			if iNdEx >= l {
+				return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+			}
+			b := dAtA[iNdEx]
+			iNdEx++
+			wire |= uint64(b&0x7F) << shift
+			if b < 0x80 {
+				break
+			}
+		}
+		fieldNum := int32(wire >> 3)
+		wireType := int(wire & 0x7)
+		if wireType == 4 {
+			return fmt.Errorf("proto: Sample: wiretype end group for non-group")
+		}
+		if fieldNum <= 0 {
+			return fmt.Errorf("proto: Sample: illegal tag %d (wire type %d)", fieldNum, wire)
+		}
+		switch fieldNum {
+		case 1:
+			if wireType != 1 {
+				return fmt.Errorf("proto: wrong wireType = %d for field Value", wireType)
+			}
+			var v uint64
+			if (iNdEx + 8) > l {
+				return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+			}
+			v = uint64(encoding_binary.LittleEndian.Uint64(dAtA[iNdEx:]))
+			iNdEx += 8
+			m.Value = float64(math.Float64frombits(v))
+		case 2:
+			if wireType != 0 {
+				return fmt.Errorf("proto: wrong wireType = %d for field Timestamp", wireType)
+			}
+			m.Timestamp = 0
+			for shift := uint(0); ; shift += 7 {
+				if shift >= 64 {
+					return ErrIntOverflowTypes
+				}
+				if iNdEx >= l {
+					return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+				}
+				b := dAtA[iNdEx]
+				iNdEx++
+				m.Timestamp |= int64(b&0x7F) << shift
+				if b < 0x80 {
+					break
+				}
+			}
+		default:
+			iNdEx = preIndex
+			skippy, err := skipTypes(dAtA[iNdEx:])
+			if err != nil {
+				return err
+			}
+			if (skippy < 0) || (iNdEx+skippy) < 0 {
+				return ErrInvalidLengthTypes
+			}
+			if (iNdEx + skippy) > l {
+				return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+			}
+			m.XXX_unrecognized = append(m.XXX_unrecognized, dAtA[iNdEx:iNdEx+skippy]...)
+			iNdEx += skippy
+		}
+	}
+
+	if iNdEx > l {
+		return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+func (m *Metadata) Unmarshal(dAtA []byte) error {
+	l := len(dAtA)
+	iNdEx := 0
+	for iNdEx < l {
+		preIndex := iNdEx
+		var wire uint64
+		for shift := uint(0); ; shift += 7 {
+			if shift >= 64 {
+				return ErrIntOverflowTypes
+			}
+			if iNdEx >= l {
+				return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+			}
+			b := dAtA[iNdEx]
+			iNdEx++
+			wire |= uint64(b&0x7F) << shift
+			if b < 0x80 {
+				break
+			}
+		}
+		fieldNum := int32(wire >> 3)
+		wireType := int(wire & 0x7)
+		if wireType == 4 {
+			return fmt.Errorf("proto: Metadata: wiretype end group for non-group")
+		}
+		if fieldNum <= 0 {
+			return fmt.Errorf("proto: Metadata: illegal tag %d (wire type %d)", fieldNum, wire)
+		}
+		switch fieldNum {
+		case 1:
+			if wireType != 0 {
+				return fmt.Errorf("proto: wrong wireType = %d for field Type", wireType)
+			}
+			m.Type = 0
+			for shift := uint(0); ; shift += 7 {
+				if shift >= 64 {
+					return ErrIntOverflowTypes
+				}
+				if iNdEx >= l {
+					return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+				}
+				b := dAtA[iNdEx]
+				iNdEx++
+				m.Type |= Metadata_MetricType(b&0x7F) << shift
+				if b < 0x80 {
+					break
+				}
+			}
+		case 3:
+			if wireType != 0 {
+				return fmt.Errorf("proto: wrong wireType = %d for field HelpRef", wireType)
+			}
+			m.HelpRef = 0
+			for shift := uint(0); ; shift += 7 {
+				if shift >= 64 {
+					return ErrIntOverflowTypes
+				}
+				if iNdEx >= l {
+					return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+				}
+				b := dAtA[iNdEx]
+				iNdEx++
+				m.HelpRef |= uint32(b&0x7F) << shift
+				if b < 0x80 {
+					break
+				}
+			}
+		case 4:
+			if wireType != 0 {
+				return fmt.Errorf("proto: wrong wireType = %d for field UnitRef", wireType)
+			}
+			m.UnitRef = 0
+			for shift := uint(0); ; shift += 7 {
+				if shift >= 64 {
+					return ErrIntOverflowTypes
+				}
+				if iNdEx >= l {
+					return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+				}
+				b := dAtA[iNdEx]
+				iNdEx++
+				m.UnitRef |= uint32(b&0x7F) << shift
+				if b < 0x80 {
+					break
+				}
+			}
+		default:
+			iNdEx = preIndex
+			skippy, err := skipTypes(dAtA[iNdEx:])
+			if err != nil {
+				return err
+			}
+			if (skippy < 0) || (iNdEx+skippy) < 0 {
+				return ErrInvalidLengthTypes
+			}
+			if (iNdEx + skippy) > l {
+				return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+			}
+			m.XXX_unrecognized = append(m.XXX_unrecognized, dAtA[iNdEx:iNdEx+skippy]...)
+			iNdEx += skippy
+		}
+	}
+
+	if iNdEx > l {
+		return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+func (m *Histogram) Unmarshal(dAtA []byte) error {
+	l := len(dAtA)
+	iNdEx := 0
+	for iNdEx < l {
+		preIndex := iNdEx
+		var wire uint64
+		for shift := uint(0); ; shift += 7 {
+			if shift >= 64 {
+				return ErrIntOverflowTypes
+			}
+			if iNdEx >= l {
+				return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+			}
+			b := dAtA[iNdEx]
+			iNdEx++
+			wire |= uint64(b&0x7F) << shift
+			if b < 0x80 {
+				break
+			}
+		}
+		fieldNum := int32(wire >> 3)
+		wireType := int(wire & 0x7)
+		if wireType == 4 {
+			return fmt.Errorf("proto: Histogram: wiretype end group for non-group")
+		}
+		if fieldNum <= 0 {
+			return fmt.Errorf("proto: Histogram: illegal tag %d (wire type %d)", fieldNum, wire)
+		}
+		switch fieldNum {
+		case 1:
+			if wireType != 0 {
+				return fmt.Errorf("proto: wrong wireType = %d for field CountInt", wireType)
+			}
+			var v uint64
+			for shift := uint(0); ; shift += 7 {
+				if shift >= 64 {
+					return ErrIntOverflowTypes
+				}
+				if iNdEx >= l {
+					return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+				}
+				b := dAtA[iNdEx]
+				iNdEx++
+				v |= uint64(b&0x7F) << shift
+				if b < 0x80 {
+					break
+				}
+			}
+			m.Count = &Histogram_CountInt{v}
+		case 2:
+			if wireType != 1 {
+				return fmt.Errorf("proto: wrong wireType = %d for field CountFloat", wireType)
+			}
+			var v uint64
+			if (iNdEx + 8) > l {
+				return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+			}
+			v = uint64(encoding_binary.LittleEndian.Uint64(dAtA[iNdEx:]))
+			iNdEx += 8
+			m.Count = &Histogram_CountFloat{float64(math.Float64frombits(v))}
+		case 3:
+			if wireType != 1 {
+				return fmt.Errorf("proto: wrong wireType = %d for field Sum", wireType)
+			}
+			var v uint64
+			if (iNdEx + 8) > l {
+				return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+			}
+			v = uint64(encoding_binary.LittleEndian.Uint64(dAtA[iNdEx:]))
+			iNdEx += 8
+			m.Sum = float64(math.Float64frombits(v))
+		case 4:
+			if wireType != 0 {
+				return fmt.Errorf("proto: wrong wireType = %d for field Schema", wireType)
+			}
+			var v int32
+			for shift := uint(0); ; shift += 7 {
+				if shift >= 64 {
+					return ErrIntOverflowTypes
+				}
+				if iNdEx >= l {
+					return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+				}
+				b := dAtA[iNdEx]
+				iNdEx++
+				v |= int32(b&0x7F) << shift
+				if b < 0x80 {
+					break
+				}
+			}
+			v = int32((uint32(v) >> 1) ^ uint32(((v&1)<<31)>>31))
+			m.Schema = v
+		case 5:
+			if wireType != 1 {
+				return fmt.Errorf("proto: wrong wireType = %d for field ZeroThreshold", wireType)
+			}
+			var v uint64
+			if (iNdEx + 8) > l {
+				return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+			}
+			v = uint64(encoding_binary.LittleEndian.Uint64(dAtA[iNdEx:]))
+			iNdEx += 8
+			m.ZeroThreshold = float64(math.Float64frombits(v))
+		case 6:
+			if wireType != 0 {
+				return fmt.Errorf("proto: wrong wireType = %d for field ZeroCountInt", wireType)
+			}
+			var v uint64
+			for shift := uint(0); ; shift += 7 {
+				if shift >= 64 {
+					return ErrIntOverflowTypes
+				}
+				if iNdEx >= l {
+					return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+				}
+				b := dAtA[iNdEx]
+				iNdEx++
+				v |= uint64(b&0x7F) << shift
+				if b < 0x80 {
+					break
+				}
+			}
+			m.ZeroCount = &Histogram_ZeroCountInt{v}
+		case 7:
+			if wireType != 1 {
+				return fmt.Errorf("proto: wrong wireType = %d for field ZeroCountFloat", wireType)
+			}
+			var v uint64
+			if (iNdEx + 8) > l {
+				return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+			}
+			v = uint64(encoding_binary.LittleEndian.Uint64(dAtA[iNdEx:]))
+			iNdEx += 8
+			m.ZeroCount = &Histogram_ZeroCountFloat{float64(math.Float64frombits(v))}
+		case 8:
+			if wireType != 2 {
+				return fmt.Errorf("proto: wrong wireType = %d for field NegativeSpans", wireType)
+			}
+			var msglen int
+			for shift := uint(0); ; shift += 7 {
+				if shift >= 64 {
+					return ErrIntOverflowTypes
+				}
+				if iNdEx >= l {
+					return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+				}
+				b := dAtA[iNdEx]
+				iNdEx++
+				msglen |= int(b&0x7F) << shift
+				if b < 0x80 {
+					break
+				}
+			}
+			if msglen < 0 {
+				return ErrInvalidLengthTypes
+			}
+			postIndex := iNdEx + msglen
+			if postIndex < 0 {
+				return ErrInvalidLengthTypes
+			}
+			if postIndex > l {
+				return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+			}
+			m.NegativeSpans = append(m.NegativeSpans, BucketSpan{})
+			if err := m.NegativeSpans[len(m.NegativeSpans)-1].Unmarshal(dAtA[iNdEx:postIndex]); err != nil {
+				return err
+			}
+			iNdEx = postIndex
+		case 9:
+			if wireType == 0 {
+				var v uint64
+				for shift := uint(0); ; shift += 7 {
+					if shift >= 64 {
+						return ErrIntOverflowTypes
+					}
+					if iNdEx >= l {
+						return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+					}
+					b := dAtA[iNdEx]
+					iNdEx++
+					v |= uint64(b&0x7F) << shift
+					if b < 0x80 {
+						break
+					}
+				}
+				v = (v >> 1) ^ uint64((int64(v&1)<<63)>>63)
+				m.NegativeDeltas = append(m.NegativeDeltas, int64(v))
+			} else if wireType == 2 {
+				var packedLen int
+				for shift := uint(0); ; shift += 7 {
+					if shift >= 64 {
+						return ErrIntOverflowTypes
+					}
+					if iNdEx >= l {
+						return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+					}
+					b := dAtA[iNdEx]
+					iNdEx++
+					packedLen |= int(b&0x7F) << shift
+					if b < 0x80 {
+						break
+					}
+				}
+				if packedLen < 0 {
+					return ErrInvalidLengthTypes
+				}
+				postIndex := iNdEx + packedLen
+				if postIndex < 0 {
+					return ErrInvalidLengthTypes
+				}
+				if postIndex > l {
+					return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+				}
+				var elementCount int
+				var count int
+				for _, integer := range dAtA[iNdEx:postIndex] {
+					if integer < 128 {
+						count++
+					}
+				}
+				elementCount = count
+				if elementCount != 0 && len(m.NegativeDeltas) == 0 {
+					m.NegativeDeltas = make([]int64, 0, elementCount)
+				}
+				for iNdEx < postIndex {
+					var v uint64
+					for shift := uint(0); ; shift += 7 {
+						if shift >= 64 {
+							return ErrIntOverflowTypes
+						}
+						if iNdEx >= l {
+							return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+						}
+						b := dAtA[iNdEx]
+						iNdEx++
+						v |= uint64(b&0x7F) << shift
+						if b < 0x80 {
+							break
+						}
+					}
+					v = (v >> 1) ^ uint64((int64(v&1)<<63)>>63)
+					m.NegativeDeltas = append(m.NegativeDeltas, int64(v))
+				}
+			} else {
+				return fmt.Errorf("proto: wrong wireType = %d for field NegativeDeltas", wireType)
+			}
+		case 10:
+			if wireType == 1 {
+				var v uint64
+				if (iNdEx + 8) > l {
+					return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+				}
+				v = uint64(encoding_binary.LittleEndian.Uint64(dAtA[iNdEx:]))
+				iNdEx += 8
+				v2 := float64(math.Float64frombits(v))
+				m.NegativeCounts = append(m.NegativeCounts, v2)
+			} else if wireType == 2 {
+				var packedLen int
+				for shift := uint(0); ; shift += 7 {
+					if shift >= 64 {
+						return ErrIntOverflowTypes
+					}
+					if iNdEx >= l {
+						return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+					}
+					b := dAtA[iNdEx]
+					iNdEx++
+					packedLen |= int(b&0x7F) << shift
+					if b < 0x80 {
+						break
+					}
+				}
+				if packedLen < 0 {
+					return ErrInvalidLengthTypes
+				}
+				postIndex := iNdEx + packedLen
+				if postIndex < 0 {
+					return ErrInvalidLengthTypes
+				}
+				if postIndex > l {
+					return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+				}
+				var elementCount int
+				elementCount = packedLen / 8
+				if elementCount != 0 && len(m.NegativeCounts) == 0 {
+					m.NegativeCounts = make([]float64, 0, elementCount)
+				}
+				for iNdEx < postIndex {
+					var v uint64
+					if (iNdEx + 8) > l {
+						return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+					}
+					v = uint64(encoding_binary.LittleEndian.Uint64(dAtA[iNdEx:]))
+					iNdEx += 8
+					v2 := float64(math.Float64frombits(v))
+					m.NegativeCounts = append(m.NegativeCounts, v2)
+				}
+			} else {
+				return fmt.Errorf("proto: wrong wireType = %d for field NegativeCounts", wireType)
+			}
+		case 11:
+			if wireType != 2 {
+				return fmt.Errorf("proto: wrong wireType = %d for field PositiveSpans", wireType)
+			}
+			var msglen int
+			for shift := uint(0); ; shift += 7 {
+				if shift >= 64 {
+					return ErrIntOverflowTypes
+				}
+				if iNdEx >= l {
+					return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+				}
+				b := dAtA[iNdEx]
+				iNdEx++
+				msglen |= int(b&0x7F) << shift
+				if b < 0x80 {
+					break
+				}
+			}
+			if msglen < 0 {
+				return ErrInvalidLengthTypes
+			}
+			postIndex := iNdEx + msglen
+			if postIndex < 0 {
+				return ErrInvalidLengthTypes
+			}
+			if postIndex > l {
+				return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+			}
+			m.PositiveSpans = append(m.PositiveSpans, BucketSpan{})
+			if err := m.PositiveSpans[len(m.PositiveSpans)-1].Unmarshal(dAtA[iNdEx:postIndex]); err != nil {
+				return err
+			}
+			iNdEx = postIndex
+		case 12:
+			if wireType == 0 {
+				var v uint64
+				for shift := uint(0); ; shift += 7 {
+					if shift >= 64 {
+						return ErrIntOverflowTypes
+					}
+					if iNdEx >= l {
+						return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+					}
+					b := dAtA[iNdEx]
+					iNdEx++
+					v |= uint64(b&0x7F) << shift
+					if b < 0x80 {
+						break
+					}
+				}
+				v = (v >> 1) ^ uint64((int64(v&1)<<63)>>63)
+				m.PositiveDeltas = append(m.PositiveDeltas, int64(v))
+			} else if wireType == 2 {
+				var packedLen int
+				for shift := uint(0); ; shift += 7 {
+					if shift >= 64 {
+						return ErrIntOverflowTypes
+					}
+					if iNdEx >= l {
+						return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+					}
+					b := dAtA[iNdEx]
+					iNdEx++
+					packedLen |= int(b&0x7F) << shift
+					if b < 0x80 {
+						break
+					}
+				}
+				if packedLen < 0 {
+					return ErrInvalidLengthTypes
+				}
+				postIndex := iNdEx + packedLen
+				if postIndex < 0 {
+					return ErrInvalidLengthTypes
+				}
+				if postIndex > l {
+					return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+				}
+				var elementCount int
+				var count int
+				for _, integer := range dAtA[iNdEx:postIndex] {
+					if integer < 128 {
+						count++
+					}
+				}
+				elementCount = count
+				if elementCount != 0 && len(m.PositiveDeltas) == 0 {
+					m.PositiveDeltas = make([]int64, 0, elementCount)
+				}
+				for iNdEx < postIndex {
+					var v uint64
+					for shift := uint(0); ; shift += 7 {
+						if shift >= 64 {
+							return ErrIntOverflowTypes
+						}
+						if iNdEx >= l {
+							return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+						}
+						b := dAtA[iNdEx]
+						iNdEx++
+						v |= uint64(b&0x7F) << shift
+						if b < 0x80 {
+							break
+						}
+					}
+					v = (v >> 1) ^ uint64((int64(v&1)<<63)>>63)
+					m.PositiveDeltas = append(m.PositiveDeltas, int64(v))
+				}
+			} else {
+				return fmt.Errorf("proto: wrong wireType = %d for field PositiveDeltas", wireType)
+			}
+		case 13:
+			if wireType == 1 {
+				var v uint64
+				if (iNdEx + 8) > l {
+					return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+				}
+				v = uint64(encoding_binary.LittleEndian.Uint64(dAtA[iNdEx:]))
+				iNdEx += 8
+				v2 := float64(math.Float64frombits(v))
+				m.PositiveCounts = append(m.PositiveCounts, v2)
+			} else if wireType == 2 {
+				var packedLen int
+				for shift := uint(0); ; shift += 7 {
+					if shift >= 64 {
+						return ErrIntOverflowTypes
+					}
+					if iNdEx >= l {
+						return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+					}
+					b := dAtA[iNdEx]
+					iNdEx++
+					packedLen |= int(b&0x7F) << shift
+					if b < 0x80 {
+						break
+					}
+				}
+				if packedLen < 0 {
+					return ErrInvalidLengthTypes
+				}
+				postIndex := iNdEx + packedLen
+				if postIndex < 0 {
+					return ErrInvalidLengthTypes
+				}
+				if postIndex > l {
+					return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+				}
+				var elementCount int
+				elementCount = packedLen / 8
+				if elementCount != 0 && len(m.PositiveCounts) == 0 {
+					m.PositiveCounts = make([]float64, 0, elementCount)
+				}
+				for iNdEx < postIndex {
+					var v uint64
+					if (iNdEx + 8) > l {
+						return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+					}
+					v = uint64(encoding_binary.LittleEndian.Uint64(dAtA[iNdEx:]))
+					iNdEx += 8
+					v2 := float64(math.Float64frombits(v))
+					m.PositiveCounts = append(m.PositiveCounts, v2)
+				}
+			} else {
+				return fmt.Errorf("proto: wrong wireType = %d for field PositiveCounts", wireType)
+			}
+		case 14:
+			if wireType != 0 {
+				return fmt.Errorf("proto: wrong wireType = %d for field ResetHint", wireType)
+			}
+			m.ResetHint = 0
+			for shift := uint(0); ; shift += 7 {
+				if shift >= 64 {
+					return ErrIntOverflowTypes
+				}
+				if iNdEx >= l {
+					return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+				}
+				b := dAtA[iNdEx]
+				iNdEx++
+				m.ResetHint |= Histogram_ResetHint(b&0x7F) << shift
+				if b < 0x80 {
+					break
+				}
+			}
+		case 15:
+			if wireType != 0 {
+				return fmt.Errorf("proto: wrong wireType = %d for field Timestamp", wireType)
+			}
+			m.Timestamp = 0
+			for shift := uint(0); ; shift += 7 {
+				if shift >= 64 {
+					return ErrIntOverflowTypes
+				}
+				if iNdEx >= l {
+					return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+				}
+				b := dAtA[iNdEx]
+				iNdEx++
+				m.Timestamp |= int64(b&0x7F) << shift
+				if b < 0x80 {
+					break
+				}
+			}
+		case 16:
+			if wireType == 1 {
+				var v uint64
+				if (iNdEx + 8) > l {
+					return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+				}
+				v = uint64(encoding_binary.LittleEndian.Uint64(dAtA[iNdEx:]))
+				iNdEx += 8
+				v2 := float64(math.Float64frombits(v))
+				m.CustomValues = append(m.CustomValues, v2)
+			} else if wireType == 2 {
+				var packedLen int
+				for shift := uint(0); ; shift += 7 {
+					if shift >= 64 {
+						return ErrIntOverflowTypes
+					}
+					if iNdEx >= l {
+						return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+					}
+					b := dAtA[iNdEx]
+					iNdEx++
+					packedLen |= int(b&0x7F) << shift
+					if b < 0x80 {
+						break
+					}
+				}
+				if packedLen < 0 {
+					return ErrInvalidLengthTypes
+				}
+				postIndex := iNdEx + packedLen
+				if postIndex < 0 {
+					return ErrInvalidLengthTypes
+				}
+				if postIndex > l {
+					return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+				}
+				var elementCount int
+				elementCount = packedLen / 8
+				if elementCount != 0 && len(m.CustomValues) == 0 {
+					m.CustomValues = make([]float64, 0, elementCount)
+				}
+				for iNdEx < postIndex {
+					var v uint64
+					if (iNdEx + 8) > l {
+						return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+					}
+					v = uint64(encoding_binary.LittleEndian.Uint64(dAtA[iNdEx:]))
+					iNdEx += 8
+					v2 := float64(math.Float64frombits(v))
+					m.CustomValues = append(m.CustomValues, v2)
+				}
+			} else {
+				return fmt.Errorf("proto: wrong wireType = %d for field CustomValues", wireType)
+			}
+		default:
+			iNdEx = preIndex
+			skippy, err := skipTypes(dAtA[iNdEx:])
+			if err != nil {
+				return err
+			}
+			if (skippy < 0) || (iNdEx+skippy) < 0 {
+				return ErrInvalidLengthTypes
+			}
+			if (iNdEx + skippy) > l {
+				return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+			}
+			m.XXX_unrecognized = append(m.XXX_unrecognized, dAtA[iNdEx:iNdEx+skippy]...)
+			iNdEx += skippy
+		}
+	}
+
+	if iNdEx > l {
+		return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+func (m *BucketSpan) Unmarshal(dAtA []byte) error {
+	l := len(dAtA)
+	iNdEx := 0
+	for iNdEx < l {
+		preIndex := iNdEx
+		var wire uint64
+		for shift := uint(0); ; shift += 7 {
+			if shift >= 64 {
+				return ErrIntOverflowTypes
+			}
+			if iNdEx >= l {
+				return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+			}
+			b := dAtA[iNdEx]
+			iNdEx++
+			wire |= uint64(b&0x7F) << shift
+			if b < 0x80 {
+				break
+			}
+		}
+		fieldNum := int32(wire >> 3)
+		wireType := int(wire & 0x7)
+		if wireType == 4 {
+			return fmt.Errorf("proto: BucketSpan: wiretype end group for non-group")
+		}
+		if fieldNum <= 0 {
+			return fmt.Errorf("proto: BucketSpan: illegal tag %d (wire type %d)", fieldNum, wire)
+		}
+		switch fieldNum {
+		case 1:
+			if wireType != 0 {
+				return fmt.Errorf("proto: wrong wireType = %d for field Offset", wireType)
+			}
+			var v int32
+			for shift := uint(0); ; shift += 7 {
+				if shift >= 64 {
+					return ErrIntOverflowTypes
+				}
+				if iNdEx >= l {
+					return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+				}
+				b := dAtA[iNdEx]
+				iNdEx++
+				v |= int32(b&0x7F) << shift
+				if b < 0x80 {
+					break
+				}
+			}
+			v = int32((uint32(v) >> 1) ^ uint32(((v&1)<<31)>>31))
+			m.Offset = v
+		case 2:
+			if wireType != 0 {
+				return fmt.Errorf("proto: wrong wireType = %d for field Length", wireType)
+			}
+			m.Length = 0
+			for shift := uint(0); ; shift += 7 {
+				if shift >= 64 {
+					return ErrIntOverflowTypes
+				}
+				if iNdEx >= l {
+					return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+				}
+				b := dAtA[iNdEx]
+				iNdEx++
+				m.Length |= uint32(b&0x7F) << shift
+				if b < 0x80 {
+					break
+				}
+			}
+		default:
+			iNdEx = preIndex
+			skippy, err := skipTypes(dAtA[iNdEx:])
+			if err != nil {
+				return err
+			}
+			if (skippy < 0) || (iNdEx+skippy) < 0 {
+				return ErrInvalidLengthTypes
+			}
+			if (iNdEx + skippy) > l {
+				return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+			}
+			m.XXX_unrecognized = append(m.XXX_unrecognized, dAtA[iNdEx:iNdEx+skippy]...)
+			iNdEx += skippy
+		}
+	}
+
+	if iNdEx > l {
+		return io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+func skipTypes(dAtA []byte) (n int, err error) {
+	l := len(dAtA)
+	iNdEx := 0
+	depth := 0
+	for iNdEx < l {
+		var wire uint64
+		for shift := uint(0); ; shift += 7 {
+			if shift >= 64 {
+				return 0, ErrIntOverflowTypes
+			}
+			if iNdEx >= l {
+				return 0, io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+			}
+			b := dAtA[iNdEx]
+			iNdEx++
+			wire |= (uint64(b) & 0x7F) << shift
+			if b < 0x80 {
+				break
+			}
+		}
+		wireType := int(wire & 0x7)
+		switch wireType {
+		case 0:
+			for shift := uint(0); ; shift += 7 {
+				if shift >= 64 {
+					return 0, ErrIntOverflowTypes
+				}
+				if iNdEx >= l {
+					return 0, io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+				}
+				iNdEx++
+				if dAtA[iNdEx-1] < 0x80 {
+					break
+				}
+			}
+		case 1:
+			iNdEx += 8
+		case 2:
+			var length int
+			for shift := uint(0); ; shift += 7 {
+				if shift >= 64 {
+					return 0, ErrIntOverflowTypes
+				}
+				if iNdEx >= l {
+					return 0, io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+				}
+				b := dAtA[iNdEx]
+				iNdEx++
+				length |= (int(b) & 0x7F) << shift
+				if b < 0x80 {
+					break
+				}
+			}
+			if length < 0 {
+				return 0, ErrInvalidLengthTypes
+			}
+			iNdEx += length
+		case 3:
+			depth++
+		case 4:
+			if depth == 0 {
+				return 0, ErrUnexpectedEndOfGroupTypes
+			}
+			depth--
+		case 5:
+			iNdEx += 4
+		default:
+			return 0, fmt.Errorf("proto: illegal wireType %d", wireType)
+		}
+		if iNdEx < 0 {
+			return 0, ErrInvalidLengthTypes
+		}
+		if depth == 0 {
+			return iNdEx, nil
+		}
+	}
+	return 0, io.ErrUnexpectedEOF
+}
+
+var (
+	ErrInvalidLengthTypes        = fmt.Errorf("proto: negative length found during unmarshaling")
+	ErrIntOverflowTypes          = fmt.Errorf("proto: integer overflow")
+	ErrUnexpectedEndOfGroupTypes = fmt.Errorf("proto: unexpected end of group")
+)
diff --git a/prompb/io/prometheus/write/v2/types.proto b/prompb/io/prometheus/write/v2/types.proto
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..0cc7b8bc4a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/prompb/io/prometheus/write/v2/types.proto
@@ -0,0 +1,260 @@
+// Copyright 2024 Prometheus Team
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+//
+// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+
+// NOTE: This file is also available on https://buf.build/prometheus/prometheus/docs/main:io.prometheus.write.v2
+
+syntax = "proto3";
+package io.prometheus.write.v2;
+
+option go_package = "writev2";
+
+import "gogoproto/gogo.proto";
+
+// Request represents a request to write the given timeseries to a remote destination.
+// This message was introduced in the Remote Write 2.0 specification:
+// https://prometheus.io/docs/concepts/remote_write_spec_2_0/
+//
+// The canonical Content-Type request header value for this message is
+// "application/x-protobuf;proto=io.prometheus.write.v2.Request"
+//
+// NOTE: gogoproto options might change in future for this file, they
+// are not part of the spec proto (they only modify the generated Go code, not
+// the serialized message). See: https://github.com/prometheus/prometheus/issues/11908
+message Request {
+  // Since Request supersedes 1.0 spec's prometheus.WriteRequest, we reserve the top-down message
+  // for the deterministic interop between those two, see types_test.go for details.
+  // Generally it's not needed, because Receivers must use the Content-Type header, but we want to
+  // be sympathetic to adopters with mistaken implementations and have deterministic error (empty
+  // message if you use the wrong proto schema).
+  reserved 1 to 3;
+
+  // symbols contains a de-duplicated array of string elements used for various
+  // items in a Request message, like labels and metadata items. For the sender's convenience
+  // around empty values for optional fields like unit_ref, symbols array MUST start with
+  // empty string.
+  //
+  // To decode each of the symbolized strings, referenced, by "ref(s)" suffix, you
+  // need to lookup the actual string by index from symbols array. The order of
+  // strings is up to the sender. The receiver should not assume any particular encoding.
+  repeated string symbols = 4;
+  // timeseries represents an array of distinct series with 0 or more samples.
+  repeated TimeSeries timeseries = 5 [(gogoproto.nullable) = false];
+}
+
+// TimeSeries represents a single series.
+message TimeSeries {
+  // labels_refs is a list of label name-value pair references, encoded
+  // as indices to the Request.symbols array. This list's length is always
+  // a multiple of two, and the underlying labels should be sorted lexicographically.
+  //
+  // Note that there might be multiple TimeSeries objects in the same
+  // Requests with the same labels e.g. for different exemplars, metadata
+  // or created timestamp.
+  repeated uint32 labels_refs = 1;
+
+  // Timeseries messages can either specify samples or (native) histogram samples
+  // (histogram field), but not both. For a typical sender (real-time metric
+  // streaming), in healthy cases, there will be only one sample or histogram.
+  //
+  // Samples and histograms are sorted by timestamp (older first).
+  repeated Sample samples = 2 [(gogoproto.nullable) = false];
+  repeated Histogram histograms = 3 [(gogoproto.nullable) = false];
+
+  // exemplars represents an optional set of exemplars attached to this series' samples.
+  repeated Exemplar exemplars = 4 [(gogoproto.nullable) = false];
+
+  // metadata represents the metadata associated with the given series' samples.
+  Metadata metadata = 5 [(gogoproto.nullable) = false];
+
+  // created_timestamp represents an optional created timestamp associated with
+  // this series' samples in ms format, typically for counter or histogram type
+  // metrics. Created timestamp represents the time when the counter started
+  // counting (sometimes referred to as start timestamp), which can increase
+  // the accuracy of query results.
+  //
+  // Note that some receivers might require this and in return fail to
+  // ingest such samples within the Request.
+  //
+  // For Go, see github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/timestamp/timestamp.go
+  // for conversion from/to time.Time to Prometheus timestamp.
+  //
+  // Note that the "optional" keyword is omitted due to
+  // https://cloud.google.com/apis/design/design_patterns.md#optional_primitive_fields
+  // Zero value means value not set. If you need to use exactly zero value for
+  // the timestamp, use 1 millisecond before or after.
+  int64 created_timestamp = 6;
+}
+
+// Exemplar is an additional information attached to some series' samples.
+// It is typically used to attach an example trace or request ID associated with
+// the metric changes.
+message Exemplar {
+  // labels_refs is an optional list of label name-value pair references, encoded
+  // as indices to the Request.symbols array. This list's len is always
+  // a multiple of 2, and the underlying labels should be sorted lexicographically.
+  // If the exemplar references a trace it should use the `trace_id` label name, as a best practice.
+  repeated uint32 labels_refs = 1;
+  // value represents an exact example value. This can be useful when the exemplar
+  // is attached to a histogram, which only gives an estimated value through buckets.
+  double value = 2;
+  // timestamp represents an optional timestamp of the sample in ms.
+  //
+  // For Go, see github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/timestamp/timestamp.go
+  // for conversion from/to time.Time to Prometheus timestamp.
+  //
+  // Note that the "optional" keyword is omitted due to
+  // https://cloud.google.com/apis/design/design_patterns.md#optional_primitive_fields
+  // Zero value means value not set. If you need to use exactly zero value for
+  // the timestamp, use 1 millisecond before or after.
+  int64 timestamp = 3;
+}
+
+// Sample represents series sample.
+message Sample {
+  // value of the sample.
+  double value = 1;
+  // timestamp represents timestamp of the sample in ms.
+  //
+  // For Go, see github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/timestamp/timestamp.go
+  // for conversion from/to time.Time to Prometheus timestamp.
+  int64 timestamp = 2;
+}
+
+// Metadata represents the metadata associated with the given series' samples.
+message Metadata {
+  enum MetricType {
+    METRIC_TYPE_UNSPECIFIED    = 0;
+    METRIC_TYPE_COUNTER        = 1;
+    METRIC_TYPE_GAUGE          = 2;
+    METRIC_TYPE_HISTOGRAM      = 3;
+    METRIC_TYPE_GAUGEHISTOGRAM = 4;
+    METRIC_TYPE_SUMMARY        = 5;
+    METRIC_TYPE_INFO           = 6;
+    METRIC_TYPE_STATESET       = 7;
+  }
+  MetricType type = 1;
+  // help_ref is a reference to the Request.symbols array representing help
+  // text for the metric. Help is optional, reference should point to an empty string in
+  // such a case.
+  uint32 help_ref = 3;
+  // unit_ref is a reference to the Request.symbols array representing a unit
+  // for the metric. Unit is optional, reference should point to an empty string in
+  // such a case.
+  uint32 unit_ref = 4;
+}
+
+// A native histogram, also known as a sparse histogram.
+// Original design doc:
+// https://docs.google.com/document/d/1cLNv3aufPZb3fNfaJgdaRBZsInZKKIHo9E6HinJVbpM/edit
+// The appendix of this design doc also explains the concept of float
+// histograms. This Histogram message can represent both, the usual
+// integer histogram as well as a float histogram.
+message Histogram {
+  enum ResetHint {
+    RESET_HINT_UNSPECIFIED = 0; // Need to test for a counter reset explicitly.
+    RESET_HINT_YES     = 1; // This is the 1st histogram after a counter reset.
+    RESET_HINT_NO      = 2; // There was no counter reset between this and the previous Histogram.
+    RESET_HINT_GAUGE   = 3; // This is a gauge histogram where counter resets don't happen.
+  }
+
+  oneof count { // Count of observations in the histogram.
+    uint64 count_int   = 1;
+    double count_float = 2;
+  }
+  double sum = 3; // Sum of observations in the histogram.
+
+  // The schema defines the bucket schema. Currently, valid numbers
+  // are -53 and numbers in range of -4 <= n <= 8. More valid numbers might be
+  // added in future for new bucketing layouts.
+  //
+  // The schema equal to -53 means custom buckets. See
+  // custom_values field description for more details.
+  //
+  // Values between -4 and 8 represent base-2 bucket schema, where 1
+  // is a bucket boundary in each case, and then each power of two is
+  // divided into 2^n (n is schema value) logarithmic buckets. Or in other words,
+  // each bucket boundary is the previous boundary times 2^(2^-n).
+  sint32 schema             = 4;
+  double zero_threshold     = 5; // Breadth of the zero bucket.
+  oneof zero_count { // Count in zero bucket.
+    uint64 zero_count_int     = 6;
+    double zero_count_float   = 7;
+  }
+
+  // Negative Buckets.
+  repeated BucketSpan negative_spans =  8 [(gogoproto.nullable) = false];
+  // Use either "negative_deltas" or "negative_counts", the former for
+  // regular histograms with integer counts, the latter for
+  // float histograms.
+  repeated sint64 negative_deltas    =  9; // Count delta of each bucket compared to previous one (or to zero for 1st bucket).
+  repeated double negative_counts    = 10; // Absolute count of each bucket.
+
+  // Positive Buckets.
+  //
+  // In case of custom buckets (-53 schema value) the positive buckets are interpreted as follows:
+  // * The span offset+length points to an the index of the custom_values array
+  // or +Inf if pointing to the len of the array.
+  // * The counts and deltas have the same meaning as for exponential histograms.
+  repeated BucketSpan positive_spans = 11 [(gogoproto.nullable) = false];
+  // Use either "positive_deltas" or "positive_counts", the former for
+  // regular histograms with integer counts, the latter for
+  // float histograms.
+  repeated sint64 positive_deltas    = 12; // Count delta of each bucket compared to previous one (or to zero for 1st bucket).
+  repeated double positive_counts    = 13; // Absolute count of each bucket.
+
+  ResetHint reset_hint               = 14;
+  // timestamp represents timestamp of the sample in ms.
+  //
+  // For Go, see github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/timestamp/timestamp.go
+  // for conversion from/to time.Time to Prometheus timestamp.
+  int64 timestamp = 15;
+
+  // custom_values is an additional field used by non-exponential bucketing layouts.
+  //
+  // For custom buckets (-53 schema value) custom_values specify monotonically
+  // increasing upper inclusive boundaries for the bucket counts with arbitrary
+  // widths for this histogram. In other words, custom_values represents custom,
+  // explicit bucketing that could have been converted from the classic histograms.
+  //
+  // Those bounds are then referenced by spans in positive_spans with corresponding positive
+  // counts of deltas (refer to positive_spans for more details). This way we can
+  // have encode sparse histograms with custom bucketing (many buckets are often
+  // not used).
+  //
+  // Note that for custom bounds, even negative observations are placed in the positive
+  // counts to simplify the implementation and avoid ambiguity of where to place
+  // an underflow bucket, e.g. (-2, 1]. Therefore negative buckets and
+  // the zero bucket are unused, if the schema indicates custom bucketing.
+  //
+  // For each upper boundary the previous boundary represent the lower exclusive
+  // boundary for that bucket. The first element is the upper inclusive boundary
+  // for the first bucket, which implicitly has a lower inclusive bound of -Inf.
+  // This is similar to "le" label semantics on classic histograms. You may add a
+  // bucket with an upper bound of 0 to make sure that you really have no negative
+  // observations, but in practice, native histogram rendering will show both with
+  // or without first upper boundary 0 and no negative counts as the same case.
+  //
+  // The last element is not only the upper inclusive bound of the last regular
+  // bucket, but implicitly the lower exclusive bound of the +Inf bucket.
+  repeated double custom_values = 16;
+}
+
+// A BucketSpan defines a number of consecutive buckets with their
+// offset. Logically, it would be more straightforward to include the
+// bucket counts in the Span. However, the protobuf representation is
+// more compact in the way the data is structured here (with all the
+// buckets in a single array separate from the Spans).
+message BucketSpan {
+  sint32 offset = 1; // Gap to previous span, or starting point for 1st span (which can be negative).
+  uint32 length = 2; // Length of consecutive buckets.
+}
diff --git a/prompb/io/prometheus/write/v2/types_test.go b/prompb/io/prometheus/write/v2/types_test.go
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..5b7622fc2f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/prompb/io/prometheus/write/v2/types_test.go
@@ -0,0 +1,97 @@
+// Copyright 2024 Prometheus Team
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+//
+// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+
+package writev2
+
+import (
+	"testing"
+	"time"
+
+	"github.com/gogo/protobuf/proto"
+	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
+
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/prompb"
+)
+
+func TestInteropV2UnmarshalWithV1_DeterministicEmpty(t *testing.T) {
+	expectedV1Empty := &prompb.WriteRequest{}
+	for _, tc := range []struct{ incoming *Request }{
+		{
+			incoming: &Request{}, // Technically wrong, should be at least empty string in symbol.
+		},
+		{
+			incoming: &Request{
+				Symbols: []string{""},
+			}, // NOTE: Without reserved fields, failed with "corrupted" ghost TimeSeries element.
+		},
+		{
+			incoming: &Request{
+				Symbols: []string{"", "__name__", "metric1"},
+				Timeseries: []TimeSeries{
+					{LabelsRefs: []uint32{1, 2}},
+					{Samples: []Sample{{Value: 21.4, Timestamp: time.Now().UnixMilli()}}},
+				}, // NOTE:  Without reserved fields, proto: illegal wireType 7
+			},
+		},
+	} {
+		t.Run("", func(t *testing.T) {
+			in, err := proto.Marshal(tc.incoming)
+			require.NoError(t, err)
+
+			// Test accidental unmarshal of v2 payload with v1 proto.
+			out := &prompb.WriteRequest{}
+			require.NoError(t, proto.Unmarshal(in, out))
+
+			// Drop unknowns, we expect them when incoming payload had some fields.
+			// This field & method will be likely gone after gogo removal.
+			out.XXX_unrecognized = nil // NOTE: out.XXX_DiscardUnknown() does not work with nullables.
+
+			require.Equal(t, expectedV1Empty, out)
+		})
+	}
+}
+
+func TestInteropV1UnmarshalWithV2_DeterministicEmpty(t *testing.T) {
+	expectedV2Empty := &Request{}
+	for _, tc := range []struct{ incoming *prompb.WriteRequest }{
+		{
+			incoming: &prompb.WriteRequest{},
+		},
+		{
+			incoming: &prompb.WriteRequest{
+				Timeseries: []prompb.TimeSeries{
+					{
+						Labels:  []prompb.Label{{Name: "__name__", Value: "metric1"}},
+						Samples: []prompb.Sample{{Value: 21.4, Timestamp: time.Now().UnixMilli()}},
+					},
+				},
+			},
+			// NOTE: Without reserved fields, results in corrupted v2.Request.Symbols.
+		},
+	} {
+		t.Run("", func(t *testing.T) {
+			in, err := proto.Marshal(tc.incoming)
+			require.NoError(t, err)
+
+			// Test accidental unmarshal of v1 payload with v2 proto.
+			out := &Request{}
+			require.NoError(t, proto.Unmarshal(in, out))
+
+			// Drop unknowns, we expect them when incoming payload had some fields.
+			// This field & method will be likely gone after gogo removal.
+			out.XXX_unrecognized = nil // NOTE: out.XXX_DiscardUnknown() does not work with nullables.
+
+			require.Equal(t, expectedV2Empty, out)
+		})
+	}
+}
diff --git a/prompb/rwcommon/codec_test.go b/prompb/rwcommon/codec_test.go
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..2ab95e0d19
--- /dev/null
+++ b/prompb/rwcommon/codec_test.go
@@ -0,0 +1,298 @@
+// Copyright 2024 Prometheus Team
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+//
+// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+
+package rwcommon
+
+import (
+	"testing"
+
+	"github.com/prometheus/common/model"
+	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
+
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/histogram"
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/labels"
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/metadata"
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/prompb"
+	writev2 "github.com/prometheus/prometheus/prompb/io/prometheus/write/v2"
+)
+
+func TestToLabels(t *testing.T) {
+	expected := labels.FromStrings("__name__", "metric1", "foo", "bar")
+
+	t.Run("v1", func(t *testing.T) {
+		ts := prompb.TimeSeries{Labels: []prompb.Label{{Name: "__name__", Value: "metric1"}, {Name: "foo", Value: "bar"}}}
+		b := labels.NewScratchBuilder(2)
+		require.Equal(t, expected, ts.ToLabels(&b, nil))
+		require.Equal(t, ts.Labels, prompb.FromLabels(expected, nil))
+		require.Equal(t, ts.Labels, prompb.FromLabels(expected, ts.Labels))
+	})
+	t.Run("v2", func(t *testing.T) {
+		v2Symbols := []string{"", "__name__", "metric1", "foo", "bar"}
+		ts := writev2.TimeSeries{LabelsRefs: []uint32{1, 2, 3, 4}}
+		b := labels.NewScratchBuilder(2)
+		require.Equal(t, expected, ts.ToLabels(&b, v2Symbols))
+		// No need for FromLabels in our prod code as we use symbol table to do so.
+	})
+}
+
+func TestFromMetadataType(t *testing.T) {
+	for _, tc := range []struct {
+		desc       string
+		input      model.MetricType
+		expectedV1 prompb.MetricMetadata_MetricType
+		expectedV2 writev2.Metadata_MetricType
+	}{
+		{
+			desc:       "with a single-word metric",
+			input:      model.MetricTypeCounter,
+			expectedV1: prompb.MetricMetadata_COUNTER,
+			expectedV2: writev2.Metadata_METRIC_TYPE_COUNTER,
+		},
+		{
+			desc:       "with a two-word metric",
+			input:      model.MetricTypeStateset,
+			expectedV1: prompb.MetricMetadata_STATESET,
+			expectedV2: writev2.Metadata_METRIC_TYPE_STATESET,
+		},
+		{
+			desc:       "with an unknown metric",
+			input:      "not-known",
+			expectedV1: prompb.MetricMetadata_UNKNOWN,
+			expectedV2: writev2.Metadata_METRIC_TYPE_UNSPECIFIED,
+		},
+	} {
+		t.Run(tc.desc, func(t *testing.T) {
+			t.Run("v1", func(t *testing.T) {
+				require.Equal(t, tc.expectedV1, prompb.FromMetadataType(tc.input))
+			})
+			t.Run("v2", func(t *testing.T) {
+				require.Equal(t, tc.expectedV2, writev2.FromMetadataType(tc.input))
+			})
+		})
+	}
+}
+
+func TestToMetadata(t *testing.T) {
+	sym := writev2.NewSymbolTable()
+
+	for _, tc := range []struct {
+		input    writev2.Metadata
+		expected metadata.Metadata
+	}{
+		{
+			input: writev2.Metadata{},
+			expected: metadata.Metadata{
+				Type: model.MetricTypeUnknown,
+			},
+		},
+		{
+			input: writev2.Metadata{
+				Type: 12414, // Unknown.
+			},
+			expected: metadata.Metadata{
+				Type: model.MetricTypeUnknown,
+			},
+		},
+		{
+			input: writev2.Metadata{
+				Type:    writev2.Metadata_METRIC_TYPE_COUNTER,
+				HelpRef: sym.Symbolize("help1"),
+				UnitRef: sym.Symbolize("unit1"),
+			},
+			expected: metadata.Metadata{
+				Type: model.MetricTypeCounter,
+				Help: "help1",
+				Unit: "unit1",
+			},
+		},
+		{
+			input: writev2.Metadata{
+				Type:    writev2.Metadata_METRIC_TYPE_STATESET,
+				HelpRef: sym.Symbolize("help2"),
+			},
+			expected: metadata.Metadata{
+				Type: model.MetricTypeStateset,
+				Help: "help2",
+			},
+		},
+	} {
+		t.Run("", func(t *testing.T) {
+			ts := writev2.TimeSeries{Metadata: tc.input}
+			require.Equal(t, tc.expected, ts.ToMetadata(sym.Symbols()))
+		})
+	}
+}
+
+func TestToHistogram_Empty(t *testing.T) {
+	t.Run("v1", func(t *testing.T) {
+		require.NotNilf(t, prompb.Histogram{}.ToIntHistogram(), "")
+		require.NotNilf(t, prompb.Histogram{}.ToFloatHistogram(), "")
+	})
+	t.Run("v2", func(t *testing.T) {
+		require.NotNilf(t, writev2.Histogram{}.ToIntHistogram(), "")
+		require.NotNilf(t, writev2.Histogram{}.ToFloatHistogram(), "")
+	})
+}
+
+// NOTE(bwplotka): This is technically not a valid histogram, but it represents
+// important cases to test when copying or converting to/from int/float histograms.
+func testIntHistogram() histogram.Histogram {
+	return histogram.Histogram{
+		CounterResetHint: histogram.GaugeType,
+		Schema:           1,
+		Count:            19,
+		Sum:              2.7,
+		ZeroThreshold:    1e-128,
+		PositiveSpans: []histogram.Span{
+			{Offset: 0, Length: 4},
+			{Offset: 0, Length: 0},
+			{Offset: 0, Length: 3},
+		},
+		PositiveBuckets: []int64{1, 2, -2, 1, -1, 0, 0},
+		NegativeSpans: []histogram.Span{
+			{Offset: 0, Length: 5},
+			{Offset: 1, Length: 0},
+			{Offset: 0, Length: 1},
+		},
+		NegativeBuckets: []int64{1, 2, -2, 1, -1, 0},
+		CustomValues:    []float64{21421, 523},
+	}
+}
+
+// NOTE(bwplotka): This is technically not a valid histogram, but it represents
+// important cases to test when copying or converting to/from int/float histograms.
+func testFloatHistogram() histogram.FloatHistogram {
+	return histogram.FloatHistogram{
+		CounterResetHint: histogram.GaugeType,
+		Schema:           1,
+		Count:            19,
+		Sum:              2.7,
+		ZeroThreshold:    1e-128,
+		PositiveSpans: []histogram.Span{
+			{Offset: 0, Length: 4},
+			{Offset: 0, Length: 0},
+			{Offset: 0, Length: 3},
+		},
+		PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 3, 1, 2, 1, 1, 1},
+		NegativeSpans: []histogram.Span{
+			{Offset: 0, Length: 5},
+			{Offset: 1, Length: 0},
+			{Offset: 0, Length: 1},
+		},
+		NegativeBuckets: []float64{1, 3, 1, 2, 1, 1},
+		CustomValues:    []float64{21421, 523},
+	}
+}
+
+func TestFromIntToFloatOrIntHistogram(t *testing.T) {
+	t.Run("v1", func(t *testing.T) {
+		// v1 does not support nhcb.
+		testIntHistWithoutNHCB := testIntHistogram()
+		testIntHistWithoutNHCB.CustomValues = nil
+		testFloatHistWithoutNHCB := testFloatHistogram()
+		testFloatHistWithoutNHCB.CustomValues = nil
+
+		h := prompb.FromIntHistogram(123, &testIntHistWithoutNHCB)
+		require.False(t, h.IsFloatHistogram())
+		require.Equal(t, int64(123), h.Timestamp)
+		require.Equal(t, testIntHistWithoutNHCB, *h.ToIntHistogram())
+		require.Equal(t, testFloatHistWithoutNHCB, *h.ToFloatHistogram())
+	})
+	t.Run("v2", func(t *testing.T) {
+		testIntHist := testIntHistogram()
+		testFloatHist := testFloatHistogram()
+
+		h := writev2.FromIntHistogram(123, &testIntHist)
+		require.False(t, h.IsFloatHistogram())
+		require.Equal(t, int64(123), h.Timestamp)
+		require.Equal(t, testIntHist, *h.ToIntHistogram())
+		require.Equal(t, testFloatHist, *h.ToFloatHistogram())
+	})
+}
+
+func TestFromFloatToFloatHistogram(t *testing.T) {
+	t.Run("v1", func(t *testing.T) {
+		// v1 does not support nhcb.
+		testFloatHistWithoutNHCB := testFloatHistogram()
+		testFloatHistWithoutNHCB.CustomValues = nil
+
+		h := prompb.FromFloatHistogram(123, &testFloatHistWithoutNHCB)
+		require.True(t, h.IsFloatHistogram())
+		require.Equal(t, int64(123), h.Timestamp)
+		require.Nil(t, h.ToIntHistogram())
+		require.Equal(t, testFloatHistWithoutNHCB, *h.ToFloatHistogram())
+	})
+	t.Run("v2", func(t *testing.T) {
+		testFloatHist := testFloatHistogram()
+
+		h := writev2.FromFloatHistogram(123, &testFloatHist)
+		require.True(t, h.IsFloatHistogram())
+		require.Equal(t, int64(123), h.Timestamp)
+		require.Nil(t, h.ToIntHistogram())
+		require.Equal(t, testFloatHist, *h.ToFloatHistogram())
+	})
+}
+
+func TestFromIntOrFloatHistogram_ResetHint(t *testing.T) {
+	for _, tc := range []struct {
+		input      histogram.CounterResetHint
+		expectedV1 prompb.Histogram_ResetHint
+		expectedV2 writev2.Histogram_ResetHint
+	}{
+		{
+			input:      histogram.UnknownCounterReset,
+			expectedV1: prompb.Histogram_UNKNOWN,
+			expectedV2: writev2.Histogram_RESET_HINT_UNSPECIFIED,
+		},
+		{
+			input:      histogram.CounterReset,
+			expectedV1: prompb.Histogram_YES,
+			expectedV2: writev2.Histogram_RESET_HINT_YES,
+		},
+		{
+			input:      histogram.NotCounterReset,
+			expectedV1: prompb.Histogram_NO,
+			expectedV2: writev2.Histogram_RESET_HINT_NO,
+		},
+		{
+			input:      histogram.GaugeType,
+			expectedV1: prompb.Histogram_GAUGE,
+			expectedV2: writev2.Histogram_RESET_HINT_GAUGE,
+		},
+	} {
+		t.Run("", func(t *testing.T) {
+			t.Run("v1", func(t *testing.T) {
+				h := testIntHistogram()
+				h.CounterResetHint = tc.input
+				got := prompb.FromIntHistogram(1337, &h)
+				require.Equal(t, tc.expectedV1, got.GetResetHint())
+
+				fh := testFloatHistogram()
+				fh.CounterResetHint = tc.input
+				got2 := prompb.FromFloatHistogram(1337, &fh)
+				require.Equal(t, tc.expectedV1, got2.GetResetHint())
+			})
+			t.Run("v2", func(t *testing.T) {
+				h := testIntHistogram()
+				h.CounterResetHint = tc.input
+				got := writev2.FromIntHistogram(1337, &h)
+				require.Equal(t, tc.expectedV2, got.GetResetHint())
+
+				fh := testFloatHistogram()
+				fh.CounterResetHint = tc.input
+				got2 := writev2.FromFloatHistogram(1337, &fh)
+				require.Equal(t, tc.expectedV2, got2.GetResetHint())
+			})
+		})
+	}
+}
diff --git a/promql/bench_test.go b/promql/bench_test.go
index 516b0d7482..bd67280294 100644
--- a/promql/bench_test.go
+++ b/promql/bench_test.go
@@ -11,7 +11,7 @@
 // See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 // limitations under the License.
 
-package promql
+package promql_test
 
 import (
 	"context"
@@ -23,13 +23,14 @@ import (
 
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/histogram"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/labels"
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/promql"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/promql/parser"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/storage"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/tsdb/tsdbutil"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/util/teststorage"
 )
 
-func setupRangeQueryTestData(stor *teststorage.TestStorage, _ *Engine, interval, numIntervals int) error {
+func setupRangeQueryTestData(stor *teststorage.TestStorage, _ *promql.Engine, interval, numIntervals int) error {
 	ctx := context.Background()
 
 	metrics := []labels.Labels{}
@@ -186,6 +187,21 @@ func rangeQueryCases() []benchCase {
 		{
 			expr: "topk(5, a_X)",
 		},
+		{
+			expr: "limitk(1, a_X)",
+		},
+		{
+			expr: "limitk(5, a_X)",
+		},
+		{
+			expr: "limit_ratio(0.1, a_X)",
+		},
+		{
+			expr: "limit_ratio(0.5, a_X)",
+		},
+		{
+			expr: "limit_ratio(-0.5, a_X)",
+		},
 		// Combinations.
 		{
 			expr: "rate(a_X[1m]) + rate(b_X[1m])",
@@ -249,13 +265,13 @@ func BenchmarkRangeQuery(b *testing.B) {
 	stor := teststorage.New(b)
 	stor.DB.DisableCompactions() // Don't want auto-compaction disrupting timings.
 	defer stor.Close()
-	opts := EngineOpts{
+	opts := promql.EngineOpts{
 		Logger:     nil,
 		Reg:        nil,
 		MaxSamples: 50000000,
 		Timeout:    100 * time.Second,
 	}
-	engine := NewEngine(opts)
+	engine := promql.NewEngine(opts)
 
 	const interval = 10000 // 10s interval.
 	// A day of data plus 10k steps.
@@ -322,9 +338,17 @@ func BenchmarkNativeHistograms(b *testing.B) {
 			name:  "sum rate with long rate interval",
 			query: "sum(rate(native_histogram_series[20m]))",
 		},
+		{
+			name:  "histogram_count with short rate interval",
+			query: "histogram_count(sum(rate(native_histogram_series[2m])))",
+		},
+		{
+			name:  "histogram_count with long rate interval",
+			query: "histogram_count(sum(rate(native_histogram_series[20m])))",
+		},
 	}
 
-	opts := EngineOpts{
+	opts := promql.EngineOpts{
 		Logger:               nil,
 		Reg:                  nil,
 		MaxSamples:           50000000,
@@ -338,7 +362,7 @@ func BenchmarkNativeHistograms(b *testing.B) {
 
 	for _, tc := range cases {
 		b.Run(tc.name, func(b *testing.B) {
-			ng := NewEngine(opts)
+			ng := promql.NewEngine(opts)
 			for i := 0; i < b.N; i++ {
 				qry, err := ng.NewRangeQuery(context.Background(), testStorage, nil, tc.query, start, end, step)
 				if err != nil {
diff --git a/promql/engine.go b/promql/engine.go
index b8a8ea0959..25e67db633 100644
--- a/promql/engine.go
+++ b/promql/engine.go
@@ -573,7 +573,8 @@ func (ng *Engine) validateOpts(expr parser.Expr) error {
 	return validationErr
 }
 
-func (ng *Engine) newTestQuery(f func(context.Context) error) Query {
+// NewTestQuery: inject special behaviour into Query for testing.
+func (ng *Engine) NewTestQuery(f func(context.Context) error) Query {
 	qry := &query{
 		q:           "test statement",
 		stmt:        parser.TestStmt(f),
@@ -751,6 +752,7 @@ func (ng *Engine) execEvalStmt(ctx context.Context, query *query, s *parser.Eval
 		case parser.ValueTypeScalar:
 			return Scalar{V: mat[0].Floats[0].F, T: start}, warnings, nil
 		case parser.ValueTypeMatrix:
+			ng.sortMatrixResult(ctx, query, mat)
 			return mat, warnings, nil
 		default:
 			panic(fmt.Errorf("promql.Engine.exec: unexpected expression type %q", s.Expr.Type()))
@@ -789,11 +791,15 @@ func (ng *Engine) execEvalStmt(ctx context.Context, query *query, s *parser.Eval
 	}
 
 	// TODO(fabxc): where to ensure metric labels are a copy from the storage internals.
+	ng.sortMatrixResult(ctx, query, mat)
+
+	return mat, warnings, nil
+}
+
+func (ng *Engine) sortMatrixResult(ctx context.Context, query *query, mat Matrix) {
 	sortSpanTimer, _ := query.stats.GetSpanTimer(ctx, stats.ResultSortTime, ng.metrics.queryResultSort)
 	sort.Sort(mat)
 	sortSpanTimer.Finish()
-
-	return mat, warnings, nil
 }
 
 // subqueryTimes returns the sum of offsets and ranges of all subqueries in the path.
@@ -979,6 +985,11 @@ func checkAndExpandSeriesSet(ctx context.Context, expr parser.Expr) (annotations
 			return nil, nil
 		}
 		series, ws, err := expandSeriesSet(ctx, e.UnexpandedSeriesSet)
+		if e.SkipHistogramBuckets {
+			for i := range series {
+				series[i] = newHistogramStatsSeries(series[i])
+			}
+		}
 		e.Series = series
 		return ws, err
 	}
@@ -1307,7 +1318,7 @@ func (ev *evaluator) rangeEvalAgg(aggExpr *parser.AggregateExpr, sortedGrouping
 		index, ok := groupToResultIndex[groupingKey]
 		// Add a new group if it doesn't exist.
 		if !ok {
-			if aggExpr.Op != parser.TOPK && aggExpr.Op != parser.BOTTOMK {
+			if aggExpr.Op != parser.TOPK && aggExpr.Op != parser.BOTTOMK && aggExpr.Op != parser.LIMITK && aggExpr.Op != parser.LIMIT_RATIO {
 				m := generateGroupingLabels(enh, series.Metric, aggExpr.Without, sortedGrouping)
 				result = append(result, Series{Metric: m})
 			}
@@ -1320,9 +1331,10 @@ func (ev *evaluator) rangeEvalAgg(aggExpr *parser.AggregateExpr, sortedGrouping
 	groups := make([]groupedAggregation, groupCount)
 
 	var k int
+	var ratio float64
 	var seriess map[uint64]Series
 	switch aggExpr.Op {
-	case parser.TOPK, parser.BOTTOMK:
+	case parser.TOPK, parser.BOTTOMK, parser.LIMITK:
 		if !convertibleToInt64(param) {
 			ev.errorf("Scalar value %v overflows int64", param)
 		}
@@ -1334,6 +1346,23 @@ func (ev *evaluator) rangeEvalAgg(aggExpr *parser.AggregateExpr, sortedGrouping
 			return nil, warnings
 		}
 		seriess = make(map[uint64]Series, len(inputMatrix)) // Output series by series hash.
+	case parser.LIMIT_RATIO:
+		if math.IsNaN(param) {
+			ev.errorf("Ratio value %v is NaN", param)
+		}
+		switch {
+		case param == 0:
+			return nil, warnings
+		case param < -1.0:
+			ratio = -1.0
+			warnings.Add(annotations.NewInvalidRatioWarning(param, ratio, aggExpr.Param.PositionRange()))
+		case param > 1.0:
+			ratio = 1.0
+			warnings.Add(annotations.NewInvalidRatioWarning(param, ratio, aggExpr.Param.PositionRange()))
+		default:
+			ratio = param
+		}
+		seriess = make(map[uint64]Series, len(inputMatrix)) // Output series by series hash.
 	case parser.QUANTILE:
 		if math.IsNaN(param) || param < 0 || param > 1 {
 			warnings.Add(annotations.NewInvalidQuantileWarning(param, aggExpr.Param.PositionRange()))
@@ -1351,11 +1380,12 @@ func (ev *evaluator) rangeEvalAgg(aggExpr *parser.AggregateExpr, sortedGrouping
 		enh.Ts = ts
 		var ws annotations.Annotations
 		switch aggExpr.Op {
-		case parser.TOPK, parser.BOTTOMK:
-			result, ws = ev.aggregationK(aggExpr, k, inputMatrix, seriesToResult, groups, enh, seriess)
+		case parser.TOPK, parser.BOTTOMK, parser.LIMITK, parser.LIMIT_RATIO:
+			result, ws = ev.aggregationK(aggExpr, k, ratio, inputMatrix, seriesToResult, groups, enh, seriess)
 			// If this could be an instant query, shortcut so as not to change sort order.
 			if ev.endTimestamp == ev.startTimestamp {
-				return result, ws
+				warnings.Merge(ws)
+				return result, warnings
 			}
 		default:
 			ws = ev.aggregation(aggExpr, param, inputMatrix, result, seriesToResult, groups, enh)
@@ -1370,7 +1400,7 @@ func (ev *evaluator) rangeEvalAgg(aggExpr *parser.AggregateExpr, sortedGrouping
 
 	// Assemble the output matrix. By the time we get here we know we don't have too many samples.
 	switch aggExpr.Op {
-	case parser.TOPK, parser.BOTTOMK:
+	case parser.TOPK, parser.BOTTOMK, parser.LIMITK, parser.LIMIT_RATIO:
 		result = make(Matrix, 0, len(seriess))
 		for _, ss := range seriess {
 			result = append(result, ss)
@@ -1782,18 +1812,21 @@ func (ev *evaluator) eval(expr parser.Expr) (parser.Value, annotations.Annotatio
 				}, e.LHS, e.RHS)
 			default:
 				return ev.rangeEval(initSignatures, func(v []parser.Value, sh [][]EvalSeriesHelper, enh *EvalNodeHelper) (Vector, annotations.Annotations) {
-					return ev.VectorBinop(e.Op, v[0].(Vector), v[1].(Vector), e.VectorMatching, e.ReturnBool, sh[0], sh[1], enh), nil
+					vec, err := ev.VectorBinop(e.Op, v[0].(Vector), v[1].(Vector), e.VectorMatching, e.ReturnBool, sh[0], sh[1], enh)
+					return vec, handleVectorBinopError(err, e)
 				}, e.LHS, e.RHS)
 			}
 
 		case lt == parser.ValueTypeVector && rt == parser.ValueTypeScalar:
 			return ev.rangeEval(nil, func(v []parser.Value, _ [][]EvalSeriesHelper, enh *EvalNodeHelper) (Vector, annotations.Annotations) {
-				return ev.VectorscalarBinop(e.Op, v[0].(Vector), Scalar{V: v[1].(Vector)[0].F}, false, e.ReturnBool, enh), nil
+				vec, err := ev.VectorscalarBinop(e.Op, v[0].(Vector), Scalar{V: v[1].(Vector)[0].F}, false, e.ReturnBool, enh)
+				return vec, handleVectorBinopError(err, e)
 			}, e.LHS, e.RHS)
 
 		case lt == parser.ValueTypeScalar && rt == parser.ValueTypeVector:
 			return ev.rangeEval(nil, func(v []parser.Value, _ [][]EvalSeriesHelper, enh *EvalNodeHelper) (Vector, annotations.Annotations) {
-				return ev.VectorscalarBinop(e.Op, v[1].(Vector), Scalar{V: v[0].(Vector)[0].F}, true, e.ReturnBool, enh), nil
+				vec, err := ev.VectorscalarBinop(e.Op, v[1].(Vector), Scalar{V: v[0].(Vector)[0].F}, true, e.ReturnBool, enh)
+				return vec, handleVectorBinopError(err, e)
 			}, e.LHS, e.RHS)
 		}
 
@@ -2024,25 +2057,21 @@ func (ev *evaluator) rangeEvalTimestampFunctionOverVectorSelector(vs *parser.Vec
 		vec := make(Vector, 0, len(vs.Series))
 		for i, s := range vs.Series {
 			it := seriesIterators[i]
-			t, f, h, ok := ev.vectorSelectorSingle(it, vs, enh.Ts)
-			if ok {
-				vec = append(vec, Sample{
-					Metric: s.Labels(),
-					T:      t,
-					F:      f,
-					H:      h,
-				})
-				histSize := 0
-				if h != nil {
-					histSize := h.Size() / 16 // 16 bytes per sample.
-					ev.currentSamples += histSize
-				}
-				ev.currentSamples++
+			t, _, _, ok := ev.vectorSelectorSingle(it, vs, enh.Ts)
+			if !ok {
+				continue
+			}
 
-				ev.samplesStats.IncrementSamplesAtTimestamp(enh.Ts, int64(1+histSize))
-				if ev.currentSamples > ev.maxSamples {
-					ev.error(ErrTooManySamples(env))
-				}
+			// Note that we ignore the sample values because call only cares about the timestamp.
+			vec = append(vec, Sample{
+				Metric: s.Labels(),
+				T:      t,
+			})
+
+			ev.currentSamples++
+			ev.samplesStats.IncrementSamplesAtTimestamp(enh.Ts, 1)
+			if ev.currentSamples > ev.maxSamples {
+				ev.error(ErrTooManySamples(env))
 			}
 		}
 		ev.samplesStats.UpdatePeak(ev.currentSamples)
@@ -2430,12 +2459,12 @@ func (ev *evaluator) VectorUnless(lhs, rhs Vector, matching *parser.VectorMatchi
 }
 
 // VectorBinop evaluates a binary operation between two Vectors, excluding set operators.
-func (ev *evaluator) VectorBinop(op parser.ItemType, lhs, rhs Vector, matching *parser.VectorMatching, returnBool bool, lhsh, rhsh []EvalSeriesHelper, enh *EvalNodeHelper) Vector {
+func (ev *evaluator) VectorBinop(op parser.ItemType, lhs, rhs Vector, matching *parser.VectorMatching, returnBool bool, lhsh, rhsh []EvalSeriesHelper, enh *EvalNodeHelper) (Vector, error) {
 	if matching.Card == parser.CardManyToMany {
 		panic("many-to-many only allowed for set operators")
 	}
 	if len(lhs) == 0 || len(rhs) == 0 {
-		return nil // Short-circuit: nothing is going to match.
+		return nil, nil // Short-circuit: nothing is going to match.
 	}
 
 	// The control flow below handles one-to-one or many-to-one matching.
@@ -2488,6 +2517,7 @@ func (ev *evaluator) VectorBinop(op parser.ItemType, lhs, rhs Vector, matching *
 
 	// For all lhs samples find a respective rhs sample and perform
 	// the binary operation.
+	var lastErr error
 	for i, ls := range lhs {
 		sig := lhsh[i].signature
 
@@ -2503,7 +2533,10 @@ func (ev *evaluator) VectorBinop(op parser.ItemType, lhs, rhs Vector, matching *
 			fl, fr = fr, fl
 			hl, hr = hr, hl
 		}
-		floatValue, histogramValue, keep := vectorElemBinop(op, fl, fr, hl, hr)
+		floatValue, histogramValue, keep, err := vectorElemBinop(op, fl, fr, hl, hr)
+		if err != nil {
+			lastErr = err
+		}
 		switch {
 		case returnBool:
 			if keep {
@@ -2545,7 +2578,7 @@ func (ev *evaluator) VectorBinop(op parser.ItemType, lhs, rhs Vector, matching *
 			H:      histogramValue,
 		})
 	}
-	return enh.Out
+	return enh.Out, lastErr
 }
 
 func signatureFunc(on bool, b []byte, names ...string) func(labels.Labels) string {
@@ -2608,7 +2641,8 @@ func resultMetric(lhs, rhs labels.Labels, op parser.ItemType, matching *parser.V
 }
 
 // VectorscalarBinop evaluates a binary operation between a Vector and a Scalar.
-func (ev *evaluator) VectorscalarBinop(op parser.ItemType, lhs Vector, rhs Scalar, swap, returnBool bool, enh *EvalNodeHelper) Vector {
+func (ev *evaluator) VectorscalarBinop(op parser.ItemType, lhs Vector, rhs Scalar, swap, returnBool bool, enh *EvalNodeHelper) (Vector, error) {
+	var lastErr error
 	for _, lhsSample := range lhs {
 		lf, rf := lhsSample.F, rhs.V
 		var rh *histogram.FloatHistogram
@@ -2619,7 +2653,10 @@ func (ev *evaluator) VectorscalarBinop(op parser.ItemType, lhs Vector, rhs Scala
 			lf, rf = rf, lf
 			lh, rh = rh, lh
 		}
-		float, histogram, keep := vectorElemBinop(op, lf, rf, lh, rh)
+		float, histogram, keep, err := vectorElemBinop(op, lf, rf, lh, rh)
+		if err != nil {
+			lastErr = err
+		}
 		// Catch cases where the scalar is the LHS in a scalar-vector comparison operation.
 		// We want to always keep the vector element value as the output value, even if it's on the RHS.
 		if op.IsComparisonOperator() && swap {
@@ -2643,7 +2680,7 @@ func (ev *evaluator) VectorscalarBinop(op parser.ItemType, lhs Vector, rhs Scala
 			enh.Out = append(enh.Out, lhsSample)
 		}
 	}
-	return enh.Out
+	return enh.Out, lastErr
 }
 
 // scalarBinop evaluates a binary operation between two Scalars.
@@ -2680,62 +2717,71 @@ func scalarBinop(op parser.ItemType, lhs, rhs float64) float64 {
 }
 
 // vectorElemBinop evaluates a binary operation between two Vector elements.
-func vectorElemBinop(op parser.ItemType, lhs, rhs float64, hlhs, hrhs *histogram.FloatHistogram) (float64, *histogram.FloatHistogram, bool) {
+func vectorElemBinop(op parser.ItemType, lhs, rhs float64, hlhs, hrhs *histogram.FloatHistogram) (float64, *histogram.FloatHistogram, bool, error) {
 	switch op {
 	case parser.ADD:
 		if hlhs != nil && hrhs != nil {
-			return 0, hlhs.Copy().Add(hrhs).Compact(0), true
+			res, err := hlhs.Copy().Add(hrhs)
+			if err != nil {
+				return 0, nil, false, err
+			}
+			return 0, res.Compact(0), true, nil
 		}
-		return lhs + rhs, nil, true
+		return lhs + rhs, nil, true, nil
 	case parser.SUB:
 		if hlhs != nil && hrhs != nil {
-			return 0, hlhs.Copy().Sub(hrhs).Compact(0), true
+			res, err := hlhs.Copy().Sub(hrhs)
+			if err != nil {
+				return 0, nil, false, err
+			}
+			return 0, res.Compact(0), true, nil
 		}
-		return lhs - rhs, nil, true
+		return lhs - rhs, nil, true, nil
 	case parser.MUL:
 		if hlhs != nil && hrhs == nil {
-			return 0, hlhs.Copy().Mul(rhs), true
+			return 0, hlhs.Copy().Mul(rhs), true, nil
 		}
 		if hlhs == nil && hrhs != nil {
-			return 0, hrhs.Copy().Mul(lhs), true
+			return 0, hrhs.Copy().Mul(lhs), true, nil
 		}
-		return lhs * rhs, nil, true
+		return lhs * rhs, nil, true, nil
 	case parser.DIV:
 		if hlhs != nil && hrhs == nil {
-			return 0, hlhs.Copy().Div(rhs), true
+			return 0, hlhs.Copy().Div(rhs), true, nil
 		}
-		return lhs / rhs, nil, true
+		return lhs / rhs, nil, true, nil
 	case parser.POW:
-		return math.Pow(lhs, rhs), nil, true
+		return math.Pow(lhs, rhs), nil, true, nil
 	case parser.MOD:
-		return math.Mod(lhs, rhs), nil, true
+		return math.Mod(lhs, rhs), nil, true, nil
 	case parser.EQLC:
-		return lhs, nil, lhs == rhs
+		return lhs, nil, lhs == rhs, nil
 	case parser.NEQ:
-		return lhs, nil, lhs != rhs
+		return lhs, nil, lhs != rhs, nil
 	case parser.GTR:
-		return lhs, nil, lhs > rhs
+		return lhs, nil, lhs > rhs, nil
 	case parser.LSS:
-		return lhs, nil, lhs < rhs
+		return lhs, nil, lhs < rhs, nil
 	case parser.GTE:
-		return lhs, nil, lhs >= rhs
+		return lhs, nil, lhs >= rhs, nil
 	case parser.LTE:
-		return lhs, nil, lhs <= rhs
+		return lhs, nil, lhs <= rhs, nil
 	case parser.ATAN2:
-		return math.Atan2(lhs, rhs), nil, true
+		return math.Atan2(lhs, rhs), nil, true, nil
 	}
 	panic(fmt.Errorf("operator %q not allowed for operations between Vectors", op))
 }
 
 type groupedAggregation struct {
-	seen           bool // Was this output groups seen in the input at this timestamp.
-	hasFloat       bool // Has at least 1 float64 sample aggregated.
-	hasHistogram   bool // Has at least 1 histogram sample aggregated.
-	floatValue     float64
-	histogramValue *histogram.FloatHistogram
-	floatMean      float64
-	groupCount     int
-	heap           vectorByValueHeap
+	seen              bool // Was this output groups seen in the input at this timestamp.
+	hasFloat          bool // Has at least 1 float64 sample aggregated.
+	hasHistogram      bool // Has at least 1 histogram sample aggregated.
+	floatValue        float64
+	histogramValue    *histogram.FloatHistogram
+	floatMean         float64 // Mean, or "compensating value" for Kahan summation.
+	groupCount        int
+	groupAggrComplete bool // Used by LIMITK to short-cut series loop when we've reached K elem on every group
+	heap              vectorByValueHeap
 }
 
 // aggregation evaluates sum, avg, count, stdvar, stddev or quantile at one timestep on inputMatrix.
@@ -2761,11 +2807,13 @@ func (ev *evaluator) aggregation(e *parser.AggregateExpr, q float64, inputMatrix
 			*group = groupedAggregation{
 				seen:       true,
 				floatValue: f,
-				floatMean:  f,
 				groupCount: 1,
 			}
 			switch op {
-			case parser.SUM, parser.AVG:
+			case parser.AVG:
+				group.floatMean = f
+				fallthrough
+			case parser.SUM:
 				if h == nil {
 					group.hasFloat = true
 				} else {
@@ -2773,6 +2821,7 @@ func (ev *evaluator) aggregation(e *parser.AggregateExpr, q float64, inputMatrix
 					group.hasHistogram = true
 				}
 			case parser.STDVAR, parser.STDDEV:
+				group.floatMean = f
 				group.floatValue = 0
 			case parser.QUANTILE:
 				group.heap = make(vectorByValueHeap, 1)
@@ -2788,14 +2837,17 @@ func (ev *evaluator) aggregation(e *parser.AggregateExpr, q float64, inputMatrix
 			if h != nil {
 				group.hasHistogram = true
 				if group.histogramValue != nil {
-					group.histogramValue.Add(h)
+					_, err := group.histogramValue.Add(h)
+					if err != nil {
+						handleAggregationError(err, e, inputMatrix[si].Metric.Get(model.MetricNameLabel), &annos)
+					}
 				}
 				// Otherwise the aggregation contained floats
 				// previously and will be invalid anyway. No
 				// point in copying the histogram in that case.
 			} else {
 				group.hasFloat = true
-				group.floatValue += f
+				group.floatValue, group.floatMean = kahanSumInc(f, group.floatValue, group.floatMean)
 			}
 
 		case parser.AVG:
@@ -2805,8 +2857,14 @@ func (ev *evaluator) aggregation(e *parser.AggregateExpr, q float64, inputMatrix
 				if group.histogramValue != nil {
 					left := h.Copy().Div(float64(group.groupCount))
 					right := group.histogramValue.Copy().Div(float64(group.groupCount))
-					toAdd := left.Sub(right)
-					group.histogramValue.Add(toAdd)
+					toAdd, err := left.Sub(right)
+					if err != nil {
+						handleAggregationError(err, e, inputMatrix[si].Metric.Get(model.MetricNameLabel), &annos)
+					}
+					_, err = group.histogramValue.Add(toAdd)
+					if err != nil {
+						handleAggregationError(err, e, inputMatrix[si].Metric.Get(model.MetricNameLabel), &annos)
+					}
 				}
 				// Otherwise the aggregation contained floats
 				// previously and will be invalid anyway. No
@@ -2906,6 +2964,8 @@ func (ev *evaluator) aggregation(e *parser.AggregateExpr, q float64, inputMatrix
 			}
 			if aggr.hasHistogram {
 				aggr.histogramValue.Compact(0)
+			} else {
+				aggr.floatValue += aggr.floatMean // Add Kahan summation compensating term.
 			}
 		default:
 			// For other aggregations, we already have the right value.
@@ -2918,19 +2978,22 @@ func (ev *evaluator) aggregation(e *parser.AggregateExpr, q float64, inputMatrix
 	return annos
 }
 
-// aggregationK evaluates topk or bottomk at one timestep on inputMatrix.
+// aggregationK evaluates topk, bottomk, limitk, or limit_ratio at one timestep on inputMatrix.
 // Output that has the same labels as the input, but just k of them per group.
 // seriesToResult maps inputMatrix indexes to groups indexes.
-// For an instant query, returns a Matrix in descending order for topk or ascending for bottomk.
+// For an instant query, returns a Matrix in descending order for topk or ascending for bottomk, or without any order for limitk / limit_ratio.
 // For a range query, aggregates output in the seriess map.
-func (ev *evaluator) aggregationK(e *parser.AggregateExpr, k int, inputMatrix Matrix, seriesToResult []int, groups []groupedAggregation, enh *EvalNodeHelper, seriess map[uint64]Series) (Matrix, annotations.Annotations) {
+func (ev *evaluator) aggregationK(e *parser.AggregateExpr, k int, r float64, inputMatrix Matrix, seriesToResult []int, groups []groupedAggregation, enh *EvalNodeHelper, seriess map[uint64]Series) (Matrix, annotations.Annotations) {
 	op := e.Op
 	var s Sample
 	var annos annotations.Annotations
+	// Used to short-cut the loop for LIMITK if we already collected k elements for every group
+	groupsRemaining := len(groups)
 	for i := range groups {
 		groups[i].seen = false
 	}
 
+seriesLoop:
 	for si := range inputMatrix {
 		f, _, ok := ev.nextValues(enh.Ts, &inputMatrix[si])
 		if !ok {
@@ -2941,11 +3004,23 @@ func (ev *evaluator) aggregationK(e *parser.AggregateExpr, k int, inputMatrix Ma
 		group := &groups[seriesToResult[si]]
 		// Initialize this group if it's the first time we've seen it.
 		if !group.seen {
-			*group = groupedAggregation{
-				seen: true,
-				heap: make(vectorByValueHeap, 1, k),
+			// LIMIT_RATIO is a special case, as we may not add this very sample to the heap,
+			// while we also don't know the final size of it.
+			if op == parser.LIMIT_RATIO {
+				*group = groupedAggregation{
+					seen: true,
+					heap: make(vectorByValueHeap, 0),
+				}
+				if ratiosampler.AddRatioSample(r, &s) {
+					heap.Push(&group.heap, &s)
+				}
+			} else {
+				*group = groupedAggregation{
+					seen: true,
+					heap: make(vectorByValueHeap, 1, k),
+				}
+				group.heap[0] = s
 			}
-			group.heap[0] = s
 			continue
 		}
 
@@ -2976,6 +3051,26 @@ func (ev *evaluator) aggregationK(e *parser.AggregateExpr, k int, inputMatrix Ma
 				}
 			}
 
+		case parser.LIMITK:
+			if len(group.heap) < k {
+				heap.Push(&group.heap, &s)
+			}
+			// LIMITK optimization: early break if we've added K elem to _every_ group,
+			// especially useful for large timeseries where the user is exploring labels via e.g.
+			// limitk(10, my_metric)
+			if !group.groupAggrComplete && len(group.heap) == k {
+				group.groupAggrComplete = true
+				groupsRemaining--
+				if groupsRemaining == 0 {
+					break seriesLoop
+				}
+			}
+
+		case parser.LIMIT_RATIO:
+			if ratiosampler.AddRatioSample(r, &s) {
+				heap.Push(&group.heap, &s)
+			}
+
 		default:
 			panic(fmt.Errorf("expected aggregation operator but got %q", op))
 		}
@@ -3025,6 +3120,11 @@ func (ev *evaluator) aggregationK(e *parser.AggregateExpr, k int, inputMatrix Ma
 			for _, v := range aggr.heap {
 				add(v.Metric, v.F)
 			}
+
+		case parser.LIMITK, parser.LIMIT_RATIO:
+			for _, v := range aggr.heap {
+				add(v.Metric, v.F)
+			}
 		}
 	}
 
@@ -3103,6 +3203,31 @@ func (ev *evaluator) nextValues(ts int64, series *Series) (f float64, h *histogr
 	return f, h, true
 }
 
+// handleAggregationError adds the appropriate annotation based on the aggregation error.
+func handleAggregationError(err error, e *parser.AggregateExpr, metricName string, annos *annotations.Annotations) {
+	pos := e.Expr.PositionRange()
+	if errors.Is(err, histogram.ErrHistogramsIncompatibleSchema) {
+		annos.Add(annotations.NewMixedExponentialCustomHistogramsWarning(metricName, pos))
+	} else if errors.Is(err, histogram.ErrHistogramsIncompatibleBounds) {
+		annos.Add(annotations.NewIncompatibleCustomBucketsHistogramsWarning(metricName, pos))
+	}
+}
+
+// handleVectorBinopError returns the appropriate annotation based on the vector binary operation error.
+func handleVectorBinopError(err error, e *parser.BinaryExpr) annotations.Annotations {
+	if err == nil {
+		return nil
+	}
+	metricName := ""
+	pos := e.PositionRange()
+	if errors.Is(err, histogram.ErrHistogramsIncompatibleSchema) {
+		return annotations.New().Add(annotations.NewMixedExponentialCustomHistogramsWarning(metricName, pos))
+	} else if errors.Is(err, histogram.ErrHistogramsIncompatibleBounds) {
+		return annotations.New().Add(annotations.NewIncompatibleCustomBucketsHistogramsWarning(metricName, pos))
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+
 // groupingKey builds and returns the grouping key for the given metric and
 // grouping labels.
 func generateGroupingKey(metric labels.Labels, grouping []string, without bool, buf []byte) (uint64, []byte) {
@@ -3182,6 +3307,8 @@ func unwrapStepInvariantExpr(e parser.Expr) parser.Expr {
 // PreprocessExpr wraps all possible step invariant parts of the given expression with
 // StepInvariantExpr. It also resolves the preprocessors.
 func PreprocessExpr(expr parser.Expr, start, end time.Time) parser.Expr {
+	detectHistogramStatsDecoding(expr)
+
 	isStepInvariant := preprocessExprHelper(expr, start, end)
 	if isStepInvariant {
 		return newStepInvariantExpr(expr)
@@ -3316,8 +3443,106 @@ func setOffsetForAtModifier(evalTime int64, expr parser.Expr) {
 	})
 }
 
+// detectHistogramStatsDecoding modifies the expression by setting the
+// SkipHistogramBuckets field in those vector selectors for which it is safe to
+// return only histogram statistics (sum and count), excluding histogram spans
+// and buckets. The function can be treated as an optimization and is not
+// required for correctness.
+func detectHistogramStatsDecoding(expr parser.Expr) {
+	parser.Inspect(expr, func(node parser.Node, path []parser.Node) error {
+		if n, ok := node.(*parser.BinaryExpr); ok {
+			detectHistogramStatsDecoding(n.LHS)
+			detectHistogramStatsDecoding(n.RHS)
+			return fmt.Errorf("stop")
+		}
+
+		n, ok := (node).(*parser.VectorSelector)
+		if !ok {
+			return nil
+		}
+
+		for _, p := range path {
+			call, ok := p.(*parser.Call)
+			if !ok {
+				continue
+			}
+			if call.Func.Name == "histogram_count" || call.Func.Name == "histogram_sum" {
+				n.SkipHistogramBuckets = true
+				break
+			}
+			if call.Func.Name == "histogram_quantile" || call.Func.Name == "histogram_fraction" {
+				n.SkipHistogramBuckets = false
+				break
+			}
+		}
+		return fmt.Errorf("stop")
+	})
+}
+
 func makeInt64Pointer(val int64) *int64 {
 	valp := new(int64)
 	*valp = val
 	return valp
 }
+
+// Add RatioSampler interface to allow unit-testing (previously: Randomizer).
+type RatioSampler interface {
+	// Return this sample "offset" between [0.0, 1.0]
+	sampleOffset(ts int64, sample *Sample) float64
+	AddRatioSample(r float64, sample *Sample) bool
+}
+
+// Use Hash(labels.String()) / maxUint64 as a "deterministic"
+// value in [0.0, 1.0].
+type HashRatioSampler struct{}
+
+var ratiosampler RatioSampler = NewHashRatioSampler()
+
+func NewHashRatioSampler() *HashRatioSampler {
+	return &HashRatioSampler{}
+}
+
+func (s *HashRatioSampler) sampleOffset(ts int64, sample *Sample) float64 {
+	const (
+		float64MaxUint64 = float64(math.MaxUint64)
+	)
+	return float64(sample.Metric.Hash()) / float64MaxUint64
+}
+
+func (s *HashRatioSampler) AddRatioSample(ratioLimit float64, sample *Sample) bool {
+	// If ratioLimit >= 0: add sample if sampleOffset is lesser than ratioLimit
+	//
+	// 0.0        ratioLimit                1.0
+	//  [---------|--------------------------]
+	//  [#########...........................]
+	//
+	// e.g.:
+	//   sampleOffset==0.3 && ratioLimit==0.4
+	//     0.3 < 0.4 ? --> add sample
+	//
+	// Else if ratioLimit < 0: add sample if rand() return the "complement" of ratioLimit>=0 case
+	// (loosely similar behavior to negative array index in other programming languages)
+	//
+	// 0.0       1+ratioLimit               1.0
+	//  [---------|--------------------------]
+	//  [.........###########################]
+	//
+	// e.g.:
+	//   sampleOffset==0.3 && ratioLimit==-0.6
+	//     0.3 >= 0.4 ? --> don't add sample
+	sampleOffset := s.sampleOffset(sample.T, sample)
+	return (ratioLimit >= 0 && sampleOffset < ratioLimit) ||
+		(ratioLimit < 0 && sampleOffset >= (1.0+ratioLimit))
+}
+
+type histogramStatsSeries struct {
+	storage.Series
+}
+
+func newHistogramStatsSeries(series storage.Series) *histogramStatsSeries {
+	return &histogramStatsSeries{Series: series}
+}
+
+func (s histogramStatsSeries) Iterator(it chunkenc.Iterator) chunkenc.Iterator {
+	return NewHistogramStatsIterator(s.Series.Iterator(it))
+}
diff --git a/promql/engine_internal_test.go b/promql/engine_internal_test.go
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..cb501b2fdf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/promql/engine_internal_test.go
@@ -0,0 +1,82 @@
+// Copyright 2024 The Prometheus Authors
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+//
+//     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+
+package promql
+
+import (
+	"errors"
+	"testing"
+
+	"github.com/go-kit/log"
+	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
+
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/promql/parser"
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/util/annotations"
+)
+
+func TestRecoverEvaluatorRuntime(t *testing.T) {
+	var output []interface{}
+	logger := log.Logger(log.LoggerFunc(func(keyvals ...interface{}) error {
+		output = append(output, keyvals...)
+		return nil
+	}))
+	ev := &evaluator{logger: logger}
+
+	expr, _ := parser.ParseExpr("sum(up)")
+
+	var err error
+
+	defer func() {
+		require.EqualError(t, err, "unexpected error: runtime error: index out of range [123] with length 0")
+		require.Contains(t, output, "sum(up)")
+	}()
+	defer ev.recover(expr, nil, &err)
+
+	// Cause a runtime panic.
+	var a []int
+	a[123] = 1
+}
+
+func TestRecoverEvaluatorError(t *testing.T) {
+	ev := &evaluator{logger: log.NewNopLogger()}
+	var err error
+
+	e := errors.New("custom error")
+
+	defer func() {
+		require.EqualError(t, err, e.Error())
+	}()
+	defer ev.recover(nil, nil, &err)
+
+	panic(e)
+}
+
+func TestRecoverEvaluatorErrorWithWarnings(t *testing.T) {
+	ev := &evaluator{logger: log.NewNopLogger()}
+	var err error
+	var ws annotations.Annotations
+
+	warnings := annotations.New().Add(errors.New("custom warning"))
+	e := errWithWarnings{
+		err:      errors.New("custom error"),
+		warnings: warnings,
+	}
+
+	defer func() {
+		require.EqualError(t, err, e.Error())
+		require.Equal(t, warnings, ws, "wrong warning message")
+	}()
+	defer ev.recover(nil, &ws, &err)
+
+	panic(e)
+}
diff --git a/promql/engine_test.go b/promql/engine_test.go
index 0202c15ae1..99f3fc5bdd 100644
--- a/promql/engine_test.go
+++ b/promql/engine_test.go
@@ -11,7 +11,7 @@
 // See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 // limitations under the License.
 
-package promql
+package promql_test
 
 import (
 	"context"
@@ -20,28 +20,37 @@ import (
 	"math"
 	"os"
 	"sort"
+	"strconv"
+	"sync"
 	"testing"
 	"time"
 
-	"github.com/go-kit/log"
-
 	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
 	"go.uber.org/goleak"
 
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/histogram"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/labels"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/timestamp"
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/promql"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/promql/parser"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/promql/parser/posrange"
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/promql/promqltest"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/storage"
-	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/tsdb/tsdbutil"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/util/annotations"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/util/stats"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/util/teststorage"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/util/testutil"
 )
 
+const (
+	env                  = "query execution"
+	defaultLookbackDelta = 5 * time.Minute
+	defaultEpsilon       = 0.000001 // Relative error allowed for sample values.
+)
+
 func TestMain(m *testing.M) {
+	// Enable experimental functions testing
+	parser.EnableExperimentalFunctions = true
 	goleak.VerifyTestMain(m)
 }
 
@@ -51,10 +60,12 @@ func TestQueryConcurrency(t *testing.T) {
 	dir, err := os.MkdirTemp("", "test_concurrency")
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	defer os.RemoveAll(dir)
-	queryTracker := NewActiveQueryTracker(dir, maxConcurrency, nil)
-	t.Cleanup(queryTracker.Close)
+	queryTracker := promql.NewActiveQueryTracker(dir, maxConcurrency, nil)
+	t.Cleanup(func() {
+		require.NoError(t, queryTracker.Close())
+	})
 
-	opts := EngineOpts{
+	opts := promql.EngineOpts{
 		Logger:             nil,
 		Reg:                nil,
 		MaxSamples:         10,
@@ -62,7 +73,7 @@ func TestQueryConcurrency(t *testing.T) {
 		ActiveQueryTracker: queryTracker,
 	}
 
-	engine := NewEngine(opts)
+	engine := promql.NewEngine(opts)
 	ctx, cancelCtx := context.WithCancel(context.Background())
 	defer cancelCtx()
 
@@ -84,9 +95,14 @@ func TestQueryConcurrency(t *testing.T) {
 		return nil
 	}
 
+	var wg sync.WaitGroup
 	for i := 0; i < maxConcurrency; i++ {
-		q := engine.newTestQuery(f)
-		go q.Exec(ctx)
+		q := engine.NewTestQuery(f)
+		wg.Add(1)
+		go func() {
+			q.Exec(ctx)
+			wg.Done()
+		}()
 		select {
 		case <-processing:
 			// Expected.
@@ -95,8 +111,12 @@ func TestQueryConcurrency(t *testing.T) {
 		}
 	}
 
-	q := engine.newTestQuery(f)
-	go q.Exec(ctx)
+	q := engine.NewTestQuery(f)
+	wg.Add(1)
+	go func() {
+		q.Exec(ctx)
+		wg.Done()
+	}()
 
 	select {
 	case <-processing:
@@ -119,20 +139,37 @@ func TestQueryConcurrency(t *testing.T) {
 	for i := 0; i < maxConcurrency; i++ {
 		block <- struct{}{}
 	}
+
+	wg.Wait()
+}
+
+// contextDone returns an error if the context was canceled or timed out.
+func contextDone(ctx context.Context, env string) error {
+	if err := ctx.Err(); err != nil {
+		switch {
+		case errors.Is(err, context.Canceled):
+			return promql.ErrQueryCanceled(env)
+		case errors.Is(err, context.DeadlineExceeded):
+			return promql.ErrQueryTimeout(env)
+		default:
+			return err
+		}
+	}
+	return nil
 }
 
 func TestQueryTimeout(t *testing.T) {
-	opts := EngineOpts{
+	opts := promql.EngineOpts{
 		Logger:     nil,
 		Reg:        nil,
 		MaxSamples: 10,
 		Timeout:    5 * time.Millisecond,
 	}
-	engine := NewEngine(opts)
+	engine := promql.NewEngine(opts)
 	ctx, cancelCtx := context.WithCancel(context.Background())
 	defer cancelCtx()
 
-	query := engine.newTestQuery(func(ctx context.Context) error {
+	query := engine.NewTestQuery(func(ctx context.Context) error {
 		time.Sleep(100 * time.Millisecond)
 		return contextDone(ctx, "test statement execution")
 	})
@@ -140,20 +177,20 @@ func TestQueryTimeout(t *testing.T) {
 	res := query.Exec(ctx)
 	require.Error(t, res.Err, "expected timeout error but got none")
 
-	var e ErrQueryTimeout
+	var e promql.ErrQueryTimeout
 	require.ErrorAs(t, res.Err, &e, "expected timeout error but got: %s", res.Err)
 }
 
-const errQueryCanceled = ErrQueryCanceled("test statement execution")
+const errQueryCanceled = promql.ErrQueryCanceled("test statement execution")
 
 func TestQueryCancel(t *testing.T) {
-	opts := EngineOpts{
+	opts := promql.EngineOpts{
 		Logger:     nil,
 		Reg:        nil,
 		MaxSamples: 10,
 		Timeout:    10 * time.Second,
 	}
-	engine := NewEngine(opts)
+	engine := promql.NewEngine(opts)
 	ctx, cancelCtx := context.WithCancel(context.Background())
 	defer cancelCtx()
 
@@ -161,13 +198,13 @@ func TestQueryCancel(t *testing.T) {
 	block := make(chan struct{})
 	processing := make(chan struct{})
 
-	query1 := engine.newTestQuery(func(ctx context.Context) error {
+	query1 := engine.NewTestQuery(func(ctx context.Context) error {
 		processing <- struct{}{}
 		<-block
 		return contextDone(ctx, "test statement execution")
 	})
 
-	var res *Result
+	var res *promql.Result
 
 	go func() {
 		res = query1.Exec(ctx)
@@ -183,7 +220,7 @@ func TestQueryCancel(t *testing.T) {
 	require.Equal(t, errQueryCanceled, res.Err)
 
 	// Canceling a query before starting it must have no effect.
-	query2 := engine.newTestQuery(func(ctx context.Context) error {
+	query2 := engine.NewTestQuery(func(ctx context.Context) error {
 		return contextDone(ctx, "test statement execution")
 	})
 
@@ -221,14 +258,14 @@ func (e errSeriesSet) Err() error                        { return e.err }
 func (e errSeriesSet) Warnings() annotations.Annotations { return nil }
 
 func TestQueryError(t *testing.T) {
-	opts := EngineOpts{
+	opts := promql.EngineOpts{
 		Logger:     nil,
 		Reg:        nil,
 		MaxSamples: 10,
 		Timeout:    10 * time.Second,
 	}
-	engine := NewEngine(opts)
-	errStorage := ErrStorage{errors.New("storage error")}
+	engine := promql.NewEngine(opts)
+	errStorage := promql.ErrStorage{errors.New("storage error")}
 	queryable := storage.QueryableFunc(func(mint, maxt int64) (storage.Querier, error) {
 		return &errQuerier{err: errStorage}, nil
 	})
@@ -270,7 +307,7 @@ func (h *hintRecordingQuerier) Select(ctx context.Context, sortSeries bool, hint
 }
 
 func TestSelectHintsSetCorrectly(t *testing.T) {
-	opts := EngineOpts{
+	opts := promql.EngineOpts{
 		Logger:           nil,
 		Reg:              nil,
 		MaxSamples:       10,
@@ -561,11 +598,11 @@ func TestSelectHintsSetCorrectly(t *testing.T) {
 		},
 	} {
 		t.Run(tc.query, func(t *testing.T) {
-			engine := NewEngine(opts)
+			engine := promql.NewEngine(opts)
 			hintsRecorder := &noopHintRecordingQueryable{}
 
 			var (
-				query Query
+				query promql.Query
 				err   error
 			)
 			ctx := context.Background()
@@ -586,13 +623,13 @@ func TestSelectHintsSetCorrectly(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestEngineShutdown(t *testing.T) {
-	opts := EngineOpts{
+	opts := promql.EngineOpts{
 		Logger:     nil,
 		Reg:        nil,
 		MaxSamples: 10,
 		Timeout:    10 * time.Second,
 	}
-	engine := NewEngine(opts)
+	engine := promql.NewEngine(opts)
 	ctx, cancelCtx := context.WithCancel(context.Background())
 
 	block := make(chan struct{})
@@ -605,13 +642,13 @@ func TestEngineShutdown(t *testing.T) {
 		<-block
 		return contextDone(ctx, "test statement execution")
 	}
-	query1 := engine.newTestQuery(f)
+	query1 := engine.NewTestQuery(f)
 
 	// Stopping the engine must cancel the base context. While executing queries is
 	// still possible, their context is canceled from the beginning and execution should
 	// terminate immediately.
 
-	var res *Result
+	var res *promql.Result
 	go func() {
 		res = query1.Exec(ctx)
 		processing <- struct{}{}
@@ -625,7 +662,7 @@ func TestEngineShutdown(t *testing.T) {
 	require.Error(t, res.Err, "expected error on shutdown during query but got none")
 	require.Equal(t, errQueryCanceled, res.Err)
 
-	query2 := engine.newTestQuery(func(context.Context) error {
+	query2 := engine.NewTestQuery(func(context.Context) error {
 		require.FailNow(t, "reached query execution unexpectedly")
 		return nil
 	})
@@ -635,12 +672,12 @@ func TestEngineShutdown(t *testing.T) {
 	res2 := query2.Exec(ctx)
 	require.Error(t, res2.Err, "expected error on querying with canceled context but got none")
 
-	var e ErrQueryCanceled
+	var e promql.ErrQueryCanceled
 	require.ErrorAs(t, res2.Err, &e, "expected cancellation error but got: %s", res2.Err)
 }
 
 func TestEngineEvalStmtTimestamps(t *testing.T) {
-	storage := LoadedStorage(t, `
+	storage := promqltest.LoadedStorage(t, `
 load 10s
   metric 1 2
 `)
@@ -657,13 +694,13 @@ load 10s
 		// Instant queries.
 		{
 			Query:  "1",
-			Result: Scalar{V: 1, T: 1000},
+			Result: promql.Scalar{V: 1, T: 1000},
 			Start:  time.Unix(1, 0),
 		},
 		{
 			Query: "metric",
-			Result: Vector{
-				Sample{
+			Result: promql.Vector{
+				promql.Sample{
 					F:      1,
 					T:      1000,
 					Metric: labels.FromStrings("__name__", "metric"),
@@ -673,9 +710,9 @@ load 10s
 		},
 		{
 			Query: "metric[20s]",
-			Result: Matrix{
-				Series{
-					Floats: []FPoint{{F: 1, T: 0}, {F: 2, T: 10000}},
+			Result: promql.Matrix{
+				promql.Series{
+					Floats: []promql.FPoint{{F: 1, T: 0}, {F: 2, T: 10000}},
 					Metric: labels.FromStrings("__name__", "metric"),
 				},
 			},
@@ -684,9 +721,9 @@ load 10s
 		// Range queries.
 		{
 			Query: "1",
-			Result: Matrix{
-				Series{
-					Floats: []FPoint{{F: 1, T: 0}, {F: 1, T: 1000}, {F: 1, T: 2000}},
+			Result: promql.Matrix{
+				promql.Series{
+					Floats: []promql.FPoint{{F: 1, T: 0}, {F: 1, T: 1000}, {F: 1, T: 2000}},
 					Metric: labels.EmptyLabels(),
 				},
 			},
@@ -696,9 +733,9 @@ load 10s
 		},
 		{
 			Query: "metric",
-			Result: Matrix{
-				Series{
-					Floats: []FPoint{{F: 1, T: 0}, {F: 1, T: 1000}, {F: 1, T: 2000}},
+			Result: promql.Matrix{
+				promql.Series{
+					Floats: []promql.FPoint{{F: 1, T: 0}, {F: 1, T: 1000}, {F: 1, T: 2000}},
 					Metric: labels.FromStrings("__name__", "metric"),
 				},
 			},
@@ -708,9 +745,9 @@ load 10s
 		},
 		{
 			Query: "metric",
-			Result: Matrix{
-				Series{
-					Floats: []FPoint{{F: 1, T: 0}, {F: 1, T: 5000}, {F: 2, T: 10000}},
+			Result: promql.Matrix{
+				promql.Series{
+					Floats: []promql.FPoint{{F: 1, T: 0}, {F: 1, T: 5000}, {F: 2, T: 10000}},
 					Metric: labels.FromStrings("__name__", "metric"),
 				},
 			},
@@ -727,7 +764,7 @@ load 10s
 	for i, c := range cases {
 		t.Run(fmt.Sprintf("%d query=%s", i, c.Query), func(t *testing.T) {
 			var err error
-			var qry Query
+			var qry promql.Query
 			engine := newTestEngine()
 			if c.Interval == 0 {
 				qry, err = engine.NewInstantQuery(context.Background(), storage, nil, c.Query, c.Start)
@@ -749,7 +786,7 @@ load 10s
 }
 
 func TestQueryStatistics(t *testing.T) {
-	storage := LoadedStorage(t, `
+	storage := promqltest.LoadedStorage(t, `
 load 10s
   metricWith1SampleEvery10Seconds 1+1x100
   metricWith3SampleEvery10Seconds{a="1",b="1"} 1+1x100
@@ -799,10 +836,10 @@ load 10s
 		{
 			Query:        "metricWith1HistogramEvery10Seconds",
 			Start:        time.Unix(21, 0),
-			PeakSamples:  12,
-			TotalSamples: 12, // 1 histogram sample of size 12 / 10 seconds
+			PeakSamples:  13,
+			TotalSamples: 13, // 1 histogram HPoint of size 13 / 10 seconds
 			TotalSamplesPerStep: stats.TotalSamplesPerStep{
-				21000: 12,
+				21000: 13,
 			},
 		},
 		{
@@ -818,8 +855,8 @@ load 10s
 		{
 			Query:        "timestamp(metricWith1HistogramEvery10Seconds)",
 			Start:        time.Unix(21, 0),
-			PeakSamples:  13, // histogram size 12 + 1 extra because of timestamp
-			TotalSamples: 1,  // 1 float sample (because of timestamp) / 10 seconds
+			PeakSamples:  2,
+			TotalSamples: 1, // 1 float sample (because of timestamp) / 10 seconds
 			TotalSamplesPerStep: stats.TotalSamplesPerStep{
 				21000: 1,
 			},
@@ -899,10 +936,10 @@ load 10s
 		{
 			Query:        "metricWith1HistogramEvery10Seconds[60s]",
 			Start:        time.Unix(201, 0),
-			PeakSamples:  72,
-			TotalSamples: 72, // 1 histogram (size 12) / 10 seconds * 60 seconds
+			PeakSamples:  78,
+			TotalSamples: 78, // 1 histogram (size 13 HPoint) / 10 seconds * 60 seconds
 			TotalSamplesPerStep: stats.TotalSamplesPerStep{
-				201000: 72,
+				201000: 78,
 			},
 		},
 		{
@@ -929,11 +966,11 @@ load 10s
 		{
 			Query:        "max_over_time(metricWith1HistogramEvery10Seconds[60s])[20s:5s]",
 			Start:        time.Unix(201, 0),
-			PeakSamples:  72,
-			TotalSamples: 312, // (1 histogram (size 12) / 10 seconds * 60 seconds) * 4 + 2 * 12 as
+			PeakSamples:  78,
+			TotalSamples: 338, // (1 histogram (size 13 HPoint) / 10 seconds * 60 seconds) * 4 + 2 * 13 as
 			// max_over_time(metricWith1SampleEvery10Seconds[60s]) @ 190 and 200 will return 7 samples.
 			TotalSamplesPerStep: stats.TotalSamplesPerStep{
-				201000: 312,
+				201000: 338,
 			},
 		},
 		{
@@ -948,10 +985,10 @@ load 10s
 		{
 			Query:        "metricWith1HistogramEvery10Seconds[60s] @ 30",
 			Start:        time.Unix(201, 0),
-			PeakSamples:  48,
-			TotalSamples: 48, // @ modifier force the evaluation to at 30 seconds - So it brings 4 datapoints (0, 10, 20, 30 seconds) * 1 series
+			PeakSamples:  52,
+			TotalSamples: 52, // @ modifier force the evaluation to at 30 seconds - So it brings 4 datapoints (0, 10, 20, 30 seconds) * 1 series
 			TotalSamplesPerStep: stats.TotalSamplesPerStep{
-				201000: 48,
+				201000: 52,
 			},
 		},
 		{
@@ -1086,13 +1123,13 @@ load 10s
 			Start:        time.Unix(204, 0),
 			End:          time.Unix(223, 0),
 			Interval:     5 * time.Second,
-			PeakSamples:  48,
-			TotalSamples: 48, // 1 histogram (size 12) per query * 4 steps
+			PeakSamples:  52,
+			TotalSamples: 52, // 1 histogram (size 13 HPoint) per query * 4 steps
 			TotalSamplesPerStep: stats.TotalSamplesPerStep{
-				204000: 12, // aligned to the step time, not the sample time
-				209000: 12,
-				214000: 12,
-				219000: 12,
+				204000: 13, // aligned to the step time, not the sample time
+				209000: 13,
+				214000: 13,
+				219000: 13,
 			},
 		},
 		{
@@ -1116,7 +1153,7 @@ load 10s
 			Start:        time.Unix(201, 0),
 			End:          time.Unix(220, 0),
 			Interval:     5 * time.Second,
-			PeakSamples:  16,
+			PeakSamples:  5,
 			TotalSamples: 4, // 1 sample per query * 4 steps
 			TotalSamplesPerStep: stats.TotalSamplesPerStep{
 				201000: 1,
@@ -1267,17 +1304,14 @@ load 10s
 		},
 	}
 
-	engine := newTestEngine()
-	engine.enablePerStepStats = true
-	origMaxSamples := engine.maxSamplesPerQuery
 	for _, c := range cases {
 		t.Run(c.Query, func(t *testing.T) {
-			opts := NewPrometheusQueryOpts(true, 0)
-			engine.maxSamplesPerQuery = origMaxSamples
+			opts := promql.NewPrometheusQueryOpts(true, 0)
+			engine := promqltest.NewTestEngine(true, 0, promqltest.DefaultMaxSamplesPerQuery)
 
 			runQuery := func(expErr error) *stats.Statistics {
 				var err error
-				var qry Query
+				var qry promql.Query
 				if c.Interval == 0 {
 					qry, err = engine.NewInstantQuery(context.Background(), storage, opts, c.Query, c.Start)
 				} else {
@@ -1300,14 +1334,14 @@ load 10s
 			if c.SkipMaxCheck {
 				return
 			}
-			engine.maxSamplesPerQuery = stats.Samples.PeakSamples - 1
-			runQuery(ErrTooManySamples(env))
+			engine = promqltest.NewTestEngine(true, 0, stats.Samples.PeakSamples-1)
+			runQuery(promql.ErrTooManySamples(env))
 		})
 	}
 }
 
 func TestMaxQuerySamples(t *testing.T) {
-	storage := LoadedStorage(t, `
+	storage := promqltest.LoadedStorage(t, `
 load 10s
   metric 1+1x100
   bigmetric{a="1"} 1+1x100
@@ -1423,7 +1457,7 @@ load 10s
 			Interval:   5 * time.Second,
 		},
 		{
-			// Sample as above but with only 1 part as step invariant.
+			// promql.Sample as above but with only 1 part as step invariant.
 			// Here the peak is caused by the non-step invariant part as it touches more time range.
 			// Hence at peak it is 2*21 (subquery from 0s to 20s)
 			//                     + 11 (buffer of a series per evaluation)
@@ -1456,7 +1490,7 @@ load 10s
 			engine := newTestEngine()
 			testFunc := func(expError error) {
 				var err error
-				var qry Query
+				var qry promql.Query
 				if c.Interval == 0 {
 					qry, err = engine.NewInstantQuery(context.Background(), storage, nil, c.Query, c.Start)
 				} else {
@@ -1474,19 +1508,19 @@ load 10s
 			}
 
 			// Within limit.
-			engine.maxSamplesPerQuery = c.MaxSamples
+			engine = promqltest.NewTestEngine(false, 0, c.MaxSamples)
 			testFunc(nil)
 
 			// Exceeding limit.
-			engine.maxSamplesPerQuery = c.MaxSamples - 1
-			testFunc(ErrTooManySamples(env))
+			engine = promqltest.NewTestEngine(false, 0, c.MaxSamples-1)
+			testFunc(promql.ErrTooManySamples(env))
 		})
 	}
 }
 
 func TestAtModifier(t *testing.T) {
 	engine := newTestEngine()
-	storage := LoadedStorage(t, `
+	storage := promqltest.LoadedStorage(t, `
 load 10s
   metric{job="1"} 0+1x1000
   metric{job="2"} 0+2x1000
@@ -1530,137 +1564,137 @@ load 1ms
 		{ // Time of the result is the evaluation time.
 			query: `metric_neg @ 0`,
 			start: 100,
-			result: Vector{
-				Sample{F: 1, T: 100000, Metric: lblsneg},
+			result: promql.Vector{
+				promql.Sample{F: 1, T: 100000, Metric: lblsneg},
 			},
 		}, {
 			query: `metric_neg @ -200`,
 			start: 100,
-			result: Vector{
-				Sample{F: 201, T: 100000, Metric: lblsneg},
+			result: promql.Vector{
+				promql.Sample{F: 201, T: 100000, Metric: lblsneg},
 			},
 		}, {
 			query: `metric{job="2"} @ 50`,
 			start: -2, end: 2, interval: 1,
-			result: Matrix{
-				Series{
-					Floats: []FPoint{{F: 10, T: -2000}, {F: 10, T: -1000}, {F: 10, T: 0}, {F: 10, T: 1000}, {F: 10, T: 2000}},
+			result: promql.Matrix{
+				promql.Series{
+					Floats: []promql.FPoint{{F: 10, T: -2000}, {F: 10, T: -1000}, {F: 10, T: 0}, {F: 10, T: 1000}, {F: 10, T: 2000}},
 					Metric: lbls2,
 				},
 			},
 		}, { // Timestamps for matrix selector does not depend on the evaluation time.
 			query: "metric[20s] @ 300",
 			start: 10,
-			result: Matrix{
-				Series{
-					Floats: []FPoint{{F: 28, T: 280000}, {F: 29, T: 290000}, {F: 30, T: 300000}},
+			result: promql.Matrix{
+				promql.Series{
+					Floats: []promql.FPoint{{F: 28, T: 280000}, {F: 29, T: 290000}, {F: 30, T: 300000}},
 					Metric: lbls1,
 				},
-				Series{
-					Floats: []FPoint{{F: 56, T: 280000}, {F: 58, T: 290000}, {F: 60, T: 300000}},
+				promql.Series{
+					Floats: []promql.FPoint{{F: 56, T: 280000}, {F: 58, T: 290000}, {F: 60, T: 300000}},
 					Metric: lbls2,
 				},
 			},
 		}, {
 			query: `metric_neg[2s] @ 0`,
 			start: 100,
-			result: Matrix{
-				Series{
-					Floats: []FPoint{{F: 3, T: -2000}, {F: 2, T: -1000}, {F: 1, T: 0}},
+			result: promql.Matrix{
+				promql.Series{
+					Floats: []promql.FPoint{{F: 3, T: -2000}, {F: 2, T: -1000}, {F: 1, T: 0}},
 					Metric: lblsneg,
 				},
 			},
 		}, {
 			query: `metric_neg[3s] @ -500`,
 			start: 100,
-			result: Matrix{
-				Series{
-					Floats: []FPoint{{F: 504, T: -503000}, {F: 503, T: -502000}, {F: 502, T: -501000}, {F: 501, T: -500000}},
+			result: promql.Matrix{
+				promql.Series{
+					Floats: []promql.FPoint{{F: 504, T: -503000}, {F: 503, T: -502000}, {F: 502, T: -501000}, {F: 501, T: -500000}},
 					Metric: lblsneg,
 				},
 			},
 		}, {
 			query: `metric_ms[3ms] @ 2.345`,
 			start: 100,
-			result: Matrix{
-				Series{
-					Floats: []FPoint{{F: 2342, T: 2342}, {F: 2343, T: 2343}, {F: 2344, T: 2344}, {F: 2345, T: 2345}},
+			result: promql.Matrix{
+				promql.Series{
+					Floats: []promql.FPoint{{F: 2342, T: 2342}, {F: 2343, T: 2343}, {F: 2344, T: 2344}, {F: 2345, T: 2345}},
 					Metric: lblsms,
 				},
 			},
 		}, {
 			query: "metric[100s:25s] @ 300",
 			start: 100,
-			result: Matrix{
-				Series{
-					Floats: []FPoint{{F: 20, T: 200000}, {F: 22, T: 225000}, {F: 25, T: 250000}, {F: 27, T: 275000}, {F: 30, T: 300000}},
+			result: promql.Matrix{
+				promql.Series{
+					Floats: []promql.FPoint{{F: 20, T: 200000}, {F: 22, T: 225000}, {F: 25, T: 250000}, {F: 27, T: 275000}, {F: 30, T: 300000}},
 					Metric: lbls1,
 				},
-				Series{
-					Floats: []FPoint{{F: 40, T: 200000}, {F: 44, T: 225000}, {F: 50, T: 250000}, {F: 54, T: 275000}, {F: 60, T: 300000}},
+				promql.Series{
+					Floats: []promql.FPoint{{F: 40, T: 200000}, {F: 44, T: 225000}, {F: 50, T: 250000}, {F: 54, T: 275000}, {F: 60, T: 300000}},
 					Metric: lbls2,
 				},
 			},
 		}, {
 			query: "metric_neg[50s:25s] @ 0",
 			start: 100,
-			result: Matrix{
-				Series{
-					Floats: []FPoint{{F: 51, T: -50000}, {F: 26, T: -25000}, {F: 1, T: 0}},
+			result: promql.Matrix{
+				promql.Series{
+					Floats: []promql.FPoint{{F: 51, T: -50000}, {F: 26, T: -25000}, {F: 1, T: 0}},
 					Metric: lblsneg,
 				},
 			},
 		}, {
 			query: "metric_neg[50s:25s] @ -100",
 			start: 100,
-			result: Matrix{
-				Series{
-					Floats: []FPoint{{F: 151, T: -150000}, {F: 126, T: -125000}, {F: 101, T: -100000}},
+			result: promql.Matrix{
+				promql.Series{
+					Floats: []promql.FPoint{{F: 151, T: -150000}, {F: 126, T: -125000}, {F: 101, T: -100000}},
 					Metric: lblsneg,
 				},
 			},
 		}, {
 			query: `metric_ms[100ms:25ms] @ 2.345`,
 			start: 100,
-			result: Matrix{
-				Series{
-					Floats: []FPoint{{F: 2250, T: 2250}, {F: 2275, T: 2275}, {F: 2300, T: 2300}, {F: 2325, T: 2325}},
+			result: promql.Matrix{
+				promql.Series{
+					Floats: []promql.FPoint{{F: 2250, T: 2250}, {F: 2275, T: 2275}, {F: 2300, T: 2300}, {F: 2325, T: 2325}},
 					Metric: lblsms,
 				},
 			},
 		}, {
 			query: `metric_topk and topk(1, sum_over_time(metric_topk[50s] @ 100))`,
 			start: 50, end: 80, interval: 10,
-			result: Matrix{
-				Series{
-					Floats: []FPoint{{F: 995, T: 50000}, {F: 994, T: 60000}, {F: 993, T: 70000}, {F: 992, T: 80000}},
+			result: promql.Matrix{
+				promql.Series{
+					Floats: []promql.FPoint{{F: 995, T: 50000}, {F: 994, T: 60000}, {F: 993, T: 70000}, {F: 992, T: 80000}},
 					Metric: lblstopk3,
 				},
 			},
 		}, {
 			query: `metric_topk and topk(1, sum_over_time(metric_topk[50s] @ 5000))`,
 			start: 50, end: 80, interval: 10,
-			result: Matrix{
-				Series{
-					Floats: []FPoint{{F: 10, T: 50000}, {F: 12, T: 60000}, {F: 14, T: 70000}, {F: 16, T: 80000}},
+			result: promql.Matrix{
+				promql.Series{
+					Floats: []promql.FPoint{{F: 10, T: 50000}, {F: 12, T: 60000}, {F: 14, T: 70000}, {F: 16, T: 80000}},
 					Metric: lblstopk2,
 				},
 			},
 		}, {
 			query: `metric_topk and topk(1, sum_over_time(metric_topk[50s] @ end()))`,
 			start: 70, end: 100, interval: 10,
-			result: Matrix{
-				Series{
-					Floats: []FPoint{{F: 993, T: 70000}, {F: 992, T: 80000}, {F: 991, T: 90000}, {F: 990, T: 100000}},
+			result: promql.Matrix{
+				promql.Series{
+					Floats: []promql.FPoint{{F: 993, T: 70000}, {F: 992, T: 80000}, {F: 991, T: 90000}, {F: 990, T: 100000}},
 					Metric: lblstopk3,
 				},
 			},
 		}, {
 			query: `metric_topk and topk(1, sum_over_time(metric_topk[50s] @ start()))`,
 			start: 100, end: 130, interval: 10,
-			result: Matrix{
-				Series{
-					Floats: []FPoint{{F: 990, T: 100000}, {F: 989, T: 110000}, {F: 988, T: 120000}, {F: 987, T: 130000}},
+			result: promql.Matrix{
+				promql.Series{
+					Floats: []promql.FPoint{{F: 990, T: 100000}, {F: 989, T: 110000}, {F: 988, T: 120000}, {F: 987, T: 130000}},
 					Metric: lblstopk3,
 				},
 			},
@@ -1669,9 +1703,9 @@ load 1ms
 			// The trick here is that the query range should be > lookback delta.
 			query: `timestamp(metric_timestamp @ 3600)`,
 			start: 0, end: 7 * 60, interval: 60,
-			result: Matrix{
-				Series{
-					Floats: []FPoint{
+			result: promql.Matrix{
+				promql.Series{
+					Floats: []promql.FPoint{
 						{F: 3600, T: 0},
 						{F: 3600, T: 60 * 1000},
 						{F: 3600, T: 2 * 60 * 1000},
@@ -1694,7 +1728,7 @@ load 1ms
 			}
 			start, end, interval := time.Unix(c.start, 0), time.Unix(c.end, 0), time.Duration(c.interval)*time.Second
 			var err error
-			var qry Query
+			var qry promql.Query
 			if c.end == 0 {
 				qry, err = engine.NewInstantQuery(context.Background(), storage, nil, c.query, start)
 			} else {
@@ -1704,76 +1738,19 @@ load 1ms
 
 			res := qry.Exec(context.Background())
 			require.NoError(t, res.Err)
-			if expMat, ok := c.result.(Matrix); ok {
+			if expMat, ok := c.result.(promql.Matrix); ok {
 				sort.Sort(expMat)
-				sort.Sort(res.Value.(Matrix))
+				sort.Sort(res.Value.(promql.Matrix))
 			}
 			testutil.RequireEqual(t, c.result, res.Value, "query %q failed", c.query)
 		})
 	}
 }
 
-func TestRecoverEvaluatorRuntime(t *testing.T) {
-	var output []interface{}
-	logger := log.Logger(log.LoggerFunc(func(keyvals ...interface{}) error {
-		output = append(output, keyvals...)
-		return nil
-	}))
-	ev := &evaluator{logger: logger}
-
-	expr, _ := parser.ParseExpr("sum(up)")
-
-	var err error
-
-	defer func() {
-		require.EqualError(t, err, "unexpected error: runtime error: index out of range [123] with length 0")
-		require.Contains(t, output, "sum(up)")
-	}()
-	defer ev.recover(expr, nil, &err)
-
-	// Cause a runtime panic.
-	var a []int
-	a[123] = 1
-}
-
-func TestRecoverEvaluatorError(t *testing.T) {
-	ev := &evaluator{logger: log.NewNopLogger()}
-	var err error
-
-	e := errors.New("custom error")
-
-	defer func() {
-		require.EqualError(t, err, e.Error())
-	}()
-	defer ev.recover(nil, nil, &err)
-
-	panic(e)
-}
-
-func TestRecoverEvaluatorErrorWithWarnings(t *testing.T) {
-	ev := &evaluator{logger: log.NewNopLogger()}
-	var err error
-	var ws annotations.Annotations
-
-	warnings := annotations.New().Add(errors.New("custom warning"))
-	e := errWithWarnings{
-		err:      errors.New("custom error"),
-		warnings: warnings,
-	}
-
-	defer func() {
-		require.EqualError(t, err, e.Error())
-		require.Equal(t, warnings, ws, "wrong warning message")
-	}()
-	defer ev.recover(nil, &ws, &err)
-
-	panic(e)
-}
-
 func TestSubquerySelector(t *testing.T) {
 	type caseType struct {
 		Query  string
-		Result Result
+		Result promql.Result
 		Start  time.Time
 	}
 
@@ -1787,11 +1764,11 @@ func TestSubquerySelector(t *testing.T) {
 			cases: []caseType{
 				{
 					Query: "metric[20s:10s]",
-					Result: Result{
+					Result: promql.Result{
 						nil,
-						Matrix{
-							Series{
-								Floats: []FPoint{{F: 1, T: 0}, {F: 2, T: 10000}},
+						promql.Matrix{
+							promql.Series{
+								Floats: []promql.FPoint{{F: 1, T: 0}, {F: 2, T: 10000}},
 								Metric: labels.FromStrings("__name__", "metric"),
 							},
 						},
@@ -1801,11 +1778,11 @@ func TestSubquerySelector(t *testing.T) {
 				},
 				{
 					Query: "metric[20s:5s]",
-					Result: Result{
+					Result: promql.Result{
 						nil,
-						Matrix{
-							Series{
-								Floats: []FPoint{{F: 1, T: 0}, {F: 1, T: 5000}, {F: 2, T: 10000}},
+						promql.Matrix{
+							promql.Series{
+								Floats: []promql.FPoint{{F: 1, T: 0}, {F: 1, T: 5000}, {F: 2, T: 10000}},
 								Metric: labels.FromStrings("__name__", "metric"),
 							},
 						},
@@ -1815,11 +1792,11 @@ func TestSubquerySelector(t *testing.T) {
 				},
 				{
 					Query: "metric[20s:5s] offset 2s",
-					Result: Result{
+					Result: promql.Result{
 						nil,
-						Matrix{
-							Series{
-								Floats: []FPoint{{F: 1, T: 0}, {F: 1, T: 5000}, {F: 2, T: 10000}},
+						promql.Matrix{
+							promql.Series{
+								Floats: []promql.FPoint{{F: 1, T: 0}, {F: 1, T: 5000}, {F: 2, T: 10000}},
 								Metric: labels.FromStrings("__name__", "metric"),
 							},
 						},
@@ -1829,11 +1806,11 @@ func TestSubquerySelector(t *testing.T) {
 				},
 				{
 					Query: "metric[20s:5s] offset 6s",
-					Result: Result{
+					Result: promql.Result{
 						nil,
-						Matrix{
-							Series{
-								Floats: []FPoint{{F: 1, T: 0}, {F: 1, T: 5000}, {F: 2, T: 10000}},
+						promql.Matrix{
+							promql.Series{
+								Floats: []promql.FPoint{{F: 1, T: 0}, {F: 1, T: 5000}, {F: 2, T: 10000}},
 								Metric: labels.FromStrings("__name__", "metric"),
 							},
 						},
@@ -1843,11 +1820,11 @@ func TestSubquerySelector(t *testing.T) {
 				},
 				{
 					Query: "metric[20s:5s] offset 4s",
-					Result: Result{
+					Result: promql.Result{
 						nil,
-						Matrix{
-							Series{
-								Floats: []FPoint{{F: 2, T: 15000}, {F: 2, T: 20000}, {F: 2, T: 25000}, {F: 2, T: 30000}},
+						promql.Matrix{
+							promql.Series{
+								Floats: []promql.FPoint{{F: 2, T: 15000}, {F: 2, T: 20000}, {F: 2, T: 25000}, {F: 2, T: 30000}},
 								Metric: labels.FromStrings("__name__", "metric"),
 							},
 						},
@@ -1857,11 +1834,11 @@ func TestSubquerySelector(t *testing.T) {
 				},
 				{
 					Query: "metric[20s:5s] offset 5s",
-					Result: Result{
+					Result: promql.Result{
 						nil,
-						Matrix{
-							Series{
-								Floats: []FPoint{{F: 2, T: 10000}, {F: 2, T: 15000}, {F: 2, T: 20000}, {F: 2, T: 25000}, {F: 2, T: 30000}},
+						promql.Matrix{
+							promql.Series{
+								Floats: []promql.FPoint{{F: 2, T: 10000}, {F: 2, T: 15000}, {F: 2, T: 20000}, {F: 2, T: 25000}, {F: 2, T: 30000}},
 								Metric: labels.FromStrings("__name__", "metric"),
 							},
 						},
@@ -1871,11 +1848,11 @@ func TestSubquerySelector(t *testing.T) {
 				},
 				{
 					Query: "metric[20s:5s] offset 6s",
-					Result: Result{
+					Result: promql.Result{
 						nil,
-						Matrix{
-							Series{
-								Floats: []FPoint{{F: 2, T: 10000}, {F: 2, T: 15000}, {F: 2, T: 20000}, {F: 2, T: 25000}},
+						promql.Matrix{
+							promql.Series{
+								Floats: []promql.FPoint{{F: 2, T: 10000}, {F: 2, T: 15000}, {F: 2, T: 20000}, {F: 2, T: 25000}},
 								Metric: labels.FromStrings("__name__", "metric"),
 							},
 						},
@@ -1885,11 +1862,11 @@ func TestSubquerySelector(t *testing.T) {
 				},
 				{
 					Query: "metric[20s:5s] offset 7s",
-					Result: Result{
+					Result: promql.Result{
 						nil,
-						Matrix{
-							Series{
-								Floats: []FPoint{{F: 2, T: 10000}, {F: 2, T: 15000}, {F: 2, T: 20000}, {F: 2, T: 25000}},
+						promql.Matrix{
+							promql.Series{
+								Floats: []promql.FPoint{{F: 2, T: 10000}, {F: 2, T: 15000}, {F: 2, T: 20000}, {F: 2, T: 25000}},
 								Metric: labels.FromStrings("__name__", "metric"),
 							},
 						},
@@ -1908,11 +1885,11 @@ func TestSubquerySelector(t *testing.T) {
 			cases: []caseType{
 				{ // Normal selector.
 					Query: `http_requests{group=~"pro.*",instance="0"}[30s:10s]`,
-					Result: Result{
+					Result: promql.Result{
 						nil,
-						Matrix{
-							Series{
-								Floats: []FPoint{{F: 9990, T: 9990000}, {F: 10000, T: 10000000}, {F: 100, T: 10010000}, {F: 130, T: 10020000}},
+						promql.Matrix{
+							promql.Series{
+								Floats: []promql.FPoint{{F: 9990, T: 9990000}, {F: 10000, T: 10000000}, {F: 100, T: 10010000}, {F: 130, T: 10020000}},
 								Metric: labels.FromStrings("__name__", "http_requests", "job", "api-server", "instance", "0", "group", "production"),
 							},
 						},
@@ -1922,11 +1899,11 @@ func TestSubquerySelector(t *testing.T) {
 				},
 				{ // Default step.
 					Query: `http_requests{group=~"pro.*",instance="0"}[5m:]`,
-					Result: Result{
+					Result: promql.Result{
 						nil,
-						Matrix{
-							Series{
-								Floats: []FPoint{{F: 9840, T: 9840000}, {F: 9900, T: 9900000}, {F: 9960, T: 9960000}, {F: 130, T: 10020000}, {F: 310, T: 10080000}},
+						promql.Matrix{
+							promql.Series{
+								Floats: []promql.FPoint{{F: 9840, T: 9840000}, {F: 9900, T: 9900000}, {F: 9960, T: 9960000}, {F: 130, T: 10020000}, {F: 310, T: 10080000}},
 								Metric: labels.FromStrings("__name__", "http_requests", "job", "api-server", "instance", "0", "group", "production"),
 							},
 						},
@@ -1936,11 +1913,11 @@ func TestSubquerySelector(t *testing.T) {
 				},
 				{ // Checking if high offset (>LookbackDelta) is being taken care of.
 					Query: `http_requests{group=~"pro.*",instance="0"}[5m:] offset 20m`,
-					Result: Result{
+					Result: promql.Result{
 						nil,
-						Matrix{
-							Series{
-								Floats: []FPoint{{F: 8640, T: 8640000}, {F: 8700, T: 8700000}, {F: 8760, T: 8760000}, {F: 8820, T: 8820000}, {F: 8880, T: 8880000}},
+						promql.Matrix{
+							promql.Series{
+								Floats: []promql.FPoint{{F: 8640, T: 8640000}, {F: 8700, T: 8700000}, {F: 8760, T: 8760000}, {F: 8820, T: 8820000}, {F: 8880, T: 8880000}},
 								Metric: labels.FromStrings("__name__", "http_requests", "job", "api-server", "instance", "0", "group", "production"),
 							},
 						},
@@ -1950,23 +1927,23 @@ func TestSubquerySelector(t *testing.T) {
 				},
 				{
 					Query: `rate(http_requests[1m])[15s:5s]`,
-					Result: Result{
+					Result: promql.Result{
 						nil,
-						Matrix{
-							Series{
-								Floats: []FPoint{{F: 3, T: 7985000}, {F: 3, T: 7990000}, {F: 3, T: 7995000}, {F: 3, T: 8000000}},
+						promql.Matrix{
+							promql.Series{
+								Floats: []promql.FPoint{{F: 3, T: 7985000}, {F: 3, T: 7990000}, {F: 3, T: 7995000}, {F: 3, T: 8000000}},
 								Metric: labels.FromStrings("job", "api-server", "instance", "0", "group", "canary"),
 							},
-							Series{
-								Floats: []FPoint{{F: 4, T: 7985000}, {F: 4, T: 7990000}, {F: 4, T: 7995000}, {F: 4, T: 8000000}},
+							promql.Series{
+								Floats: []promql.FPoint{{F: 4, T: 7985000}, {F: 4, T: 7990000}, {F: 4, T: 7995000}, {F: 4, T: 8000000}},
 								Metric: labels.FromStrings("job", "api-server", "instance", "1", "group", "canary"),
 							},
-							Series{
-								Floats: []FPoint{{F: 1, T: 7985000}, {F: 1, T: 7990000}, {F: 1, T: 7995000}, {F: 1, T: 8000000}},
+							promql.Series{
+								Floats: []promql.FPoint{{F: 1, T: 7985000}, {F: 1, T: 7990000}, {F: 1, T: 7995000}, {F: 1, T: 8000000}},
 								Metric: labels.FromStrings("job", "api-server", "instance", "0", "group", "production"),
 							},
-							Series{
-								Floats: []FPoint{{F: 2, T: 7985000}, {F: 2, T: 7990000}, {F: 2, T: 7995000}, {F: 2, T: 8000000}},
+							promql.Series{
+								Floats: []promql.FPoint{{F: 2, T: 7985000}, {F: 2, T: 7990000}, {F: 2, T: 7995000}, {F: 2, T: 8000000}},
 								Metric: labels.FromStrings("job", "api-server", "instance", "1", "group", "production"),
 							},
 						},
@@ -1976,11 +1953,11 @@ func TestSubquerySelector(t *testing.T) {
 				},
 				{
 					Query: `sum(http_requests{group=~"pro.*"})[30s:10s]`,
-					Result: Result{
+					Result: promql.Result{
 						nil,
-						Matrix{
-							Series{
-								Floats: []FPoint{{F: 270, T: 90000}, {F: 300, T: 100000}, {F: 330, T: 110000}, {F: 360, T: 120000}},
+						promql.Matrix{
+							promql.Series{
+								Floats: []promql.FPoint{{F: 270, T: 90000}, {F: 300, T: 100000}, {F: 330, T: 110000}, {F: 360, T: 120000}},
 								Metric: labels.EmptyLabels(),
 							},
 						},
@@ -1990,11 +1967,11 @@ func TestSubquerySelector(t *testing.T) {
 				},
 				{
 					Query: `sum(http_requests)[40s:10s]`,
-					Result: Result{
+					Result: promql.Result{
 						nil,
-						Matrix{
-							Series{
-								Floats: []FPoint{{F: 800, T: 80000}, {F: 900, T: 90000}, {F: 1000, T: 100000}, {F: 1100, T: 110000}, {F: 1200, T: 120000}},
+						promql.Matrix{
+							promql.Series{
+								Floats: []promql.FPoint{{F: 800, T: 80000}, {F: 900, T: 90000}, {F: 1000, T: 100000}, {F: 1100, T: 110000}, {F: 1200, T: 120000}},
 								Metric: labels.EmptyLabels(),
 							},
 						},
@@ -2004,11 +1981,11 @@ func TestSubquerySelector(t *testing.T) {
 				},
 				{
 					Query: `(sum(http_requests{group=~"p.*"})+sum(http_requests{group=~"c.*"}))[20s:5s]`,
-					Result: Result{
+					Result: promql.Result{
 						nil,
-						Matrix{
-							Series{
-								Floats: []FPoint{{F: 1000, T: 100000}, {F: 1000, T: 105000}, {F: 1100, T: 110000}, {F: 1100, T: 115000}, {F: 1200, T: 120000}},
+						promql.Matrix{
+							promql.Series{
+								Floats: []promql.FPoint{{F: 1000, T: 100000}, {F: 1000, T: 105000}, {F: 1100, T: 110000}, {F: 1100, T: 115000}, {F: 1200, T: 120000}},
 								Metric: labels.EmptyLabels(),
 							},
 						},
@@ -2021,7 +1998,7 @@ func TestSubquerySelector(t *testing.T) {
 	} {
 		t.Run("", func(t *testing.T) {
 			engine := newTestEngine()
-			storage := LoadedStorage(t, tst.loadString)
+			storage := promqltest.LoadedStorage(t, tst.loadString)
 			t.Cleanup(func() { storage.Close() })
 
 			for _, c := range tst.cases {
@@ -2031,7 +2008,7 @@ func TestSubquerySelector(t *testing.T) {
 
 					res := qry.Exec(context.Background())
 					require.Equal(t, c.Result.Err, res.Err)
-					mat := res.Value.(Matrix)
+					mat := res.Value.(promql.Matrix)
 					sort.Sort(mat)
 					testutil.RequireEqual(t, c.Result.Value, mat)
 				})
@@ -2040,47 +2017,6 @@ func TestSubquerySelector(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 }
 
-func TestTimestampFunction_StepsMoreOftenThanSamples(t *testing.T) {
-	engine := newTestEngine()
-	storage := LoadedStorage(t, `
-load 1m
-  metric 0+1x1000
-`)
-	t.Cleanup(func() { storage.Close() })
-
-	query := "timestamp(metric)"
-	start := time.Unix(0, 0)
-	end := time.Unix(61, 0)
-	interval := time.Second
-
-	// We expect the value to be 0 for t=0s to t=59s (inclusive), then 60 for t=60s and t=61s.
-	expectedPoints := []FPoint{}
-
-	for t := 0; t <= 59; t++ {
-		expectedPoints = append(expectedPoints, FPoint{F: 0, T: int64(t * 1000)})
-	}
-
-	expectedPoints = append(
-		expectedPoints,
-		FPoint{F: 60, T: 60_000},
-		FPoint{F: 60, T: 61_000},
-	)
-
-	expectedResult := Matrix{
-		Series{
-			Floats: expectedPoints,
-			Metric: labels.EmptyLabels(),
-		},
-	}
-
-	qry, err := engine.NewRangeQuery(context.Background(), storage, nil, query, start, end, interval)
-	require.NoError(t, err)
-
-	res := qry.Exec(context.Background())
-	require.NoError(t, res.Err)
-	testutil.RequireEqual(t, expectedResult, res.Value)
-}
-
 type FakeQueryLogger struct {
 	closed bool
 	logs   []interface{}
@@ -2104,25 +2040,25 @@ func (f *FakeQueryLogger) Log(l ...interface{}) error {
 }
 
 func TestQueryLogger_basic(t *testing.T) {
-	opts := EngineOpts{
+	opts := promql.EngineOpts{
 		Logger:     nil,
 		Reg:        nil,
 		MaxSamples: 10,
 		Timeout:    10 * time.Second,
 	}
-	engine := NewEngine(opts)
+	engine := promql.NewEngine(opts)
 
 	queryExec := func() {
 		ctx, cancelCtx := context.WithCancel(context.Background())
 		defer cancelCtx()
-		query := engine.newTestQuery(func(ctx context.Context) error {
+		query := engine.NewTestQuery(func(ctx context.Context) error {
 			return contextDone(ctx, "test statement execution")
 		})
 		res := query.Exec(ctx)
 		require.NoError(t, res.Err)
 	}
 
-	// Query works without query log initialized.
+	// promql.Query works without query log initialized.
 	queryExec()
 
 	f1 := NewFakeQueryLogger()
@@ -2155,21 +2091,21 @@ func TestQueryLogger_basic(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestQueryLogger_fields(t *testing.T) {
-	opts := EngineOpts{
+	opts := promql.EngineOpts{
 		Logger:     nil,
 		Reg:        nil,
 		MaxSamples: 10,
 		Timeout:    10 * time.Second,
 	}
-	engine := NewEngine(opts)
+	engine := promql.NewEngine(opts)
 
 	f1 := NewFakeQueryLogger()
 	engine.SetQueryLogger(f1)
 
 	ctx, cancelCtx := context.WithCancel(context.Background())
-	ctx = NewOriginContext(ctx, map[string]interface{}{"foo": "bar"})
+	ctx = promql.NewOriginContext(ctx, map[string]interface{}{"foo": "bar"})
 	defer cancelCtx()
-	query := engine.newTestQuery(func(ctx context.Context) error {
+	query := engine.NewTestQuery(func(ctx context.Context) error {
 		return contextDone(ctx, "test statement execution")
 	})
 
@@ -2184,22 +2120,22 @@ func TestQueryLogger_fields(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestQueryLogger_error(t *testing.T) {
-	opts := EngineOpts{
+	opts := promql.EngineOpts{
 		Logger:     nil,
 		Reg:        nil,
 		MaxSamples: 10,
 		Timeout:    10 * time.Second,
 	}
-	engine := NewEngine(opts)
+	engine := promql.NewEngine(opts)
 
 	f1 := NewFakeQueryLogger()
 	engine.SetQueryLogger(f1)
 
 	ctx, cancelCtx := context.WithCancel(context.Background())
-	ctx = NewOriginContext(ctx, map[string]interface{}{"foo": "bar"})
+	ctx = promql.NewOriginContext(ctx, map[string]interface{}{"foo": "bar"})
 	defer cancelCtx()
 	testErr := errors.New("failure")
-	query := engine.newTestQuery(func(ctx context.Context) error {
+	query := engine.NewTestQuery(func(ctx context.Context) error {
 		return testErr
 	})
 
@@ -3005,7 +2941,7 @@ func TestPreprocessAndWrapWithStepInvariantExpr(t *testing.T) {
 		t.Run(test.input, func(t *testing.T) {
 			expr, err := parser.ParseExpr(test.input)
 			require.NoError(t, err)
-			expr = PreprocessExpr(expr, startTime, endTime)
+			expr = promql.PreprocessExpr(expr, startTime, endTime)
 			if test.outputTest {
 				require.Equal(t, test.input, expr.String(), "error on input '%s'", test.input)
 			}
@@ -3016,64 +2952,64 @@ func TestPreprocessAndWrapWithStepInvariantExpr(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestEngineOptsValidation(t *testing.T) {
 	cases := []struct {
-		opts     EngineOpts
+		opts     promql.EngineOpts
 		query    string
 		fail     bool
 		expError error
 	}{
 		{
-			opts:  EngineOpts{EnableAtModifier: false},
-			query: "metric @ 100", fail: true, expError: ErrValidationAtModifierDisabled,
+			opts:  promql.EngineOpts{EnableAtModifier: false},
+			query: "metric @ 100", fail: true, expError: promql.ErrValidationAtModifierDisabled,
 		}, {
-			opts:  EngineOpts{EnableAtModifier: false},
-			query: "rate(metric[1m] @ 100)", fail: true, expError: ErrValidationAtModifierDisabled,
+			opts:  promql.EngineOpts{EnableAtModifier: false},
+			query: "rate(metric[1m] @ 100)", fail: true, expError: promql.ErrValidationAtModifierDisabled,
 		}, {
-			opts:  EngineOpts{EnableAtModifier: false},
-			query: "rate(metric[1h:1m] @ 100)", fail: true, expError: ErrValidationAtModifierDisabled,
+			opts:  promql.EngineOpts{EnableAtModifier: false},
+			query: "rate(metric[1h:1m] @ 100)", fail: true, expError: promql.ErrValidationAtModifierDisabled,
 		}, {
-			opts:  EngineOpts{EnableAtModifier: false},
-			query: "metric @ start()", fail: true, expError: ErrValidationAtModifierDisabled,
+			opts:  promql.EngineOpts{EnableAtModifier: false},
+			query: "metric @ start()", fail: true, expError: promql.ErrValidationAtModifierDisabled,
 		}, {
-			opts:  EngineOpts{EnableAtModifier: false},
-			query: "rate(metric[1m] @ start())", fail: true, expError: ErrValidationAtModifierDisabled,
+			opts:  promql.EngineOpts{EnableAtModifier: false},
+			query: "rate(metric[1m] @ start())", fail: true, expError: promql.ErrValidationAtModifierDisabled,
 		}, {
-			opts:  EngineOpts{EnableAtModifier: false},
-			query: "rate(metric[1h:1m] @ start())", fail: true, expError: ErrValidationAtModifierDisabled,
+			opts:  promql.EngineOpts{EnableAtModifier: false},
+			query: "rate(metric[1h:1m] @ start())", fail: true, expError: promql.ErrValidationAtModifierDisabled,
 		}, {
-			opts:  EngineOpts{EnableAtModifier: false},
-			query: "metric @ end()", fail: true, expError: ErrValidationAtModifierDisabled,
+			opts:  promql.EngineOpts{EnableAtModifier: false},
+			query: "metric @ end()", fail: true, expError: promql.ErrValidationAtModifierDisabled,
 		}, {
-			opts:  EngineOpts{EnableAtModifier: false},
-			query: "rate(metric[1m] @ end())", fail: true, expError: ErrValidationAtModifierDisabled,
+			opts:  promql.EngineOpts{EnableAtModifier: false},
+			query: "rate(metric[1m] @ end())", fail: true, expError: promql.ErrValidationAtModifierDisabled,
 		}, {
-			opts:  EngineOpts{EnableAtModifier: false},
-			query: "rate(metric[1h:1m] @ end())", fail: true, expError: ErrValidationAtModifierDisabled,
+			opts:  promql.EngineOpts{EnableAtModifier: false},
+			query: "rate(metric[1h:1m] @ end())", fail: true, expError: promql.ErrValidationAtModifierDisabled,
 		}, {
-			opts:  EngineOpts{EnableAtModifier: true},
+			opts:  promql.EngineOpts{EnableAtModifier: true},
 			query: "metric @ 100",
 		}, {
-			opts:  EngineOpts{EnableAtModifier: true},
+			opts:  promql.EngineOpts{EnableAtModifier: true},
 			query: "rate(metric[1m] @ start())",
 		}, {
-			opts:  EngineOpts{EnableAtModifier: true},
+			opts:  promql.EngineOpts{EnableAtModifier: true},
 			query: "rate(metric[1h:1m] @ end())",
 		}, {
-			opts:  EngineOpts{EnableNegativeOffset: false},
-			query: "metric offset -1s", fail: true, expError: ErrValidationNegativeOffsetDisabled,
+			opts:  promql.EngineOpts{EnableNegativeOffset: false},
+			query: "metric offset -1s", fail: true, expError: promql.ErrValidationNegativeOffsetDisabled,
 		}, {
-			opts:  EngineOpts{EnableNegativeOffset: true},
+			opts:  promql.EngineOpts{EnableNegativeOffset: true},
 			query: "metric offset -1s",
 		}, {
-			opts:  EngineOpts{EnableAtModifier: true, EnableNegativeOffset: true},
+			opts:  promql.EngineOpts{EnableAtModifier: true, EnableNegativeOffset: true},
 			query: "metric @ 100 offset -2m",
 		}, {
-			opts:  EngineOpts{EnableAtModifier: true, EnableNegativeOffset: true},
+			opts:  promql.EngineOpts{EnableAtModifier: true, EnableNegativeOffset: true},
 			query: "metric offset -2m @ 100",
 		},
 	}
 
 	for _, c := range cases {
-		eng := NewEngine(c.opts)
+		eng := promql.NewEngine(c.opts)
 		_, err1 := eng.NewInstantQuery(context.Background(), nil, nil, c.query, time.Unix(10, 0))
 		_, err2 := eng.NewRangeQuery(context.Background(), nil, nil, c.query, time.Unix(0, 0), time.Unix(10, 0), time.Second)
 		if c.fail {
@@ -3086,1237 +3022,82 @@ func TestEngineOptsValidation(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 }
 
-func TestRangeQuery(t *testing.T) {
-	cases := []struct {
-		Name     string
-		Load     string
-		Query    string
-		Result   parser.Value
-		Start    time.Time
-		End      time.Time
-		Interval time.Duration
+func TestInstantQueryWithRangeVectorSelector(t *testing.T) {
+	engine := newTestEngine()
+
+	baseT := timestamp.Time(0)
+	storage := promqltest.LoadedStorage(t, `
+		load 1m
+			some_metric{env="1"} 0+1x4
+			some_metric{env="2"} 0+2x4
+			some_metric_with_stale_marker 0 1 stale 3
+	`)
+	t.Cleanup(func() { require.NoError(t, storage.Close()) })
+
+	testCases := map[string]struct {
+		expr     string
+		expected promql.Matrix
+		ts       time.Time
 	}{
-		{
-			Name: "sum_over_time with all values",
-			Load: `load 30s
-              bar 0 1 10 100 1000`,
-			Query: "sum_over_time(bar[30s])",
-			Result: Matrix{
-				Series{
-					Floats: []FPoint{{F: 0, T: 0}, {F: 11, T: 60000}, {F: 1100, T: 120000}},
-					Metric: labels.EmptyLabels(),
+		"matches series with points in range": {
+			expr: "some_metric[1m]",
+			ts:   baseT.Add(2 * time.Minute),
+			expected: promql.Matrix{
+				{
+					Metric: labels.FromStrings("__name__", "some_metric", "env", "1"),
+					Floats: []promql.FPoint{
+						{T: timestamp.FromTime(baseT.Add(time.Minute)), F: 1},
+						{T: timestamp.FromTime(baseT.Add(2 * time.Minute)), F: 2},
+					},
+				},
+				{
+					Metric: labels.FromStrings("__name__", "some_metric", "env", "2"),
+					Floats: []promql.FPoint{
+						{T: timestamp.FromTime(baseT.Add(time.Minute)), F: 2},
+						{T: timestamp.FromTime(baseT.Add(2 * time.Minute)), F: 4},
+					},
 				},
 			},
-			Start:    time.Unix(0, 0),
-			End:      time.Unix(120, 0),
-			Interval: 60 * time.Second,
 		},
-		{
-			Name: "sum_over_time with trailing values",
-			Load: `load 30s
-              bar 0 1 10 100 1000 0 0 0 0`,
-			Query: "sum_over_time(bar[30s])",
-			Result: Matrix{
-				Series{
-					Floats: []FPoint{{F: 0, T: 0}, {F: 11, T: 60000}, {F: 1100, T: 120000}},
-					Metric: labels.EmptyLabels(),
-				},
-			},
-			Start:    time.Unix(0, 0),
-			End:      time.Unix(120, 0),
-			Interval: 60 * time.Second,
+		"matches no series": {
+			expr:     "some_nonexistent_metric[1m]",
+			ts:       baseT,
+			expected: promql.Matrix{},
 		},
-		{
-			Name: "sum_over_time with all values long",
-			Load: `load 30s
-              bar 0 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000`,
-			Query: "sum_over_time(bar[30s])",
-			Result: Matrix{
-				Series{
-					Floats: []FPoint{{F: 0, T: 0}, {F: 11, T: 60000}, {F: 1100, T: 120000}, {F: 110000, T: 180000}, {F: 11000000, T: 240000}},
-					Metric: labels.EmptyLabels(),
-				},
-			},
-			Start:    time.Unix(0, 0),
-			End:      time.Unix(240, 0),
-			Interval: 60 * time.Second,
+		"no samples in range": {
+			expr:     "some_metric[1m]",
+			ts:       baseT.Add(20 * time.Minute),
+			expected: promql.Matrix{},
 		},
-		{
-			Name: "sum_over_time with all values random",
-			Load: `load 30s
-              bar 5 17 42 2 7 905 51`,
-			Query: "sum_over_time(bar[30s])",
-			Result: Matrix{
-				Series{
-					Floats: []FPoint{{F: 5, T: 0}, {F: 59, T: 60000}, {F: 9, T: 120000}, {F: 956, T: 180000}},
-					Metric: labels.EmptyLabels(),
+		"metric with stale marker": {
+			expr: "some_metric_with_stale_marker[3m]",
+			ts:   baseT.Add(3 * time.Minute),
+			expected: promql.Matrix{
+				{
+					Metric: labels.FromStrings("__name__", "some_metric_with_stale_marker"),
+					Floats: []promql.FPoint{
+						{T: timestamp.FromTime(baseT), F: 0},
+						{T: timestamp.FromTime(baseT.Add(time.Minute)), F: 1},
+						{T: timestamp.FromTime(baseT.Add(3 * time.Minute)), F: 3},
+					},
 				},
 			},
-			Start:    time.Unix(0, 0),
-			End:      time.Unix(180, 0),
-			Interval: 60 * time.Second,
-		},
-		{
-			Name: "metric query",
-			Load: `load 30s
-              metric 1+1x4`,
-			Query: "metric",
-			Result: Matrix{
-				Series{
-					Floats: []FPoint{{F: 1, T: 0}, {F: 3, T: 60000}, {F: 5, T: 120000}},
-					Metric: labels.FromStrings("__name__", "metric"),
-				},
-			},
-			Start:    time.Unix(0, 0),
-			End:      time.Unix(120, 0),
-			Interval: 1 * time.Minute,
-		},
-		{
-			Name: "metric query with trailing values",
-			Load: `load 30s
-              metric 1+1x8`,
-			Query: "metric",
-			Result: Matrix{
-				Series{
-					Floats: []FPoint{{F: 1, T: 0}, {F: 3, T: 60000}, {F: 5, T: 120000}},
-					Metric: labels.FromStrings("__name__", "metric"),
-				},
-			},
-			Start:    time.Unix(0, 0),
-			End:      time.Unix(120, 0),
-			Interval: 1 * time.Minute,
-		},
-		{
-			Name: "short-circuit",
-			Load: `load 30s
-							foo{job="1"} 1+1x4
-							bar{job="2"} 1+1x4`,
-			Query: `foo > 2 or bar`,
-			Result: Matrix{
-				Series{
-					Floats: []FPoint{{F: 1, T: 0}, {F: 3, T: 60000}, {F: 5, T: 120000}},
-					Metric: labels.FromStrings(
-						"__name__", "bar",
-						"job", "2",
-					),
-				},
-				Series{
-					Floats: []FPoint{{F: 3, T: 60000}, {F: 5, T: 120000}},
-					Metric: labels.FromStrings(
-						"__name__", "foo",
-						"job", "1",
-					),
-				},
-			},
-			Start:    time.Unix(0, 0),
-			End:      time.Unix(120, 0),
-			Interval: 1 * time.Minute,
-		},
-		{
-			Name: "drop-metric-name",
-			Load: `load 30s
-							requests{job="1", __address__="bar"} 100`,
-			Query: `requests * 2`,
-			Result: Matrix{
-				Series{
-					Floats: []FPoint{{F: 200, T: 0}, {F: 200, T: 60000}, {F: 200, T: 120000}},
-					Metric: labels.FromStrings(
-						"__address__", "bar",
-						"job", "1",
-					),
-				},
-			},
-			Start:    time.Unix(0, 0),
-			End:      time.Unix(120, 0),
-			Interval: 1 * time.Minute,
 		},
 	}
-	for _, c := range cases {
-		t.Run(c.Name, func(t *testing.T) {
-			engine := newTestEngine()
-			storage := LoadedStorage(t, c.Load)
-			t.Cleanup(func() { storage.Close() })
 
-			qry, err := engine.NewRangeQuery(context.Background(), storage, nil, c.Query, c.Start, c.End, c.Interval)
+	for name, testCase := range testCases {
+		t.Run(name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			q, err := engine.NewInstantQuery(context.Background(), storage, nil, testCase.expr, testCase.ts)
 			require.NoError(t, err)
+			defer q.Close()
 
-			res := qry.Exec(context.Background())
+			res := q.Exec(context.Background())
 			require.NoError(t, res.Err)
-			testutil.RequireEqual(t, c.Result, res.Value)
+			testutil.RequireEqual(t, testCase.expected, res.Value)
 		})
 	}
 }
 
-func TestNativeHistogramRate(t *testing.T) {
-	// TODO(beorn7): Integrate histograms into the PromQL testing framework
-	// and write more tests there.
-	engine := newTestEngine()
-	storage := teststorage.New(t)
-	t.Cleanup(func() { storage.Close() })
-
-	seriesName := "sparse_histogram_series"
-	lbls := labels.FromStrings("__name__", seriesName)
-
-	app := storage.Appender(context.Background())
-	for i, h := range tsdbutil.GenerateTestHistograms(100) {
-		_, err := app.AppendHistogram(0, lbls, int64(i)*int64(15*time.Second/time.Millisecond), h, nil)
-		require.NoError(t, err)
-	}
-	require.NoError(t, app.Commit())
-
-	queryString := fmt.Sprintf("rate(%s[45s])", seriesName)
-	t.Run("instant_query", func(t *testing.T) {
-		qry, err := engine.NewInstantQuery(context.Background(), storage, nil, queryString, timestamp.Time(int64(5*time.Minute/time.Millisecond)))
-		require.NoError(t, err)
-		res := qry.Exec(context.Background())
-		require.NoError(t, res.Err)
-		vector, err := res.Vector()
-		require.NoError(t, err)
-		require.Len(t, vector, 1)
-		actualHistogram := vector[0].H
-		expectedHistogram := &histogram.FloatHistogram{
-			CounterResetHint: histogram.GaugeType,
-			Schema:           1,
-			ZeroThreshold:    0.001,
-			ZeroCount:        1. / 15.,
-			Count:            9. / 15.,
-			Sum:              1.2266666666666663,
-			PositiveSpans:    []histogram.Span{{Offset: 0, Length: 2}, {Offset: 1, Length: 2}},
-			PositiveBuckets:  []float64{1. / 15., 1. / 15., 1. / 15., 1. / 15.},
-			NegativeSpans:    []histogram.Span{{Offset: 0, Length: 2}, {Offset: 1, Length: 2}},
-			NegativeBuckets:  []float64{1. / 15., 1. / 15., 1. / 15., 1. / 15.},
-		}
-		require.Equal(t, expectedHistogram, actualHistogram)
-	})
-
-	t.Run("range_query", func(t *testing.T) {
-		step := 30 * time.Second
-		start := timestamp.Time(int64(5 * time.Minute / time.Millisecond))
-		end := start.Add(step)
-		qry, err := engine.NewRangeQuery(context.Background(), storage, nil, queryString, start, end, step)
-		require.NoError(t, err)
-		res := qry.Exec(context.Background())
-		require.NoError(t, res.Err)
-		matrix, err := res.Matrix()
-		require.NoError(t, err)
-		require.Len(t, matrix, 1)
-		require.Len(t, matrix[0].Histograms, 2)
-		actualHistograms := matrix[0].Histograms
-		expectedHistograms := []HPoint{{
-			T: 300000,
-			H: &histogram.FloatHistogram{
-				CounterResetHint: histogram.GaugeType,
-				Schema:           1,
-				ZeroThreshold:    0.001,
-				ZeroCount:        1. / 15.,
-				Count:            9. / 15.,
-				Sum:              1.2266666666666663,
-				PositiveSpans:    []histogram.Span{{Offset: 0, Length: 2}, {Offset: 1, Length: 2}},
-				PositiveBuckets:  []float64{1. / 15., 1. / 15., 1. / 15., 1. / 15.},
-				NegativeSpans:    []histogram.Span{{Offset: 0, Length: 2}, {Offset: 1, Length: 2}},
-				NegativeBuckets:  []float64{1. / 15., 1. / 15., 1. / 15., 1. / 15.},
-			},
-		}, {
-			T: 330000,
-			H: &histogram.FloatHistogram{
-				CounterResetHint: histogram.GaugeType,
-				Schema:           1,
-				ZeroThreshold:    0.001,
-				ZeroCount:        1. / 15.,
-				Count:            9. / 15.,
-				Sum:              1.2266666666666663,
-				PositiveSpans:    []histogram.Span{{Offset: 0, Length: 2}, {Offset: 1, Length: 2}},
-				PositiveBuckets:  []float64{1. / 15., 1. / 15., 1. / 15., 1. / 15.},
-				NegativeSpans:    []histogram.Span{{Offset: 0, Length: 2}, {Offset: 1, Length: 2}},
-				NegativeBuckets:  []float64{1. / 15., 1. / 15., 1. / 15., 1. / 15.},
-			},
-		}}
-		require.Equal(t, expectedHistograms, actualHistograms)
-	})
-}
-
-func TestNativeFloatHistogramRate(t *testing.T) {
-	// TODO(beorn7): Integrate histograms into the PromQL testing framework
-	// and write more tests there.
-	engine := newTestEngine()
-	storage := teststorage.New(t)
-	t.Cleanup(func() { storage.Close() })
-
-	seriesName := "sparse_histogram_series"
-	lbls := labels.FromStrings("__name__", seriesName)
-
-	app := storage.Appender(context.Background())
-	for i, fh := range tsdbutil.GenerateTestFloatHistograms(100) {
-		_, err := app.AppendHistogram(0, lbls, int64(i)*int64(15*time.Second/time.Millisecond), nil, fh)
-		require.NoError(t, err)
-	}
-	require.NoError(t, app.Commit())
-
-	queryString := fmt.Sprintf("rate(%s[1m])", seriesName)
-	qry, err := engine.NewInstantQuery(context.Background(), storage, nil, queryString, timestamp.Time(int64(5*time.Minute/time.Millisecond)))
-	require.NoError(t, err)
-	res := qry.Exec(context.Background())
-	require.NoError(t, res.Err)
-	vector, err := res.Vector()
-	require.NoError(t, err)
-	require.Len(t, vector, 1)
-	actualHistogram := vector[0].H
-	expectedHistogram := &histogram.FloatHistogram{
-		CounterResetHint: histogram.GaugeType,
-		Schema:           1,
-		ZeroThreshold:    0.001,
-		ZeroCount:        1. / 15.,
-		Count:            9. / 15.,
-		Sum:              1.226666666666667,
-		PositiveSpans:    []histogram.Span{{Offset: 0, Length: 2}, {Offset: 1, Length: 2}},
-		PositiveBuckets:  []float64{1. / 15., 1. / 15., 1. / 15., 1. / 15.},
-		NegativeSpans:    []histogram.Span{{Offset: 0, Length: 2}, {Offset: 1, Length: 2}},
-		NegativeBuckets:  []float64{1. / 15., 1. / 15., 1. / 15., 1. / 15.},
-	}
-	require.Equal(t, expectedHistogram, actualHistogram)
-}
-
-func TestNativeHistogram_HistogramCountAndSum(t *testing.T) {
-	// TODO(codesome): Integrate histograms into the PromQL testing framework
-	// and write more tests there.
-	h := &histogram.Histogram{
-		Count:         24,
-		ZeroCount:     4,
-		ZeroThreshold: 0.001,
-		Sum:           100,
-		Schema:        0,
-		PositiveSpans: []histogram.Span{
-			{Offset: 0, Length: 2},
-			{Offset: 1, Length: 2},
-		},
-		PositiveBuckets: []int64{2, 1, -2, 3},
-		NegativeSpans: []histogram.Span{
-			{Offset: 0, Length: 2},
-			{Offset: 1, Length: 2},
-		},
-		NegativeBuckets: []int64{2, 1, -2, 3},
-	}
-	for _, floatHisto := range []bool{true, false} {
-		t.Run(fmt.Sprintf("floatHistogram=%t", floatHisto), func(t *testing.T) {
-			engine := newTestEngine()
-			storage := teststorage.New(t)
-			t.Cleanup(func() { storage.Close() })
-
-			seriesName := "sparse_histogram_series"
-			lbls := labels.FromStrings("__name__", seriesName)
-
-			ts := int64(10 * time.Minute / time.Millisecond)
-			app := storage.Appender(context.Background())
-			var err error
-			if floatHisto {
-				_, err = app.AppendHistogram(0, lbls, ts, nil, h.ToFloat(nil))
-			} else {
-				_, err = app.AppendHistogram(0, lbls, ts, h, nil)
-			}
-			require.NoError(t, err)
-			require.NoError(t, app.Commit())
-
-			queryString := fmt.Sprintf("histogram_count(%s)", seriesName)
-			qry, err := engine.NewInstantQuery(context.Background(), storage, nil, queryString, timestamp.Time(ts))
-			require.NoError(t, err)
-
-			res := qry.Exec(context.Background())
-			require.NoError(t, res.Err)
-
-			vector, err := res.Vector()
-			require.NoError(t, err)
-
-			require.Len(t, vector, 1)
-			require.Nil(t, vector[0].H)
-			if floatHisto {
-				require.Equal(t, h.ToFloat(nil).Count, vector[0].F)
-			} else {
-				require.Equal(t, float64(h.Count), vector[0].F)
-			}
-
-			queryString = fmt.Sprintf("histogram_sum(%s)", seriesName)
-			qry, err = engine.NewInstantQuery(context.Background(), storage, nil, queryString, timestamp.Time(ts))
-			require.NoError(t, err)
-
-			res = qry.Exec(context.Background())
-			require.NoError(t, res.Err)
-
-			vector, err = res.Vector()
-			require.NoError(t, err)
-
-			require.Len(t, vector, 1)
-			require.Nil(t, vector[0].H)
-			if floatHisto {
-				require.Equal(t, h.ToFloat(nil).Sum, vector[0].F)
-			} else {
-				require.Equal(t, h.Sum, vector[0].F)
-			}
-		})
-	}
-}
-
-func TestNativeHistogram_HistogramStdDevVar(t *testing.T) {
-	// TODO(codesome): Integrate histograms into the PromQL testing framework
-	// and write more tests there.
-	testCases := []struct {
-		name   string
-		h      *histogram.Histogram
-		stdVar float64
-	}{
-		{
-			name: "1, 2, 3, 4 low-res",
-			h: &histogram.Histogram{
-				Count:  4,
-				Sum:    10,
-				Schema: 2,
-				PositiveSpans: []histogram.Span{
-					{Offset: 0, Length: 1},
-					{Offset: 3, Length: 1},
-					{Offset: 2, Length: 2},
-				},
-				PositiveBuckets: []int64{1, 0, 0, 0},
-			},
-			stdVar: 1.163807968526718, // actual variance: 1.25
-		},
-		{
-			name: "1, 2, 3, 4 hi-res",
-			h: &histogram.Histogram{
-				Count:  4,
-				Sum:    10,
-				Schema: 8,
-				PositiveSpans: []histogram.Span{
-					{Offset: 0, Length: 1},
-					{Offset: 255, Length: 1},
-					{Offset: 149, Length: 1},
-					{Offset: 105, Length: 1},
-				},
-				PositiveBuckets: []int64{1, 0, 0, 0},
-			},
-			stdVar: 1.2471347737158793, // actual variance: 1.25
-		},
-		{
-			name: "-50, -8, 0, 3, 8, 9, 100",
-			h: &histogram.Histogram{
-				Count:     7,
-				ZeroCount: 1,
-				Sum:       62,
-				Schema:    3,
-				PositiveSpans: []histogram.Span{
-					{Offset: 13, Length: 1},
-					{Offset: 10, Length: 1},
-					{Offset: 1, Length: 1},
-					{Offset: 27, Length: 1},
-				},
-				PositiveBuckets: []int64{1, 0, 0, 0},
-				NegativeSpans: []histogram.Span{
-					{Offset: 24, Length: 1},
-					{Offset: 21, Length: 1},
-				},
-				NegativeBuckets: []int64{1, 0},
-			},
-			stdVar: 1844.4651144196398, // actual variance: 1738.4082
-		},
-		{
-			name: "-100000, -10000, -1000, -888, -888, -100, -50, -9, -8, -3",
-			h: &histogram.Histogram{
-				Count:     10,
-				ZeroCount: 0,
-				Sum:       -112946,
-				Schema:    0,
-				NegativeSpans: []histogram.Span{
-					{Offset: 2, Length: 3},
-					{Offset: 1, Length: 2},
-					{Offset: 2, Length: 1},
-					{Offset: 3, Length: 1},
-					{Offset: 2, Length: 1},
-				},
-				NegativeBuckets: []int64{1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 2, -2, 0},
-			},
-			stdVar: 759352122.1939945, // actual variance: 882690990
-		},
-		{
-			name: "-10 x10",
-			h: &histogram.Histogram{
-				Count:     10,
-				ZeroCount: 0,
-				Sum:       -100,
-				Schema:    0,
-				NegativeSpans: []histogram.Span{
-					{Offset: 4, Length: 1},
-				},
-				NegativeBuckets: []int64{10},
-			},
-			stdVar: 1.725830020304794, // actual variance: 0
-		},
-		{
-			name: "-50, -8, 0, 3, 8, 9, 100, NaN",
-			h: &histogram.Histogram{
-				Count:     8,
-				ZeroCount: 1,
-				Sum:       math.NaN(),
-				Schema:    3,
-				PositiveSpans: []histogram.Span{
-					{Offset: 13, Length: 1},
-					{Offset: 10, Length: 1},
-					{Offset: 1, Length: 1},
-					{Offset: 27, Length: 1},
-				},
-				PositiveBuckets: []int64{1, 0, 0, 0},
-				NegativeSpans: []histogram.Span{
-					{Offset: 24, Length: 1},
-					{Offset: 21, Length: 1},
-				},
-				NegativeBuckets: []int64{1, 0},
-			},
-			stdVar: math.NaN(),
-		},
-		{
-			name: "-50, -8, 0, 3, 8, 9, 100, +Inf",
-			h: &histogram.Histogram{
-				Count:     7,
-				ZeroCount: 1,
-				Sum:       math.Inf(1),
-				Schema:    3,
-				PositiveSpans: []histogram.Span{
-					{Offset: 13, Length: 1},
-					{Offset: 10, Length: 1},
-					{Offset: 1, Length: 1},
-					{Offset: 27, Length: 1},
-				},
-				PositiveBuckets: []int64{1, 0, 0, 0},
-				NegativeSpans: []histogram.Span{
-					{Offset: 24, Length: 1},
-					{Offset: 21, Length: 1},
-				},
-				NegativeBuckets: []int64{1, 0},
-			},
-			stdVar: math.NaN(),
-		},
-	}
-	for _, tc := range testCases {
-		for _, floatHisto := range []bool{true, false} {
-			t.Run(fmt.Sprintf("%s floatHistogram=%t", tc.name, floatHisto), func(t *testing.T) {
-				engine := newTestEngine()
-				storage := teststorage.New(t)
-				t.Cleanup(func() { storage.Close() })
-
-				seriesName := "sparse_histogram_series"
-				lbls := labels.FromStrings("__name__", seriesName)
-
-				ts := int64(10 * time.Minute / time.Millisecond)
-				app := storage.Appender(context.Background())
-				var err error
-				if floatHisto {
-					_, err = app.AppendHistogram(0, lbls, ts, nil, tc.h.ToFloat(nil))
-				} else {
-					_, err = app.AppendHistogram(0, lbls, ts, tc.h, nil)
-				}
-				require.NoError(t, err)
-				require.NoError(t, app.Commit())
-
-				queryString := fmt.Sprintf("histogram_stdvar(%s)", seriesName)
-				qry, err := engine.NewInstantQuery(context.Background(), storage, nil, queryString, timestamp.Time(ts))
-				require.NoError(t, err)
-
-				res := qry.Exec(context.Background())
-				require.NoError(t, res.Err)
-
-				vector, err := res.Vector()
-				require.NoError(t, err)
-
-				require.Len(t, vector, 1)
-				require.Nil(t, vector[0].H)
-				require.InEpsilon(t, tc.stdVar, vector[0].F, 1e-12)
-
-				queryString = fmt.Sprintf("histogram_stddev(%s)", seriesName)
-				qry, err = engine.NewInstantQuery(context.Background(), storage, nil, queryString, timestamp.Time(ts))
-				require.NoError(t, err)
-
-				res = qry.Exec(context.Background())
-				require.NoError(t, res.Err)
-
-				vector, err = res.Vector()
-				require.NoError(t, err)
-
-				require.Len(t, vector, 1)
-				require.Nil(t, vector[0].H)
-				require.InEpsilon(t, math.Sqrt(tc.stdVar), vector[0].F, 1e-12)
-			})
-		}
-	}
-}
-
-func TestNativeHistogram_HistogramQuantile(t *testing.T) {
-	// TODO(codesome): Integrate histograms into the PromQL testing framework
-	// and write more tests there.
-	type subCase struct {
-		quantile string
-		value    float64
-	}
-
-	cases := []struct {
-		text string
-		// Histogram to test.
-		h *histogram.Histogram
-		// Different quantiles to test for this histogram.
-		subCases []subCase
-	}{
-		{
-			text: "all positive buckets with zero bucket",
-			h: &histogram.Histogram{
-				Count:         12,
-				ZeroCount:     2,
-				ZeroThreshold: 0.001,
-				Sum:           100, // Does not matter.
-				Schema:        0,
-				PositiveSpans: []histogram.Span{
-					{Offset: 0, Length: 2},
-					{Offset: 1, Length: 2},
-				},
-				PositiveBuckets: []int64{2, 1, -2, 3},
-			},
-			subCases: []subCase{
-				{
-					quantile: "1.0001",
-					value:    math.Inf(1),
-				},
-				{
-					quantile: "1",
-					value:    16,
-				},
-				{
-					quantile: "0.99",
-					value:    15.759999999999998,
-				},
-				{
-					quantile: "0.9",
-					value:    13.600000000000001,
-				},
-				{
-					quantile: "0.6",
-					value:    4.799999999999997,
-				},
-				{
-					quantile: "0.5",
-					value:    1.6666666666666665,
-				},
-				{ // Zero bucket.
-					quantile: "0.1",
-					value:    0.0006000000000000001,
-				},
-				{
-					quantile: "0",
-					value:    0,
-				},
-				{
-					quantile: "-1",
-					value:    math.Inf(-1),
-				},
-			},
-		},
-		{
-			text: "all negative buckets with zero bucket",
-			h: &histogram.Histogram{
-				Count:         12,
-				ZeroCount:     2,
-				ZeroThreshold: 0.001,
-				Sum:           100, // Does not matter.
-				Schema:        0,
-				NegativeSpans: []histogram.Span{
-					{Offset: 0, Length: 2},
-					{Offset: 1, Length: 2},
-				},
-				NegativeBuckets: []int64{2, 1, -2, 3},
-			},
-			subCases: []subCase{
-				{
-					quantile: "1.0001",
-					value:    math.Inf(1),
-				},
-				{ // Zero bucket.
-					quantile: "1",
-					value:    0,
-				},
-				{ // Zero bucket.
-					quantile: "0.99",
-					value:    -6.000000000000048e-05,
-				},
-				{ // Zero bucket.
-					quantile: "0.9",
-					value:    -0.0005999999999999996,
-				},
-				{
-					quantile: "0.5",
-					value:    -1.6666666666666667,
-				},
-				{
-					quantile: "0.1",
-					value:    -13.6,
-				},
-				{
-					quantile: "0",
-					value:    -16,
-				},
-				{
-					quantile: "-1",
-					value:    math.Inf(-1),
-				},
-			},
-		},
-		{
-			text: "both positive and negative buckets with zero bucket",
-			h: &histogram.Histogram{
-				Count:         24,
-				ZeroCount:     4,
-				ZeroThreshold: 0.001,
-				Sum:           100, // Does not matter.
-				Schema:        0,
-				PositiveSpans: []histogram.Span{
-					{Offset: 0, Length: 2},
-					{Offset: 1, Length: 2},
-				},
-				PositiveBuckets: []int64{2, 1, -2, 3},
-				NegativeSpans: []histogram.Span{
-					{Offset: 0, Length: 2},
-					{Offset: 1, Length: 2},
-				},
-				NegativeBuckets: []int64{2, 1, -2, 3},
-			},
-			subCases: []subCase{
-				{
-					quantile: "1.0001",
-					value:    math.Inf(1),
-				},
-				{
-					quantile: "1",
-					value:    16,
-				},
-				{
-					quantile: "0.99",
-					value:    15.519999999999996,
-				},
-				{
-					quantile: "0.9",
-					value:    11.200000000000003,
-				},
-				{
-					quantile: "0.7",
-					value:    1.2666666666666657,
-				},
-				{ // Zero bucket.
-					quantile: "0.55",
-					value:    0.0006000000000000005,
-				},
-				{ // Zero bucket.
-					quantile: "0.5",
-					value:    0,
-				},
-				{ // Zero bucket.
-					quantile: "0.45",
-					value:    -0.0005999999999999996,
-				},
-				{
-					quantile: "0.3",
-					value:    -1.266666666666667,
-				},
-				{
-					quantile: "0.1",
-					value:    -11.2,
-				},
-				{
-					quantile: "0.01",
-					value:    -15.52,
-				},
-				{
-					quantile: "0",
-					value:    -16,
-				},
-				{
-					quantile: "-1",
-					value:    math.Inf(-1),
-				},
-			},
-		},
-	}
-
-	engine := newTestEngine()
-	storage := teststorage.New(t)
-	t.Cleanup(func() { storage.Close() })
-	idx := int64(0)
-	for _, floatHisto := range []bool{true, false} {
-		for _, c := range cases {
-			t.Run(fmt.Sprintf("%s floatHistogram=%t", c.text, floatHisto), func(t *testing.T) {
-				seriesName := "sparse_histogram_series"
-				lbls := labels.FromStrings("__name__", seriesName)
-				ts := idx * int64(10*time.Minute/time.Millisecond)
-				app := storage.Appender(context.Background())
-				var err error
-				if floatHisto {
-					_, err = app.AppendHistogram(0, lbls, ts, nil, c.h.ToFloat(nil))
-				} else {
-					_, err = app.AppendHistogram(0, lbls, ts, c.h, nil)
-				}
-				require.NoError(t, err)
-				require.NoError(t, app.Commit())
-
-				for j, sc := range c.subCases {
-					t.Run(fmt.Sprintf("%d %s", j, sc.quantile), func(t *testing.T) {
-						queryString := fmt.Sprintf("histogram_quantile(%s, %s)", sc.quantile, seriesName)
-						qry, err := engine.NewInstantQuery(context.Background(), storage, nil, queryString, timestamp.Time(ts))
-						require.NoError(t, err)
-
-						res := qry.Exec(context.Background())
-						require.NoError(t, res.Err)
-
-						vector, err := res.Vector()
-						require.NoError(t, err)
-
-						require.Len(t, vector, 1)
-						require.Nil(t, vector[0].H)
-						require.True(t, almostEqual(sc.value, vector[0].F, defaultEpsilon))
-					})
-				}
-				idx++
-			})
-		}
-	}
-}
-
-func TestNativeHistogram_HistogramFraction(t *testing.T) {
-	// TODO(codesome): Integrate histograms into the PromQL testing framework
-	// and write more tests there.
-	type subCase struct {
-		lower, upper string
-		value        float64
-	}
-
-	invariantCases := []subCase{
-		{
-			lower: "42",
-			upper: "3.1415",
-			value: 0,
-		},
-		{
-			lower: "0",
-			upper: "0",
-			value: 0,
-		},
-		{
-			lower: "0.000001",
-			upper: "0.000001",
-			value: 0,
-		},
-		{
-			lower: "42",
-			upper: "42",
-			value: 0,
-		},
-		{
-			lower: "-3.1",
-			upper: "-3.1",
-			value: 0,
-		},
-		{
-			lower: "3.1415",
-			upper: "NaN",
-			value: math.NaN(),
-		},
-		{
-			lower: "NaN",
-			upper: "42",
-			value: math.NaN(),
-		},
-		{
-			lower: "NaN",
-			upper: "NaN",
-			value: math.NaN(),
-		},
-		{
-			lower: "-Inf",
-			upper: "+Inf",
-			value: 1,
-		},
-	}
-
-	cases := []struct {
-		text string
-		// Histogram to test.
-		h *histogram.Histogram
-		// Different ranges to test for this histogram.
-		subCases []subCase
-	}{
-		{
-			text: "empty histogram",
-			h:    &histogram.Histogram{},
-			subCases: []subCase{
-				{
-					lower: "3.1415",
-					upper: "42",
-					value: math.NaN(),
-				},
-			},
-		},
-		{
-			text: "all positive buckets with zero bucket",
-			h: &histogram.Histogram{
-				Count:         12,
-				ZeroCount:     2,
-				ZeroThreshold: 0.001,
-				Sum:           100, // Does not matter.
-				Schema:        0,
-				PositiveSpans: []histogram.Span{
-					{Offset: 0, Length: 2},
-					{Offset: 1, Length: 2},
-				},
-				PositiveBuckets: []int64{2, 1, -2, 3}, // Abs: 2, 3, 1, 4
-			},
-			subCases: append([]subCase{
-				{
-					lower: "0",
-					upper: "+Inf",
-					value: 1,
-				},
-				{
-					lower: "-Inf",
-					upper: "0",
-					value: 0,
-				},
-				{
-					lower: "-0.001",
-					upper: "0",
-					value: 0,
-				},
-				{
-					lower: "0",
-					upper: "0.001",
-					value: 2. / 12.,
-				},
-				{
-					lower: "0",
-					upper: "0.0005",
-					value: 1. / 12.,
-				},
-				{
-					lower: "0.001",
-					upper: "inf",
-					value: 10. / 12.,
-				},
-				{
-					lower: "-inf",
-					upper: "-0.001",
-					value: 0,
-				},
-				{
-					lower: "1",
-					upper: "2",
-					value: 3. / 12.,
-				},
-				{
-					lower: "1.5",
-					upper: "2",
-					value: 1.5 / 12.,
-				},
-				{
-					lower: "1",
-					upper: "8",
-					value: 4. / 12.,
-				},
-				{
-					lower: "1",
-					upper: "6",
-					value: 3.5 / 12.,
-				},
-				{
-					lower: "1.5",
-					upper: "6",
-					value: 2. / 12.,
-				},
-				{
-					lower: "-2",
-					upper: "-1",
-					value: 0,
-				},
-				{
-					lower: "-2",
-					upper: "-1.5",
-					value: 0,
-				},
-				{
-					lower: "-8",
-					upper: "-1",
-					value: 0,
-				},
-				{
-					lower: "-6",
-					upper: "-1",
-					value: 0,
-				},
-				{
-					lower: "-6",
-					upper: "-1.5",
-					value: 0,
-				},
-			}, invariantCases...),
-		},
-		{
-			text: "all negative buckets with zero bucket",
-			h: &histogram.Histogram{
-				Count:         12,
-				ZeroCount:     2,
-				ZeroThreshold: 0.001,
-				Sum:           100, // Does not matter.
-				Schema:        0,
-				NegativeSpans: []histogram.Span{
-					{Offset: 0, Length: 2},
-					{Offset: 1, Length: 2},
-				},
-				NegativeBuckets: []int64{2, 1, -2, 3},
-			},
-			subCases: append([]subCase{
-				{
-					lower: "0",
-					upper: "+Inf",
-					value: 0,
-				},
-				{
-					lower: "-Inf",
-					upper: "0",
-					value: 1,
-				},
-				{
-					lower: "-0.001",
-					upper: "0",
-					value: 2. / 12.,
-				},
-				{
-					lower: "0",
-					upper: "0.001",
-					value: 0,
-				},
-				{
-					lower: "-0.0005",
-					upper: "0",
-					value: 1. / 12.,
-				},
-				{
-					lower: "0.001",
-					upper: "inf",
-					value: 0,
-				},
-				{
-					lower: "-inf",
-					upper: "-0.001",
-					value: 10. / 12.,
-				},
-				{
-					lower: "1",
-					upper: "2",
-					value: 0,
-				},
-				{
-					lower: "1.5",
-					upper: "2",
-					value: 0,
-				},
-				{
-					lower: "1",
-					upper: "8",
-					value: 0,
-				},
-				{
-					lower: "1",
-					upper: "6",
-					value: 0,
-				},
-				{
-					lower: "1.5",
-					upper: "6",
-					value: 0,
-				},
-				{
-					lower: "-2",
-					upper: "-1",
-					value: 3. / 12.,
-				},
-				{
-					lower: "-2",
-					upper: "-1.5",
-					value: 1.5 / 12.,
-				},
-				{
-					lower: "-8",
-					upper: "-1",
-					value: 4. / 12.,
-				},
-				{
-					lower: "-6",
-					upper: "-1",
-					value: 3.5 / 12.,
-				},
-				{
-					lower: "-6",
-					upper: "-1.5",
-					value: 2. / 12.,
-				},
-			}, invariantCases...),
-		},
-		{
-			text: "both positive and negative buckets with zero bucket",
-			h: &histogram.Histogram{
-				Count:         24,
-				ZeroCount:     4,
-				ZeroThreshold: 0.001,
-				Sum:           100, // Does not matter.
-				Schema:        0,
-				PositiveSpans: []histogram.Span{
-					{Offset: 0, Length: 2},
-					{Offset: 1, Length: 2},
-				},
-				PositiveBuckets: []int64{2, 1, -2, 3},
-				NegativeSpans: []histogram.Span{
-					{Offset: 0, Length: 2},
-					{Offset: 1, Length: 2},
-				},
-				NegativeBuckets: []int64{2, 1, -2, 3},
-			},
-			subCases: append([]subCase{
-				{
-					lower: "0",
-					upper: "+Inf",
-					value: 0.5,
-				},
-				{
-					lower: "-Inf",
-					upper: "0",
-					value: 0.5,
-				},
-				{
-					lower: "-0.001",
-					upper: "0",
-					value: 2. / 24,
-				},
-				{
-					lower: "0",
-					upper: "0.001",
-					value: 2. / 24.,
-				},
-				{
-					lower: "-0.0005",
-					upper: "0.0005",
-					value: 2. / 24.,
-				},
-				{
-					lower: "0.001",
-					upper: "inf",
-					value: 10. / 24.,
-				},
-				{
-					lower: "-inf",
-					upper: "-0.001",
-					value: 10. / 24.,
-				},
-				{
-					lower: "1",
-					upper: "2",
-					value: 3. / 24.,
-				},
-				{
-					lower: "1.5",
-					upper: "2",
-					value: 1.5 / 24.,
-				},
-				{
-					lower: "1",
-					upper: "8",
-					value: 4. / 24.,
-				},
-				{
-					lower: "1",
-					upper: "6",
-					value: 3.5 / 24.,
-				},
-				{
-					lower: "1.5",
-					upper: "6",
-					value: 2. / 24.,
-				},
-				{
-					lower: "-2",
-					upper: "-1",
-					value: 3. / 24.,
-				},
-				{
-					lower: "-2",
-					upper: "-1.5",
-					value: 1.5 / 24.,
-				},
-				{
-					lower: "-8",
-					upper: "-1",
-					value: 4. / 24.,
-				},
-				{
-					lower: "-6",
-					upper: "-1",
-					value: 3.5 / 24.,
-				},
-				{
-					lower: "-6",
-					upper: "-1.5",
-					value: 2. / 24.,
-				},
-			}, invariantCases...),
-		},
-	}
-	idx := int64(0)
-	for _, floatHisto := range []bool{true, false} {
-		for _, c := range cases {
-			t.Run(fmt.Sprintf("%s floatHistogram=%t", c.text, floatHisto), func(t *testing.T) {
-				engine := newTestEngine()
-				storage := teststorage.New(t)
-				t.Cleanup(func() { storage.Close() })
-
-				seriesName := "sparse_histogram_series"
-				lbls := labels.FromStrings("__name__", seriesName)
-
-				ts := idx * int64(10*time.Minute/time.Millisecond)
-				app := storage.Appender(context.Background())
-				var err error
-				if floatHisto {
-					_, err = app.AppendHistogram(0, lbls, ts, nil, c.h.ToFloat(nil))
-				} else {
-					_, err = app.AppendHistogram(0, lbls, ts, c.h, nil)
-				}
-				require.NoError(t, err)
-				require.NoError(t, app.Commit())
-
-				for j, sc := range c.subCases {
-					t.Run(fmt.Sprintf("%d %s %s", j, sc.lower, sc.upper), func(t *testing.T) {
-						queryString := fmt.Sprintf("histogram_fraction(%s, %s, %s)", sc.lower, sc.upper, seriesName)
-						qry, err := engine.NewInstantQuery(context.Background(), storage, nil, queryString, timestamp.Time(ts))
-						require.NoError(t, err)
-
-						res := qry.Exec(context.Background())
-						require.NoError(t, res.Err)
-
-						vector, err := res.Vector()
-						require.NoError(t, err)
-
-						require.Len(t, vector, 1)
-						require.Nil(t, vector[0].H)
-						if math.IsNaN(sc.value) {
-							require.True(t, math.IsNaN(vector[0].F))
-							return
-						}
-						require.Equal(t, sc.value, vector[0].F)
-					})
-				}
-				idx++
-			})
-		}
-	}
-}
-
 func TestNativeHistogram_Sum_Count_Add_AvgOperator(t *testing.T) {
 	// TODO(codesome): Integrate histograms into the PromQL testing framework
 	// and write more tests there.
@@ -4444,7 +3225,7 @@ func TestNativeHistogram_Sum_Count_Add_AvgOperator(t *testing.T) {
 				_, err := app.Append(0, labels.FromStrings("__name__", "float_series", "idx", "0"), ts, 42)
 				require.NoError(t, err)
 				for idx1, h := range c.histograms {
-					lbls := labels.FromStrings("__name__", seriesName, "idx", fmt.Sprintf("%d", idx1))
+					lbls := labels.FromStrings("__name__", seriesName, "idx", strconv.Itoa(idx1))
 					// Since we mutate h later, we need to create a copy here.
 					var err error
 					if floatHisto {
@@ -4466,7 +3247,7 @@ func TestNativeHistogram_Sum_Count_Add_AvgOperator(t *testing.T) {
 				}
 				require.NoError(t, app.Commit())
 
-				queryAndCheck := func(queryString string, ts int64, exp Vector) {
+				queryAndCheck := func(queryString string, ts int64, exp promql.Vector) {
 					qry, err := engine.NewInstantQuery(context.Background(), storage, nil, queryString, timestamp.Time(ts))
 					require.NoError(t, err)
 
@@ -4490,7 +3271,7 @@ func TestNativeHistogram_Sum_Count_Add_AvgOperator(t *testing.T) {
 
 				// sum().
 				queryString := fmt.Sprintf("sum(%s)", seriesName)
-				queryAndCheck(queryString, ts, []Sample{{T: ts, H: &c.expected, Metric: labels.EmptyLabels()}})
+				queryAndCheck(queryString, ts, []promql.Sample{{T: ts, H: &c.expected, Metric: labels.EmptyLabels()}})
 
 				queryString = `sum({idx="0"})`
 				var annos annotations.Annotations
@@ -4502,26 +3283,26 @@ func TestNativeHistogram_Sum_Count_Add_AvgOperator(t *testing.T) {
 				for idx := 1; idx < len(c.histograms); idx++ {
 					queryString += fmt.Sprintf(` + ignoring(idx) %s{idx="%d"}`, seriesName, idx)
 				}
-				queryAndCheck(queryString, ts, []Sample{{T: ts, H: &c.expected, Metric: labels.EmptyLabels()}})
+				queryAndCheck(queryString, ts, []promql.Sample{{T: ts, H: &c.expected, Metric: labels.EmptyLabels()}})
 
 				// count().
 				queryString = fmt.Sprintf("count(%s)", seriesName)
-				queryAndCheck(queryString, ts, []Sample{{T: ts, F: 4, Metric: labels.EmptyLabels()}})
+				queryAndCheck(queryString, ts, []promql.Sample{{T: ts, F: 4, Metric: labels.EmptyLabels()}})
 
 				// avg().
 				queryString = fmt.Sprintf("avg(%s)", seriesName)
-				queryAndCheck(queryString, ts, []Sample{{T: ts, H: &c.expectedAvg, Metric: labels.EmptyLabels()}})
+				queryAndCheck(queryString, ts, []promql.Sample{{T: ts, H: &c.expectedAvg, Metric: labels.EmptyLabels()}})
 
 				offset := int64(len(c.histograms) - 1)
 				newTs := ts + offset*int64(time.Minute/time.Millisecond)
 
 				// sum_over_time().
 				queryString = fmt.Sprintf("sum_over_time(%s[%dm:1m])", seriesNameOverTime, offset)
-				queryAndCheck(queryString, newTs, []Sample{{T: newTs, H: &c.expected, Metric: labels.EmptyLabels()}})
+				queryAndCheck(queryString, newTs, []promql.Sample{{T: newTs, H: &c.expected, Metric: labels.EmptyLabels()}})
 
 				// avg_over_time().
 				queryString = fmt.Sprintf("avg_over_time(%s[%dm:1m])", seriesNameOverTime, offset)
-				queryAndCheck(queryString, newTs, []Sample{{T: newTs, H: &c.expectedAvg, Metric: labels.EmptyLabels()}})
+				queryAndCheck(queryString, newTs, []promql.Sample{{T: newTs, H: &c.expectedAvg, Metric: labels.EmptyLabels()}})
 			})
 			idx0++
 		}
@@ -4716,7 +3497,7 @@ func TestNativeHistogram_SubOperator(t *testing.T) {
 				ts := idx0 * int64(10*time.Minute/time.Millisecond)
 				app := storage.Appender(context.Background())
 				for idx1, h := range c.histograms {
-					lbls := labels.FromStrings("__name__", seriesName, "idx", fmt.Sprintf("%d", idx1))
+					lbls := labels.FromStrings("__name__", seriesName, "idx", strconv.Itoa(idx1))
 					// Since we mutate h later, we need to create a copy here.
 					var err error
 					if floatHisto {
@@ -4728,7 +3509,7 @@ func TestNativeHistogram_SubOperator(t *testing.T) {
 				}
 				require.NoError(t, app.Commit())
 
-				queryAndCheck := func(queryString string, exp Vector) {
+				queryAndCheck := func(queryString string, exp promql.Vector) {
 					qry, err := engine.NewInstantQuery(context.Background(), storage, nil, queryString, timestamp.Time(ts))
 					require.NoError(t, err)
 
@@ -4756,7 +3537,7 @@ func TestNativeHistogram_SubOperator(t *testing.T) {
 				for idx := 1; idx < len(c.histograms); idx++ {
 					queryString += fmt.Sprintf(` - ignoring(idx) %s{idx="%d"}`, seriesName, idx)
 				}
-				queryAndCheck(queryString, []Sample{{T: ts, H: &c.expected, Metric: labels.EmptyLabels()}})
+				queryAndCheck(queryString, []promql.Sample{{T: ts, H: &c.expected, Metric: labels.EmptyLabels()}})
 			})
 		}
 		idx0++
@@ -4886,7 +3667,7 @@ func TestNativeHistogram_MulDivOperator(t *testing.T) {
 				require.NoError(t, err)
 				require.NoError(t, app.Commit())
 
-				queryAndCheck := func(queryString string, exp Vector) {
+				queryAndCheck := func(queryString string, exp promql.Vector) {
 					qry, err := engine.NewInstantQuery(context.Background(), storage, nil, queryString, timestamp.Time(ts))
 					require.NoError(t, err)
 
@@ -4901,27 +3682,27 @@ func TestNativeHistogram_MulDivOperator(t *testing.T) {
 
 				// histogram * scalar.
 				queryString := fmt.Sprintf(`%s * %f`, seriesName, c.scalar)
-				queryAndCheck(queryString, []Sample{{T: ts, H: &c.expectedMul, Metric: labels.EmptyLabels()}})
+				queryAndCheck(queryString, []promql.Sample{{T: ts, H: &c.expectedMul, Metric: labels.EmptyLabels()}})
 
 				// scalar * histogram.
 				queryString = fmt.Sprintf(`%f * %s`, c.scalar, seriesName)
-				queryAndCheck(queryString, []Sample{{T: ts, H: &c.expectedMul, Metric: labels.EmptyLabels()}})
+				queryAndCheck(queryString, []promql.Sample{{T: ts, H: &c.expectedMul, Metric: labels.EmptyLabels()}})
 
 				// histogram * float.
 				queryString = fmt.Sprintf(`%s * %s`, seriesName, floatSeriesName)
-				queryAndCheck(queryString, []Sample{{T: ts, H: &c.expectedMul, Metric: labels.EmptyLabels()}})
+				queryAndCheck(queryString, []promql.Sample{{T: ts, H: &c.expectedMul, Metric: labels.EmptyLabels()}})
 
 				// float * histogram.
 				queryString = fmt.Sprintf(`%s * %s`, floatSeriesName, seriesName)
-				queryAndCheck(queryString, []Sample{{T: ts, H: &c.expectedMul, Metric: labels.EmptyLabels()}})
+				queryAndCheck(queryString, []promql.Sample{{T: ts, H: &c.expectedMul, Metric: labels.EmptyLabels()}})
 
 				// histogram / scalar.
 				queryString = fmt.Sprintf(`%s / %f`, seriesName, c.scalar)
-				queryAndCheck(queryString, []Sample{{T: ts, H: &c.expectedDiv, Metric: labels.EmptyLabels()}})
+				queryAndCheck(queryString, []promql.Sample{{T: ts, H: &c.expectedDiv, Metric: labels.EmptyLabels()}})
 
 				// histogram / float.
 				queryString = fmt.Sprintf(`%s / %s`, seriesName, floatSeriesName)
-				queryAndCheck(queryString, []Sample{{T: ts, H: &c.expectedDiv, Metric: labels.EmptyLabels()}})
+				queryAndCheck(queryString, []promql.Sample{{T: ts, H: &c.expectedDiv, Metric: labels.EmptyLabels()}})
 			})
 			idx0++
 		}
@@ -4991,20 +3772,17 @@ metric 0 1 2
 	for _, c := range cases {
 		c := c
 		t.Run(c.name, func(t *testing.T) {
-			engine := newTestEngine()
-			storage := LoadedStorage(t, load)
+			engine := promqltest.NewTestEngine(false, c.engineLookback, promqltest.DefaultMaxSamplesPerQuery)
+			storage := promqltest.LoadedStorage(t, load)
 			t.Cleanup(func() { storage.Close() })
 
-			if c.engineLookback != 0 {
-				engine.lookbackDelta = c.engineLookback
-			}
-			opts := NewPrometheusQueryOpts(false, c.queryLookback)
+			opts := promql.NewPrometheusQueryOpts(false, c.queryLookback)
 			qry, err := engine.NewInstantQuery(context.Background(), storage, opts, query, c.ts)
 			require.NoError(t, err)
 
 			res := qry.Exec(context.Background())
 			require.NoError(t, res.Err)
-			vec, ok := res.Value.(Vector)
+			vec, ok := res.Value.(promql.Vector)
 			require.True(t, ok)
 			if c.expectSamples {
 				require.NotEmpty(t, vec)
@@ -5014,3 +3792,9 @@ metric 0 1 2
 		})
 	}
 }
+
+func makeInt64Pointer(val int64) *int64 {
+	valp := new(int64)
+	*valp = val
+	return valp
+}
diff --git a/promql/functions.go b/promql/functions.go
index 2e15a14672..dcc2cd7590 100644
--- a/promql/functions.go
+++ b/promql/functions.go
@@ -14,6 +14,7 @@
 package promql
 
 import (
+	"errors"
 	"fmt"
 	"math"
 	"slices"
@@ -210,14 +211,28 @@ func histogramRate(points []HPoint, isCounter bool, metricName string, pos posra
 	}
 
 	h := last.CopyToSchema(minSchema)
-	h.Sub(prev)
+	_, err := h.Sub(prev)
+	if err != nil {
+		if errors.Is(err, histogram.ErrHistogramsIncompatibleSchema) {
+			return nil, annotations.New().Add(annotations.NewMixedExponentialCustomHistogramsWarning(metricName, pos))
+		} else if errors.Is(err, histogram.ErrHistogramsIncompatibleBounds) {
+			return nil, annotations.New().Add(annotations.NewIncompatibleCustomBucketsHistogramsWarning(metricName, pos))
+		}
+	}
 
 	if isCounter {
 		// Second iteration to deal with counter resets.
 		for _, currPoint := range points[1:] {
 			curr := currPoint.H
 			if curr.DetectReset(prev) {
-				h.Add(prev)
+				_, err := h.Add(prev)
+				if err != nil {
+					if errors.Is(err, histogram.ErrHistogramsIncompatibleSchema) {
+						return nil, annotations.New().Add(annotations.NewMixedExponentialCustomHistogramsWarning(metricName, pos))
+					} else if errors.Is(err, histogram.ErrHistogramsIncompatibleBounds) {
+						return nil, annotations.New().Add(annotations.NewIncompatibleCustomBucketsHistogramsWarning(metricName, pos))
+					}
+				}
 			}
 			prev = curr
 		}
@@ -513,10 +528,11 @@ func aggrOverTime(vals []parser.Value, enh *EvalNodeHelper, aggrFn func(Series)
 	return append(enh.Out, Sample{F: aggrFn(el)})
 }
 
-func aggrHistOverTime(vals []parser.Value, enh *EvalNodeHelper, aggrFn func(Series) *histogram.FloatHistogram) Vector {
+func aggrHistOverTime(vals []parser.Value, enh *EvalNodeHelper, aggrFn func(Series) (*histogram.FloatHistogram, error)) (Vector, error) {
 	el := vals[0].(Matrix)[0]
+	res, err := aggrFn(el)
 
-	return append(enh.Out, Sample{H: aggrFn(el)})
+	return append(enh.Out, Sample{H: res}), err
 }
 
 // === avg_over_time(Matrix parser.ValueTypeMatrix) (Vector, Annotations)  ===
@@ -528,18 +544,33 @@ func funcAvgOverTime(vals []parser.Value, args parser.Expressions, enh *EvalNode
 	}
 	if len(firstSeries.Floats) == 0 {
 		// The passed values only contain histograms.
-		return aggrHistOverTime(vals, enh, func(s Series) *histogram.FloatHistogram {
+		vec, err := aggrHistOverTime(vals, enh, func(s Series) (*histogram.FloatHistogram, error) {
 			count := 1
 			mean := s.Histograms[0].H.Copy()
 			for _, h := range s.Histograms[1:] {
 				count++
 				left := h.H.Copy().Div(float64(count))
 				right := mean.Copy().Div(float64(count))
-				toAdd := left.Sub(right)
-				mean.Add(toAdd)
+				toAdd, err := left.Sub(right)
+				if err != nil {
+					return mean, err
+				}
+				_, err = mean.Add(toAdd)
+				if err != nil {
+					return mean, err
+				}
 			}
-			return mean
-		}), nil
+			return mean, nil
+		})
+		if err != nil {
+			metricName := firstSeries.Metric.Get(labels.MetricName)
+			if errors.Is(err, histogram.ErrHistogramsIncompatibleSchema) {
+				return enh.Out, annotations.New().Add(annotations.NewMixedExponentialCustomHistogramsWarning(metricName, args[0].PositionRange()))
+			} else if errors.Is(err, histogram.ErrHistogramsIncompatibleBounds) {
+				return enh.Out, annotations.New().Add(annotations.NewIncompatibleCustomBucketsHistogramsWarning(metricName, args[0].PositionRange()))
+			}
+		}
+		return vec, nil
 	}
 	return aggrOverTime(vals, enh, func(s Series) float64 {
 		var mean, count, c float64
@@ -673,13 +704,25 @@ func funcSumOverTime(vals []parser.Value, args parser.Expressions, enh *EvalNode
 	}
 	if len(firstSeries.Floats) == 0 {
 		// The passed values only contain histograms.
-		return aggrHistOverTime(vals, enh, func(s Series) *histogram.FloatHistogram {
+		vec, err := aggrHistOverTime(vals, enh, func(s Series) (*histogram.FloatHistogram, error) {
 			sum := s.Histograms[0].H.Copy()
 			for _, h := range s.Histograms[1:] {
-				sum.Add(h.H)
+				_, err := sum.Add(h.H)
+				if err != nil {
+					return sum, err
+				}
 			}
-			return sum
-		}), nil
+			return sum, nil
+		})
+		if err != nil {
+			metricName := firstSeries.Metric.Get(labels.MetricName)
+			if errors.Is(err, histogram.ErrHistogramsIncompatibleSchema) {
+				return enh.Out, annotations.New().Add(annotations.NewMixedExponentialCustomHistogramsWarning(metricName, args[0].PositionRange()))
+			} else if errors.Is(err, histogram.ErrHistogramsIncompatibleBounds) {
+				return enh.Out, annotations.New().Add(annotations.NewIncompatibleCustomBucketsHistogramsWarning(metricName, args[0].PositionRange()))
+			}
+		}
+		return vec, nil
 	}
 	return aggrOverTime(vals, enh, func(s Series) float64 {
 		var sum, c float64
@@ -948,21 +991,16 @@ func funcTimestamp(vals []parser.Value, args parser.Expressions, enh *EvalNodeHe
 	return enh.Out, nil
 }
 
-func kahanSum(samples []float64) float64 {
-	var sum, c float64
-
-	for _, v := range samples {
-		sum, c = kahanSumInc(v, sum, c)
-	}
-	return sum + c
-}
-
 func kahanSumInc(inc, sum, c float64) (newSum, newC float64) {
 	t := sum + inc
+	switch {
+	case math.IsInf(t, 0):
+		c = 0
+
 	// Using Neumaier improvement, swap if next term larger than sum.
-	if math.Abs(sum) >= math.Abs(inc) {
+	case math.Abs(sum) >= math.Abs(inc):
 		c += (sum - t) + inc
-	} else {
+	default:
 		c += (inc - t) + sum
 	}
 	return t, c
diff --git a/promql/functions_internal_test.go b/promql/functions_internal_test.go
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..85c6cd7973
--- /dev/null
+++ b/promql/functions_internal_test.go
@@ -0,0 +1,81 @@
+// Copyright 2015 The Prometheus Authors
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+//
+// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+
+package promql
+
+import (
+	"fmt"
+	"math"
+	"testing"
+
+	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
+)
+
+func TestKahanSumInc(t *testing.T) {
+	testCases := map[string]struct {
+		first    float64
+		second   float64
+		expected float64
+	}{
+		"+Inf + anything = +Inf": {
+			first:    math.Inf(1),
+			second:   2.0,
+			expected: math.Inf(1),
+		},
+		"-Inf + anything = -Inf": {
+			first:    math.Inf(-1),
+			second:   2.0,
+			expected: math.Inf(-1),
+		},
+		"+Inf + -Inf = NaN": {
+			first:    math.Inf(1),
+			second:   math.Inf(-1),
+			expected: math.NaN(),
+		},
+		"NaN + anything = NaN": {
+			first:    math.NaN(),
+			second:   2,
+			expected: math.NaN(),
+		},
+		"NaN + Inf = NaN": {
+			first:    math.NaN(),
+			second:   math.Inf(1),
+			expected: math.NaN(),
+		},
+		"NaN + -Inf = NaN": {
+			first:    math.NaN(),
+			second:   math.Inf(-1),
+			expected: math.NaN(),
+		},
+	}
+
+	runTest := func(t *testing.T, a, b, expected float64) {
+		t.Run(fmt.Sprintf("%v + %v = %v", a, b, expected), func(t *testing.T) {
+			sum, c := kahanSumInc(b, a, 0)
+			result := sum + c
+
+			if math.IsNaN(expected) {
+				require.Truef(t, math.IsNaN(result), "expected result to be NaN, but got %v (from %v + %v)", result, sum, c)
+			} else {
+				require.Equalf(t, expected, result, "expected result to be %v, but got %v (from %v + %v)", expected, result, sum, c)
+			}
+		})
+	}
+
+	for name, testCase := range testCases {
+		t.Run(name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			runTest(t, testCase.first, testCase.second, testCase.expected)
+			runTest(t, testCase.second, testCase.first, testCase.expected)
+		})
+	}
+}
diff --git a/promql/functions_test.go b/promql/functions_test.go
index 6d5c3784ea..aef59c8379 100644
--- a/promql/functions_test.go
+++ b/promql/functions_test.go
@@ -11,11 +11,10 @@
 // See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 // limitations under the License.
 
-package promql
+package promql_test
 
 import (
 	"context"
-	"math"
 	"testing"
 	"time"
 
@@ -23,6 +22,7 @@ import (
 
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/labels"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/timestamp"
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/promql"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/promql/parser"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/util/teststorage"
 )
@@ -33,13 +33,13 @@ func TestDeriv(t *testing.T) {
 	// so we test it by hand.
 	storage := teststorage.New(t)
 	defer storage.Close()
-	opts := EngineOpts{
+	opts := promql.EngineOpts{
 		Logger:     nil,
 		Reg:        nil,
 		MaxSamples: 10000,
 		Timeout:    10 * time.Second,
 	}
-	engine := NewEngine(opts)
+	engine := promql.NewEngine(opts)
 
 	a := storage.Appender(context.Background())
 
@@ -70,19 +70,13 @@ func TestDeriv(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestFunctionList(t *testing.T) {
 	// Test that Functions and parser.Functions list the same functions.
-	for i := range FunctionCalls {
+	for i := range promql.FunctionCalls {
 		_, ok := parser.Functions[i]
 		require.True(t, ok, "function %s exists in promql package, but not in parser package", i)
 	}
 
 	for i := range parser.Functions {
-		_, ok := FunctionCalls[i]
+		_, ok := promql.FunctionCalls[i]
 		require.True(t, ok, "function %s exists in parser package, but not in promql package", i)
 	}
 }
-
-func TestKahanSum(t *testing.T) {
-	vals := []float64{1.0, math.Pow(10, 100), 1.0, -1 * math.Pow(10, 100)}
-	expected := 2.0
-	require.Equal(t, expected, kahanSum(vals))
-}
diff --git a/promql/histogram_stats_iterator.go b/promql/histogram_stats_iterator.go
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..dfafea5f8c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/promql/histogram_stats_iterator.go
@@ -0,0 +1,144 @@
+// Copyright 2024 The Prometheus Authors
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+//
+// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+
+package promql
+
+import (
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/histogram"
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/value"
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/tsdb/chunkenc"
+)
+
+type histogramStatsIterator struct {
+	chunkenc.Iterator
+
+	currentH *histogram.Histogram
+	lastH    *histogram.Histogram
+
+	currentFH *histogram.FloatHistogram
+	lastFH    *histogram.FloatHistogram
+}
+
+// NewHistogramStatsIterator creates an iterator which returns histogram objects
+// which have only their sum and count values populated. The iterator handles
+// counter reset detection internally and sets the counter reset hint accordingly
+// in each returned histogram objects.
+func NewHistogramStatsIterator(it chunkenc.Iterator) chunkenc.Iterator {
+	return &histogramStatsIterator{
+		Iterator:  it,
+		currentH:  &histogram.Histogram{},
+		currentFH: &histogram.FloatHistogram{},
+	}
+}
+
+// AtHistogram returns the next timestamp/histogram pair. The counter reset
+// detection is guaranteed to be correct only when the caller does not switch
+// between AtHistogram and AtFloatHistogram calls.
+func (f *histogramStatsIterator) AtHistogram(h *histogram.Histogram) (int64, *histogram.Histogram) {
+	var t int64
+	t, f.currentH = f.Iterator.AtHistogram(f.currentH)
+	if value.IsStaleNaN(f.currentH.Sum) {
+		f.setLastH(f.currentH)
+		h = &histogram.Histogram{Sum: f.currentH.Sum}
+		return t, h
+	}
+
+	if h == nil {
+		h = &histogram.Histogram{
+			CounterResetHint: f.getResetHint(f.currentH),
+			Count:            f.currentH.Count,
+			Sum:              f.currentH.Sum,
+		}
+		f.setLastH(f.currentH)
+		return t, h
+	}
+
+	h.CounterResetHint = f.getResetHint(f.currentH)
+	h.Count = f.currentH.Count
+	h.Sum = f.currentH.Sum
+	f.setLastH(f.currentH)
+	return t, h
+}
+
+// AtFloatHistogram returns the next timestamp/float histogram pair. The counter
+// reset detection is guaranteed to be correct only when the caller does not
+// switch between AtHistogram and AtFloatHistogram calls.
+func (f *histogramStatsIterator) AtFloatHistogram(fh *histogram.FloatHistogram) (int64, *histogram.FloatHistogram) {
+	var t int64
+	t, f.currentFH = f.Iterator.AtFloatHistogram(f.currentFH)
+	if value.IsStaleNaN(f.currentFH.Sum) {
+		f.setLastFH(f.currentFH)
+		return t, &histogram.FloatHistogram{Sum: f.currentFH.Sum}
+	}
+
+	if fh == nil {
+		fh = &histogram.FloatHistogram{
+			CounterResetHint: f.getFloatResetHint(f.currentFH.CounterResetHint),
+			Count:            f.currentFH.Count,
+			Sum:              f.currentFH.Sum,
+		}
+		f.setLastFH(f.currentFH)
+		return t, fh
+	}
+
+	fh.CounterResetHint = f.getFloatResetHint(f.currentFH.CounterResetHint)
+	fh.Count = f.currentFH.Count
+	fh.Sum = f.currentFH.Sum
+	f.setLastFH(f.currentFH)
+	return t, fh
+}
+
+func (f *histogramStatsIterator) setLastH(h *histogram.Histogram) {
+	if f.lastH == nil {
+		f.lastH = h.Copy()
+	} else {
+		h.CopyTo(f.lastH)
+	}
+}
+
+func (f *histogramStatsIterator) setLastFH(fh *histogram.FloatHistogram) {
+	if f.lastFH == nil {
+		f.lastFH = fh.Copy()
+	} else {
+		fh.CopyTo(f.lastFH)
+	}
+}
+
+func (f *histogramStatsIterator) getFloatResetHint(hint histogram.CounterResetHint) histogram.CounterResetHint {
+	if hint != histogram.UnknownCounterReset {
+		return hint
+	}
+	if f.lastFH == nil {
+		return histogram.NotCounterReset
+	}
+
+	if f.currentFH.DetectReset(f.lastFH) {
+		return histogram.CounterReset
+	}
+	return histogram.NotCounterReset
+}
+
+func (f *histogramStatsIterator) getResetHint(h *histogram.Histogram) histogram.CounterResetHint {
+	if h.CounterResetHint != histogram.UnknownCounterReset {
+		return h.CounterResetHint
+	}
+	if f.lastH == nil {
+		return histogram.NotCounterReset
+	}
+
+	fh, prevFH := h.ToFloat(nil), f.lastH.ToFloat(nil)
+	if fh.DetectReset(prevFH) {
+		return histogram.CounterReset
+	}
+	return histogram.NotCounterReset
+}
diff --git a/promql/histogram_stats_iterator_test.go b/promql/histogram_stats_iterator_test.go
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..b71a9d6029
--- /dev/null
+++ b/promql/histogram_stats_iterator_test.go
@@ -0,0 +1,121 @@
+// Copyright 2015 The Prometheus Authors
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+//
+// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+
+package promql
+
+import (
+	"testing"
+
+	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
+
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/histogram"
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/labels"
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/tsdb/chunkenc"
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/tsdb/tsdbutil"
+)
+
+func TestHistogramStatsDecoding(t *testing.T) {
+	histograms := []*histogram.Histogram{
+		tsdbutil.GenerateTestHistogram(0),
+		tsdbutil.GenerateTestHistogram(1),
+		tsdbutil.GenerateTestHistogram(2),
+		tsdbutil.GenerateTestHistogram(2),
+	}
+	histograms[0].CounterResetHint = histogram.NotCounterReset
+	histograms[1].CounterResetHint = histogram.UnknownCounterReset
+	histograms[2].CounterResetHint = histogram.CounterReset
+	histograms[3].CounterResetHint = histogram.UnknownCounterReset
+
+	expectedHints := []histogram.CounterResetHint{
+		histogram.NotCounterReset,
+		histogram.NotCounterReset,
+		histogram.CounterReset,
+		histogram.NotCounterReset,
+	}
+
+	t.Run("histogram_stats", func(t *testing.T) {
+		decodedStats := make([]*histogram.Histogram, 0)
+		statsIterator := NewHistogramStatsIterator(newHistogramSeries(histograms).Iterator(nil))
+		for statsIterator.Next() != chunkenc.ValNone {
+			_, h := statsIterator.AtHistogram(nil)
+			decodedStats = append(decodedStats, h)
+		}
+		for i := 0; i < len(histograms); i++ {
+			require.Equal(t, expectedHints[i], decodedStats[i].CounterResetHint)
+			require.Equal(t, histograms[i].Count, decodedStats[i].Count)
+			require.Equal(t, histograms[i].Sum, decodedStats[i].Sum)
+		}
+	})
+	t.Run("float_histogram_stats", func(t *testing.T) {
+		decodedStats := make([]*histogram.FloatHistogram, 0)
+		statsIterator := NewHistogramStatsIterator(newHistogramSeries(histograms).Iterator(nil))
+		for statsIterator.Next() != chunkenc.ValNone {
+			_, h := statsIterator.AtFloatHistogram(nil)
+			decodedStats = append(decodedStats, h)
+		}
+		for i := 0; i < len(histograms); i++ {
+			fh := histograms[i].ToFloat(nil)
+			require.Equal(t, expectedHints[i], decodedStats[i].CounterResetHint)
+			require.Equal(t, fh.Count, decodedStats[i].Count)
+			require.Equal(t, fh.Sum, decodedStats[i].Sum)
+		}
+	})
+}
+
+type histogramSeries struct {
+	histograms []*histogram.Histogram
+}
+
+func newHistogramSeries(histograms []*histogram.Histogram) *histogramSeries {
+	return &histogramSeries{
+		histograms: histograms,
+	}
+}
+
+func (m histogramSeries) Labels() labels.Labels { return labels.EmptyLabels() }
+
+func (m histogramSeries) Iterator(_ chunkenc.Iterator) chunkenc.Iterator {
+	return &histogramIterator{
+		i:          -1,
+		histograms: m.histograms,
+	}
+}
+
+type histogramIterator struct {
+	i          int
+	histograms []*histogram.Histogram
+}
+
+func (h *histogramIterator) Next() chunkenc.ValueType {
+	h.i++
+	if h.i < len(h.histograms) {
+		return chunkenc.ValHistogram
+	}
+	return chunkenc.ValNone
+}
+
+func (h *histogramIterator) Seek(t int64) chunkenc.ValueType { panic("not implemented") }
+
+func (h *histogramIterator) At() (int64, float64) { panic("not implemented") }
+
+func (h *histogramIterator) AtHistogram(_ *histogram.Histogram) (int64, *histogram.Histogram) {
+	return 0, h.histograms[h.i]
+}
+
+func (h *histogramIterator) AtFloatHistogram(_ *histogram.FloatHistogram) (int64, *histogram.FloatHistogram) {
+	return 0, h.histograms[h.i].ToFloat(nil)
+}
+
+func (h *histogramIterator) AtT() int64 { return 0 }
+
+func (h *histogramIterator) Err() error { return nil }
diff --git a/promql/parser/ast.go b/promql/parser/ast.go
index 379352599d..830e8a2c5e 100644
--- a/promql/parser/ast.go
+++ b/promql/parser/ast.go
@@ -198,10 +198,11 @@ type VectorSelector struct {
 	// Offset is the offset used during the query execution
 	// which is calculated using the original offset, at modifier time,
 	// eval time, and subquery offsets in the AST tree.
-	Offset        time.Duration
-	Timestamp     *int64
-	StartOrEnd    ItemType // Set when @ is used with start() or end()
-	LabelMatchers []*labels.Matcher
+	Offset               time.Duration
+	Timestamp            *int64
+	SkipHistogramBuckets bool     // Set when decoding native histogram buckets is not needed for query evaluation.
+	StartOrEnd           ItemType // Set when @ is used with start() or end()
+	LabelMatchers        []*labels.Matcher
 
 	// The unexpanded seriesSet populated at query preparation time.
 	UnexpandedSeriesSet storage.SeriesSet
diff --git a/promql/parser/generated_parser.y b/promql/parser/generated_parser.y
index 841bd31c19..d84acc37c5 100644
--- a/promql/parser/generated_parser.y
+++ b/promql/parser/generated_parser.y
@@ -84,6 +84,7 @@ BUCKETS_DESC
 NEGATIVE_BUCKETS_DESC
 ZERO_BUCKET_DESC
 ZERO_BUCKET_WIDTH_DESC
+CUSTOM_VALUES_DESC
 %token histogramDescEnd
 
 // Operators.
@@ -125,6 +126,8 @@ STDDEV
 STDVAR
 SUM
 TOPK
+LIMITK
+LIMIT_RATIO
 %token	aggregatorsEnd
 
 // Keywords.
@@ -608,7 +611,7 @@ metric          : metric_identifier label_set
                 ;
 
 
-metric_identifier: AVG | BOTTOMK | BY | COUNT | COUNT_VALUES | GROUP | IDENTIFIER |  LAND | LOR | LUNLESS | MAX | METRIC_IDENTIFIER | MIN | OFFSET | QUANTILE | STDDEV | STDVAR | SUM | TOPK | WITHOUT | START | END;
+metric_identifier: AVG | BOTTOMK | BY | COUNT | COUNT_VALUES | GROUP | IDENTIFIER |  LAND | LOR | LUNLESS | MAX | METRIC_IDENTIFIER | MIN | OFFSET | QUANTILE | STDDEV | STDVAR | SUM | TOPK | WITHOUT | START | END | LIMITK | LIMIT_RATIO;
 
 label_set       : LEFT_BRACE label_set_list RIGHT_BRACE
                         { $$ = labels.New($2...) }
@@ -797,6 +800,11 @@ histogram_desc_item
                    $$ = yylex.(*parser).newMap()
                    $$["z_bucket_w"] = $3
                 }
+                | CUSTOM_VALUES_DESC COLON bucket_set
+                {
+                   $$ = yylex.(*parser).newMap()
+                   $$["custom_values"] = $3
+                }
                 | BUCKETS_DESC COLON bucket_set
                 {
                    $$ = yylex.(*parser).newMap()
@@ -845,10 +853,10 @@ bucket_set_list : bucket_set_list SPACE number
  * Keyword lists.
  */
 
-aggregate_op    : AVG | BOTTOMK | COUNT | COUNT_VALUES | GROUP | MAX | MIN | QUANTILE | STDDEV | STDVAR | SUM | TOPK ;
+aggregate_op    : AVG | BOTTOMK | COUNT | COUNT_VALUES | GROUP | MAX | MIN | QUANTILE | STDDEV | STDVAR | SUM | TOPK | LIMITK | LIMIT_RATIO;
 
 // Inside of grouping options label names can be recognized as keywords by the lexer. This is a list of keywords that could also be a label name.
-maybe_label     : AVG | BOOL | BOTTOMK | BY | COUNT | COUNT_VALUES | GROUP | GROUP_LEFT | GROUP_RIGHT | IDENTIFIER | IGNORING | LAND | LOR | LUNLESS | MAX | METRIC_IDENTIFIER | MIN | OFFSET | ON | QUANTILE | STDDEV | STDVAR | SUM | TOPK | START | END | ATAN2;
+maybe_label     : AVG | BOOL | BOTTOMK | BY | COUNT | COUNT_VALUES | GROUP | GROUP_LEFT | GROUP_RIGHT | IDENTIFIER | IGNORING | LAND | LOR | LUNLESS | MAX | METRIC_IDENTIFIER | MIN | OFFSET | ON | QUANTILE | STDDEV | STDVAR | SUM | TOPK | START | END | ATAN2 | LIMITK | LIMIT_RATIO;
 
 unary_op        : ADD | SUB;
 
diff --git a/promql/parser/generated_parser.y.go b/promql/parser/generated_parser.y.go
index 3075b9b1b1..07899c0a00 100644
--- a/promql/parser/generated_parser.y.go
+++ b/promql/parser/generated_parser.y.go
@@ -67,62 +67,65 @@ const BUCKETS_DESC = 57375
 const NEGATIVE_BUCKETS_DESC = 57376
 const ZERO_BUCKET_DESC = 57377
 const ZERO_BUCKET_WIDTH_DESC = 57378
-const histogramDescEnd = 57379
-const operatorsStart = 57380
-const ADD = 57381
-const DIV = 57382
-const EQLC = 57383
-const EQL_REGEX = 57384
-const GTE = 57385
-const GTR = 57386
-const LAND = 57387
-const LOR = 57388
-const LSS = 57389
-const LTE = 57390
-const LUNLESS = 57391
-const MOD = 57392
-const MUL = 57393
-const NEQ = 57394
-const NEQ_REGEX = 57395
-const POW = 57396
-const SUB = 57397
-const AT = 57398
-const ATAN2 = 57399
-const operatorsEnd = 57400
-const aggregatorsStart = 57401
-const AVG = 57402
-const BOTTOMK = 57403
-const COUNT = 57404
-const COUNT_VALUES = 57405
-const GROUP = 57406
-const MAX = 57407
-const MIN = 57408
-const QUANTILE = 57409
-const STDDEV = 57410
-const STDVAR = 57411
-const SUM = 57412
-const TOPK = 57413
-const aggregatorsEnd = 57414
-const keywordsStart = 57415
-const BOOL = 57416
-const BY = 57417
-const GROUP_LEFT = 57418
-const GROUP_RIGHT = 57419
-const IGNORING = 57420
-const OFFSET = 57421
-const ON = 57422
-const WITHOUT = 57423
-const keywordsEnd = 57424
-const preprocessorStart = 57425
-const START = 57426
-const END = 57427
-const preprocessorEnd = 57428
-const startSymbolsStart = 57429
-const START_METRIC = 57430
-const START_SERIES_DESCRIPTION = 57431
-const START_EXPRESSION = 57432
-const START_METRIC_SELECTOR = 57433
-const startSymbolsEnd = 57434
+const CUSTOM_VALUES_DESC = 57379
+const histogramDescEnd = 57380
+const operatorsStart = 57381
+const ADD = 57382
+const DIV = 57383
+const EQLC = 57384
+const EQL_REGEX = 57385
+const GTE = 57386
+const GTR = 57387
+const LAND = 57388
+const LOR = 57389
+const LSS = 57390
+const LTE = 57391
+const LUNLESS = 57392
+const MOD = 57393
+const MUL = 57394
+const NEQ = 57395
+const NEQ_REGEX = 57396
+const POW = 57397
+const SUB = 57398
+const AT = 57399
+const ATAN2 = 57400
+const operatorsEnd = 57401
+const aggregatorsStart = 57402
+const AVG = 57403
+const BOTTOMK = 57404
+const COUNT = 57405
+const COUNT_VALUES = 57406
+const GROUP = 57407
+const MAX = 57408
+const MIN = 57409
+const QUANTILE = 57410
+const STDDEV = 57411
+const STDVAR = 57412
+const SUM = 57413
+const TOPK = 57414
+const LIMITK = 57415
+const LIMIT_RATIO = 57416
+const aggregatorsEnd = 57417
+const keywordsStart = 57418
+const BOOL = 57419
+const BY = 57420
+const GROUP_LEFT = 57421
+const GROUP_RIGHT = 57422
+const IGNORING = 57423
+const OFFSET = 57424
+const ON = 57425
+const WITHOUT = 57426
+const keywordsEnd = 57427
+const preprocessorStart = 57428
+const START = 57429
+const END = 57430
+const preprocessorEnd = 57431
+const startSymbolsStart = 57432
+const START_METRIC = 57433
+const START_SERIES_DESCRIPTION = 57434
+const START_EXPRESSION = 57435
+const START_METRIC_SELECTOR = 57436
+const startSymbolsEnd = 57437
 
 var yyToknames = [...]string{
 	"$end",
@@ -161,6 +164,7 @@ var yyToknames = [...]string{
 	"NEGATIVE_BUCKETS_DESC",
 	"ZERO_BUCKET_DESC",
 	"ZERO_BUCKET_WIDTH_DESC",
+	"CUSTOM_VALUES_DESC",
 	"histogramDescEnd",
 	"operatorsStart",
 	"ADD",
@@ -196,6 +200,8 @@ var yyToknames = [...]string{
 	"STDVAR",
 	"SUM",
 	"TOPK",
+	"LIMITK",
+	"LIMIT_RATIO",
 	"aggregatorsEnd",
 	"keywordsStart",
 	"BOOL",
@@ -229,276 +235,298 @@ var yyExca = [...]int16{
 	-1, 1,
 	1, -1,
 	-2, 0,
-	-1, 35,
-	1, 134,
-	10, 134,
-	24, 134,
+	-1, 37,
+	1, 136,
+	10, 136,
+	24, 136,
 	-2, 0,
-	-1, 58,
-	2, 171,
-	15, 171,
-	75, 171,
-	81, 171,
-	-2, 100,
-	-1, 59,
-	2, 172,
-	15, 172,
-	75, 172,
-	81, 172,
-	-2, 101,
 	-1, 60,
-	2, 173,
-	15, 173,
-	75, 173,
-	81, 173,
-	-2, 103,
-	-1, 61,
 	2, 174,
 	15, 174,
-	75, 174,
-	81, 174,
-	-2, 104,
-	-1, 62,
+	78, 174,
+	84, 174,
+	-2, 100,
+	-1, 61,
 	2, 175,
 	15, 175,
-	75, 175,
-	81, 175,
-	-2, 105,
-	-1, 63,
+	78, 175,
+	84, 175,
+	-2, 101,
+	-1, 62,
 	2, 176,
 	15, 176,
-	75, 176,
-	81, 176,
-	-2, 110,
-	-1, 64,
+	78, 176,
+	84, 176,
+	-2, 103,
+	-1, 63,
 	2, 177,
 	15, 177,
-	75, 177,
-	81, 177,
-	-2, 112,
-	-1, 65,
+	78, 177,
+	84, 177,
+	-2, 104,
+	-1, 64,
 	2, 178,
 	15, 178,
-	75, 178,
-	81, 178,
-	-2, 114,
-	-1, 66,
+	78, 178,
+	84, 178,
+	-2, 105,
+	-1, 65,
 	2, 179,
 	15, 179,
-	75, 179,
-	81, 179,
-	-2, 115,
-	-1, 67,
+	78, 179,
+	84, 179,
+	-2, 110,
+	-1, 66,
 	2, 180,
 	15, 180,
-	75, 180,
-	81, 180,
-	-2, 116,
-	-1, 68,
+	78, 180,
+	84, 180,
+	-2, 112,
+	-1, 67,
 	2, 181,
 	15, 181,
-	75, 181,
-	81, 181,
-	-2, 117,
-	-1, 69,
+	78, 181,
+	84, 181,
+	-2, 114,
+	-1, 68,
 	2, 182,
 	15, 182,
-	75, 182,
-	81, 182,
+	78, 182,
+	84, 182,
+	-2, 115,
+	-1, 69,
+	2, 183,
+	15, 183,
+	78, 183,
+	84, 183,
+	-2, 116,
+	-1, 70,
+	2, 184,
+	15, 184,
+	78, 184,
+	84, 184,
+	-2, 117,
+	-1, 71,
+	2, 185,
+	15, 185,
+	78, 185,
+	84, 185,
 	-2, 118,
-	-1, 195,
-	12, 230,
-	13, 230,
-	18, 230,
-	19, 230,
-	25, 230,
-	39, 230,
-	45, 230,
-	46, 230,
-	49, 230,
-	55, 230,
-	60, 230,
-	61, 230,
-	62, 230,
-	63, 230,
-	64, 230,
-	65, 230,
-	66, 230,
-	67, 230,
-	68, 230,
-	69, 230,
-	70, 230,
-	71, 230,
-	75, 230,
-	79, 230,
-	81, 230,
-	84, 230,
-	85, 230,
+	-1, 72,
+	2, 186,
+	15, 186,
+	78, 186,
+	84, 186,
+	-2, 122,
+	-1, 73,
+	2, 187,
+	15, 187,
+	78, 187,
+	84, 187,
+	-2, 123,
+	-1, 199,
+	12, 237,
+	13, 237,
+	18, 237,
+	19, 237,
+	25, 237,
+	40, 237,
+	46, 237,
+	47, 237,
+	50, 237,
+	56, 237,
+	61, 237,
+	62, 237,
+	63, 237,
+	64, 237,
+	65, 237,
+	66, 237,
+	67, 237,
+	68, 237,
+	69, 237,
+	70, 237,
+	71, 237,
+	72, 237,
+	73, 237,
+	74, 237,
+	78, 237,
+	82, 237,
+	84, 237,
+	87, 237,
+	88, 237,
 	-2, 0,
-	-1, 196,
-	12, 230,
-	13, 230,
-	18, 230,
-	19, 230,
-	25, 230,
-	39, 230,
-	45, 230,
-	46, 230,
-	49, 230,
-	55, 230,
-	60, 230,
-	61, 230,
-	62, 230,
-	63, 230,
-	64, 230,
-	65, 230,
-	66, 230,
-	67, 230,
-	68, 230,
-	69, 230,
-	70, 230,
-	71, 230,
-	75, 230,
-	79, 230,
-	81, 230,
-	84, 230,
-	85, 230,
+	-1, 200,
+	12, 237,
+	13, 237,
+	18, 237,
+	19, 237,
+	25, 237,
+	40, 237,
+	46, 237,
+	47, 237,
+	50, 237,
+	56, 237,
+	61, 237,
+	62, 237,
+	63, 237,
+	64, 237,
+	65, 237,
+	66, 237,
+	67, 237,
+	68, 237,
+	69, 237,
+	70, 237,
+	71, 237,
+	72, 237,
+	73, 237,
+	74, 237,
+	78, 237,
+	82, 237,
+	84, 237,
+	87, 237,
+	88, 237,
 	-2, 0,
-	-1, 217,
-	21, 228,
+	-1, 221,
+	21, 235,
 	-2, 0,
-	-1, 285,
-	21, 229,
+	-1, 292,
+	21, 236,
 	-2, 0,
 }
 
 const yyPrivate = 57344
 
-const yyLast = 742
+const yyLast = 793
 
 var yyAct = [...]int16{
-	151, 322, 320, 268, 327, 148, 221, 37, 187, 144,
-	281, 280, 152, 113, 77, 173, 104, 102, 101, 6,
-	128, 223, 105, 193, 155, 194, 195, 196, 339, 262,
-	260, 233, 317, 316, 57, 100, 294, 239, 103, 146,
-	300, 313, 263, 156, 156, 283, 147, 338, 259, 123,
-	337, 106, 252, 311, 155, 299, 340, 301, 264, 157,
-	157, 108, 298, 109, 235, 236, 292, 251, 237, 107,
-	155, 292, 174, 191, 175, 96, 250, 99, 258, 224,
-	226, 228, 229, 230, 238, 240, 243, 244, 245, 246,
-	247, 110, 145, 225, 227, 231, 232, 234, 241, 242,
-	98, 257, 321, 248, 249, 2, 3, 4, 5, 218,
-	158, 104, 177, 217, 168, 162, 165, 105, 175, 160,
-	164, 161, 176, 178, 189, 213, 106, 328, 216, 256,
-	183, 179, 192, 163, 181, 100, 190, 197, 198, 199,
-	200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209,
-	210, 211, 255, 182, 72, 212, 177, 214, 215, 33,
-	82, 84, 85, 7, 86, 87, 176, 178, 90, 91,
-	223, 93, 94, 95, 116, 96, 97, 99, 83, 147,
-	233, 286, 289, 116, 114, 254, 239, 288, 147, 172,
-	220, 124, 253, 114, 171, 310, 309, 117, 120, 261,
-	98, 112, 287, 119, 278, 279, 117, 170, 282, 10,
-	308, 159, 307, 235, 236, 312, 118, 237, 147, 74,
-	306, 305, 304, 303, 302, 250, 81, 285, 224, 226,
-	228, 229, 230, 238, 240, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247,
-	79, 79, 225, 227, 231, 232, 234, 241, 242, 48,
-	78, 78, 248, 249, 122, 73, 121, 150, 180, 76,
-	290, 291, 293, 56, 295, 8, 9, 9, 34, 35,
-	1, 284, 296, 297, 155, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133,
-	134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143,
-	47, 46, 45, 44, 156, 314, 315, 127, 43, 42,
-	41, 185, 319, 125, 166, 324, 325, 326, 188, 323,
-	157, 329, 191, 331, 330, 155, 40, 126, 332, 333,
-	100, 51, 72, 334, 53, 39, 38, 22, 52, 336,
-	49, 167, 186, 335, 54, 156, 265, 80, 341, 153,
-	154, 184, 219, 75, 115, 82, 84, 149, 70, 55,
-	222, 157, 50, 111, 18, 19, 93, 94, 20, 0,
-	96, 97, 99, 83, 71, 0, 0, 0, 0, 58,
-	59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68,
-	69, 0, 0, 0, 13, 98, 0, 0, 24, 0,
-	30, 0, 0, 31, 32, 36, 100, 51, 72, 0,
-	53, 267, 0, 22, 52, 0, 0, 0, 266, 0,
-	54, 0, 270, 271, 269, 275, 277, 274, 276, 272,
-	273, 0, 84, 0, 70, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
-	18, 19, 93, 94, 20, 0, 96, 0, 99, 83,
-	71, 0, 0, 0, 0, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62,
-	63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 0, 0, 0,
-	13, 98, 0, 0, 24, 0, 30, 0, 0, 31,
-	32, 51, 72, 0, 53, 318, 0, 22, 52, 0,
-	0, 0, 0, 0, 54, 0, 270, 271, 269, 275,
-	277, 274, 276, 272, 273, 0, 0, 0, 70, 0,
-	0, 0, 0, 0, 18, 19, 0, 0, 20, 0,
-	0, 0, 17, 72, 71, 0, 0, 0, 22, 58,
-	59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68,
-	69, 0, 0, 0, 13, 0, 0, 0, 24, 0,
-	30, 0, 0, 31, 32, 18, 19, 0, 0, 20,
-	0, 0, 0, 17, 33, 0, 0, 0, 0, 22,
-	11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 21, 23, 25, 26, 27,
-	28, 29, 0, 0, 0, 13, 0, 0, 0, 24,
-	0, 30, 0, 0, 31, 32, 18, 19, 0, 0,
-	20, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
-	0, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 21, 23, 25, 26,
-	27, 28, 29, 100, 0, 0, 13, 0, 0, 0,
-	24, 169, 30, 0, 0, 31, 32, 0, 0, 0,
-	0, 0, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 82, 84,
-	85, 0, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93,
-	94, 95, 0, 96, 97, 99, 83, 82, 84, 85,
-	0, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94,
-	95, 0, 96, 97, 99, 83, 100, 0, 98, 0,
+	155, 330, 328, 274, 335, 152, 225, 39, 191, 148,
+	288, 287, 156, 117, 81, 177, 227, 106, 105, 6,
+	154, 108, 107, 197, 132, 198, 237, 109, 199, 200,
+	159, 59, 243, 325, 324, 110, 321, 159, 189, 268,
+	348, 301, 265, 127, 159, 192, 349, 264, 290, 195,
+	176, 160, 159, 269, 308, 175, 319, 195, 160, 347,
+	239, 240, 346, 112, 241, 113, 299, 161, 174, 270,
+	263, 111, 254, 160, 161, 228, 230, 232, 233, 234,
+	242, 244, 247, 248, 249, 250, 251, 255, 256, 161,
+	114, 229, 231, 235, 236, 238, 245, 246, 108, 266,
+	258, 252, 253, 329, 109, 157, 158, 159, 2, 3,
+	4, 5, 307, 160, 162, 257, 262, 299, 172, 166,
+	169, 217, 104, 164, 110, 165, 150, 306, 193, 161,
+	178, 104, 179, 151, 305, 183, 196, 179, 185, 261,
+	194, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209,
+	210, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 128, 227, 88, 216,
+	120, 218, 219, 100, 336, 103, 168, 237, 97, 98,
+	118, 181, 100, 243, 103, 87, 181, 224, 259, 167,
+	149, 180, 182, 121, 187, 76, 180, 182, 120, 260,
+	102, 35, 124, 7, 10, 296, 151, 123, 118, 102,
+	295, 239, 240, 267, 78, 241, 116, 186, 285, 286,
+	122, 121, 289, 254, 318, 294, 228, 230, 232, 233,
+	234, 242, 244, 247, 248, 249, 250, 251, 255, 256,
+	317, 292, 229, 231, 235, 236, 238, 245, 246, 316,
+	315, 314, 252, 253, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138,
+	139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 313,
+	312, 311, 310, 309, 320, 293, 297, 298, 300, 273,
+	302, 222, 151, 8, 85, 221, 272, 37, 303, 304,
+	276, 277, 275, 282, 284, 281, 283, 278, 279, 280,
+	220, 163, 126, 50, 125, 36, 1, 291, 151, 77,
+	83, 49, 322, 323, 48, 83, 47, 104, 46, 327,
+	82, 131, 332, 333, 334, 82, 331, 45, 184, 338,
+	337, 340, 339, 80, 44, 43, 341, 342, 129, 53,
+	76, 343, 55, 86, 88, 22, 54, 345, 170, 171,
+	42, 130, 56, 41, 97, 98, 40, 350, 100, 101,
+	103, 87, 58, 51, 190, 9, 9, 74, 344, 271,
+	84, 188, 223, 18, 19, 79, 119, 20, 153, 57,
+	226, 52, 115, 75, 0, 102, 0, 0, 60, 61,
+	62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71,
+	72, 73, 0, 0, 0, 13, 0, 0, 0, 24,
+	0, 30, 0, 0, 31, 32, 38, 0, 53, 76,
+	0, 55, 326, 0, 22, 54, 0, 0, 0, 0,
+	0, 56, 0, 276, 277, 275, 282, 284, 281, 283,
+	278, 279, 280, 0, 0, 0, 74, 0, 0, 0,
+	0, 0, 18, 19, 0, 0, 20, 0, 0, 0,
+	0, 0, 75, 0, 0, 0, 0, 60, 61, 62,
+	63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72,
+	73, 0, 0, 0, 13, 0, 0, 0, 24, 0,
+	30, 0, 0, 31, 32, 53, 76, 0, 55, 0,
+	0, 22, 54, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 56, 0,
 	0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
-	0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 98, 0, 0,
-	0, 82, 84, 85, 0, 86, 87, 88, 0, 90,
-	91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 0, 96, 97, 99, 83,
+	0, 0, 0, 74, 0, 17, 76, 0, 0, 18,
+	19, 22, 0, 20, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 75,
+	0, 0, 0, 0, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65,
+	66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 0, 18,
+	19, 13, 0, 20, 0, 24, 0, 30, 0, 0,
+	31, 32, 0, 0, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 21,
+	23, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 33, 34, 17, 35,
+	0, 13, 0, 0, 22, 24, 0, 30, 0, 0,
+	31, 32, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
 	0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
+	0, 0, 18, 19, 0, 0, 20, 0, 0, 0,
+	0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 11, 12, 14,
+	15, 16, 21, 23, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 33,
+	34, 104, 0, 0, 13, 0, 0, 0, 24, 173,
+	30, 0, 0, 31, 32, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
+	104, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 86, 88, 89,
+	0, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98,
+	99, 0, 100, 101, 103, 87, 86, 88, 89, 0,
+	90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99,
+	0, 100, 101, 103, 87, 104, 0, 0, 0, 102,
 	0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
-	0, 98,
+	0, 0, 0, 0, 104, 0, 0, 0, 102, 0,
+	0, 86, 88, 89, 0, 90, 91, 92, 0, 94,
+	95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 0, 100, 101, 103, 87,
+	86, 88, 89, 0, 90, 91, 0, 0, 94, 95,
+	0, 97, 98, 99, 0, 100, 101, 103, 87, 0,
+	0, 0, 0, 102, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
+	0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
+	0, 0, 102,
 }
 
 var yyPact = [...]int16{
-	17, 153, 541, 541, 385, 500, -1000, -1000, -1000, 146,
+	17, 183, 566, 566, 396, 503, -1000, -1000, -1000, 178,
 	-1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000,
 	-1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000,
-	-1000, -1000, -1000, 239, -1000, 224, -1000, 618, -1000, -1000,
+	-1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, 303, -1000, 272, -1000, 646,
 	-1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000,
-	36, 111, -1000, 459, -1000, 459, 141, -1000, -1000, -1000,
+	-1000, -1000, 20, 109, -1000, 473, -1000, 473, 172, -1000,
 	-1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000,
-	-1000, -1000, 181, -1000, -1000, 196, -1000, -1000, 252, -1000,
-	25, -1000, -54, -54, -54, -54, -54, -54, -54, -54,
-	-54, -54, -54, -54, -54, -54, -54, -54, 37, 255,
-	209, 111, -59, -1000, 118, 118, 309, -1000, 599, 21,
-	-1000, 187, -1000, -1000, 70, 114, -1000, -1000, -1000, 238,
-	-1000, 128, -1000, 296, 459, -1000, -55, -50, -1000, 459,
-	459, 459, 459, 459, 459, 459, 459, 459, 459, 459,
-	459, 459, 459, 459, -1000, 170, -1000, -1000, -1000, 110,
-	-1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, 51, 51, 107, -1000,
-	-1000, -1000, -1000, 168, -1000, -1000, 45, -1000, 618, -1000,
-	-1000, 172, -1000, 127, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, 76,
-	-1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, 22, 4, 3, -1000, -1000,
-	-1000, 384, 382, 118, 118, 118, 118, 21, 21, 306,
-	306, 306, 121, 662, 306, 306, 121, 21, 21, 306,
-	21, 382, -1000, 23, -1000, -1000, -1000, 179, -1000, 180,
+	-1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, 186, -1000, -1000, 190,
+	-1000, -1000, 290, -1000, 19, -1000, -53, -53, -53, -53,
+	-53, -53, -53, -53, -53, -53, -53, -53, -53, -53,
+	-53, -53, 124, 18, 289, 109, -57, -1000, 164, 164,
+	317, -1000, 627, 108, -1000, 48, -1000, -1000, 128, 133,
+	-1000, -1000, -1000, 298, -1000, 182, -1000, 33, 473, -1000,
+	-58, -51, -1000, 473, 473, 473, 473, 473, 473, 473,
+	473, 473, 473, 473, 473, 473, 473, 473, -1000, 187,
+	-1000, -1000, -1000, 106, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000,
+	88, 88, 269, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, 155, -1000, -1000,
+	93, -1000, 646, -1000, -1000, 158, -1000, 114, -1000, -1000,
+	-1000, -1000, -1000, 45, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, 16,
+	73, 13, -1000, -1000, -1000, 252, 117, 164, 164, 164,
+	164, 108, 108, 293, 293, 293, 710, 691, 293, 293,
+	710, 108, 108, 293, 108, 117, -1000, 26, -1000, -1000,
+	-1000, 263, -1000, 193, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000,
 	-1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000,
 	-1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000,
-	-1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000,
-	-1000, -1000, 459, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, 52,
-	52, 10, 52, 57, 57, 38, 40, -1000, -1000, 218,
-	217, 216, 215, 214, 206, 204, 190, 189, -1000, -1000,
-	-1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, 32, 213, -1000, -1000, 19, -1000,
-	618, -1000, -1000, -1000, 52, -1000, 7, 6, 458, -1000,
-	-1000, -1000, 47, 5, 51, 51, 51, 113, 47, 113,
-	47, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, 52, 52, -1000, -1000,
-	-1000, 52, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, 51, -1000,
-	-1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, 26, -1000, 35, -1000, -1000,
-	-1000, -1000,
+	-1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, 473, -1000,
+	-1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, 98, 98, 15, 98, 41,
+	41, 110, 37, -1000, -1000, 257, 256, 255, 254, 253,
+	235, 234, 233, 224, 208, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000,
+	-1000, 35, 262, -1000, -1000, 14, -1000, 646, -1000, -1000,
+	-1000, 98, -1000, 8, 7, 395, -1000, -1000, -1000, 47,
+	11, 88, 88, 88, 150, 150, 47, 150, 47, -1000,
+	-1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, 98, 98, -1000, -1000, -1000, 98,
+	-1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, 88, -1000, -1000, -1000,
+	-1000, -1000, -1000, -1000, 38, -1000, 25, -1000, -1000, -1000,
+	-1000,
 }
 
 var yyPgo = [...]int16{
-	0, 353, 13, 352, 6, 15, 350, 263, 349, 347,
-	344, 209, 265, 343, 14, 342, 10, 11, 341, 337,
-	8, 336, 3, 4, 333, 2, 1, 0, 332, 12,
-	5, 330, 326, 18, 191, 325, 317, 7, 316, 304,
-	17, 303, 34, 300, 299, 298, 297, 293, 292, 291,
-	290, 249, 9, 271, 270, 268,
+	0, 372, 13, 371, 6, 15, 370, 352, 369, 368,
+	366, 194, 273, 365, 14, 362, 10, 11, 361, 360,
+	8, 359, 3, 4, 358, 2, 1, 0, 354, 12,
+	5, 353, 346, 18, 156, 343, 341, 7, 340, 338,
+	17, 328, 31, 325, 324, 317, 311, 308, 306, 304,
+	301, 293, 9, 297, 296, 295,
 }
 
 var yyR1 = [...]int8{
@@ -514,18 +542,18 @@ var yyR1 = [...]int8{
 	1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 12, 12,
 	7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7,
 	7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7,
-	7, 7, 11, 11, 11, 11, 13, 13, 13, 14,
-	14, 14, 14, 55, 19, 19, 19, 19, 18, 18,
-	18, 18, 18, 18, 18, 18, 18, 28, 28, 28,
-	20, 20, 20, 20, 21, 21, 21, 22, 22, 22,
-	22, 22, 22, 22, 22, 22, 23, 23, 24, 24,
-	24, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3,
-	3, 3, 3, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6,
+	7, 7, 7, 7, 11, 11, 11, 11, 13, 13,
+	13, 14, 14, 14, 14, 55, 19, 19, 19, 19,
+	18, 18, 18, 18, 18, 18, 18, 18, 18, 28,
+	28, 28, 20, 20, 20, 20, 21, 21, 21, 22,
+	22, 22, 22, 22, 22, 22, 22, 22, 22, 23,
+	23, 24, 24, 24, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3,
+	3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 6, 6,
 	6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6,
 	6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6,
-	8, 8, 5, 5, 5, 5, 44, 27, 29, 29,
-	30, 30, 26, 25, 25, 52, 48, 10, 53, 53,
-	17, 17,
+	6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 8, 8, 5,
+	5, 5, 5, 44, 27, 29, 29, 30, 30, 26,
+	25, 25, 52, 48, 10, 53, 53, 17, 17,
 }
 
 var yyR2 = [...]int8{
@@ -541,94 +569,96 @@ var yyR2 = [...]int8{
 	2, 3, 3, 1, 3, 3, 2, 1, 2, 1,
 	1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1,
 	1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1,
-	1, 1, 3, 4, 2, 0, 3, 1, 2, 3,
-	3, 2, 1, 2, 0, 3, 2, 1, 1, 3,
-	1, 3, 4, 1, 3, 5, 5, 1, 1, 1,
-	4, 3, 3, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 3, 3,
-	3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 4, 3, 3, 1,
-	2, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1,
+	1, 1, 1, 1, 3, 4, 2, 0, 3, 1,
+	2, 3, 3, 2, 1, 2, 0, 3, 2, 1,
+	1, 3, 1, 3, 4, 1, 3, 5, 5, 1,
+	1, 1, 4, 3, 3, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3,
+	3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 4,
+	3, 3, 1, 2, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1,
 	1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1,
 	1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1,
 	1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1,
-	1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2,
-	1, 1, 1, 2, 1, 1, 1, 1, 0, 1,
-	0, 1,
+	1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1,
+	1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 1, 1, 1,
+	2, 1, 1, 1, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1,
 }
 
 var yyChk = [...]int16{
-	-1000, -54, 88, 89, 90, 91, 2, 10, -12, -7,
-	-11, 60, 61, 75, 62, 63, 64, 12, 45, 46,
-	49, 65, 18, 66, 79, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71,
-	81, 84, 85, 13, -55, -12, 10, -37, -32, -35,
-	-38, -43, -44, -45, -47, -48, -49, -50, -51, -31,
-	-3, 12, 19, 15, 25, -8, -7, -42, 60, 61,
-	62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71,
-	39, 55, 13, -51, -11, -13, 20, -14, 12, 2,
-	-19, 2, 39, 57, 40, 41, 43, 44, 45, 46,
-	47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 54, 55, 79, 56,
-	14, -33, -40, 2, 75, 81, 15, -40, -37, -37,
-	-42, -1, 20, -2, 12, -10, 2, 25, 20, 7,
-	2, 4, 2, 24, -34, -41, -36, -46, 74, -34,
-	-34, -34, -34, -34, -34, -34, -34, -34, -34, -34,
-	-34, -34, -34, -34, -52, 55, 2, 9, -30, -9,
-	2, -27, -29, 84, 85, 19, 39, 55, -52, 2,
-	-40, -33, -16, 15, 2, -16, -39, 22, -37, 22,
-	20, 7, 2, -5, 2, 4, 52, 42, 53, -5,
-	20, -14, 25, 2, -18, 5, -28, -20, 12, -27,
-	-29, 16, -37, 78, 80, 76, 77, -37, -37, -37,
-	-37, -37, -37, -37, -37, -37, -37, -37, -37, -37,
-	-37, -37, -52, 15, -27, -27, 21, 6, 2, -15,
-	22, -4, -6, 2, 60, 74, 61, 75, 62, 63,
-	64, 76, 77, 12, 78, 45, 46, 49, 65, 18,
-	66, 79, 80, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 84, 85,
-	57, 22, 7, 20, -2, 25, 2, 25, 2, 26,
-	26, -29, 26, 39, 55, -21, 24, 17, -22, 30,
-	28, 29, 35, 36, 33, 31, 34, 32, -16, -16,
-	-17, -16, -17, 22, -53, -52, 2, 22, 7, 2,
-	-37, -26, 19, -26, 26, -26, -20, -20, 24, 17,
-	2, 17, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6,
-	6, 21, 2, 22, -4, -26, 26, 26, 17, -22,
-	-25, 55, -26, -30, -27, -27, -27, -23, 14, -25,
-	-23, -25, -26, -26, -26, -24, -27, 24, 21, 2,
-	21, -27,
+	-1000, -54, 91, 92, 93, 94, 2, 10, -12, -7,
+	-11, 61, 62, 78, 63, 64, 65, 12, 46, 47,
+	50, 66, 18, 67, 82, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72,
+	84, 87, 88, 73, 74, 13, -55, -12, 10, -37,
+	-32, -35, -38, -43, -44, -45, -47, -48, -49, -50,
+	-51, -31, -3, 12, 19, 15, 25, -8, -7, -42,
+	61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70,
+	71, 72, 73, 74, 40, 56, 13, -51, -11, -13,
+	20, -14, 12, 2, -19, 2, 40, 58, 41, 42,
+	44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53,
+	55, 56, 82, 57, 14, -33, -40, 2, 78, 84,
+	15, -40, -37, -37, -42, -1, 20, -2, 12, -10,
+	2, 25, 20, 7, 2, 4, 2, 24, -34, -41,
+	-36, -46, 77, -34, -34, -34, -34, -34, -34, -34,
+	-34, -34, -34, -34, -34, -34, -34, -34, -52, 56,
+	2, 9, -30, -9, 2, -27, -29, 87, 88, 19,
+	40, 56, -52, 2, -40, -33, -16, 15, 2, -16,
+	-39, 22, -37, 22, 20, 7, 2, -5, 2, 4,
+	53, 43, 54, -5, 20, -14, 25, 2, -18, 5,
+	-28, -20, 12, -27, -29, 16, -37, 81, 83, 79,
+	80, -37, -37, -37, -37, -37, -37, -37, -37, -37,
+	-37, -37, -37, -37, -37, -37, -52, 15, -27, -27,
+	21, 6, 2, -15, 22, -4, -6, 2, 61, 77,
+	62, 78, 63, 64, 65, 79, 80, 12, 81, 46,
+	47, 50, 66, 18, 67, 82, 83, 68, 69, 70,
+	71, 72, 87, 88, 58, 73, 74, 22, 7, 20,
+	-2, 25, 2, 25, 2, 26, 26, -29, 26, 40,
+	56, -21, 24, 17, -22, 30, 28, 29, 35, 36,
+	37, 33, 31, 34, 32, -16, -16, -17, -16, -17,
+	22, -53, -52, 2, 22, 7, 2, -37, -26, 19,
+	-26, 26, -26, -20, -20, 24, 17, 2, 17, 6,
+	6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 21,
+	2, 22, -4, -26, 26, 26, 17, -22, -25, 56,
+	-26, -30, -27, -27, -27, -23, 14, -23, -25, -23,
+	-25, -26, -26, -26, -24, -27, 24, 21, 2, 21,
+	-27,
 }
 
 var yyDef = [...]int16{
-	0, -2, 125, 125, 0, 0, 7, 6, 1, 125,
+	0, -2, 127, 127, 0, 0, 7, 6, 1, 127,
 	99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108,
 	109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118,
-	119, 120, 121, 0, 2, -2, 3, 4, 8, 9,
-	10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19,
-	0, 106, 216, 0, 226, 0, 83, 84, -2, -2,
+	119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 0, 2, -2, 3, 4,
+	8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17,
+	18, 19, 0, 106, 223, 0, 233, 0, 83, 84,
 	-2, -2, -2, -2, -2, -2, -2, -2, -2, -2,
-	210, 211, 0, 5, 98, 0, 124, 127, 0, 132,
-	133, 137, 43, 43, 43, 43, 43, 43, 43, 43,
-	43, 43, 43, 43, 43, 43, 43, 43, 0, 0,
-	0, 0, 22, 23, 0, 0, 0, 60, 0, 81,
-	82, 0, 87, 89, 0, 93, 97, 227, 122, 0,
-	128, 0, 131, 136, 0, 42, 47, 48, 44, 0,
-	0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
-	0, 0, 0, 0, 67, 0, 69, 225, 70, 0,
-	72, 220, 221, 73, 74, 217, 0, 0, 0, 80,
-	20, 21, 24, 0, 54, 25, 0, 62, 64, 66,
-	85, 0, 90, 0, 96, 212, 213, 214, 215, 0,
-	123, 126, 129, 130, 135, 138, 140, 143, 147, 148,
-	149, 0, 26, 0, 0, -2, -2, 27, 28, 29,
-	30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39,
-	40, 41, 68, 0, 218, 219, 75, -2, 79, 0,
-	53, 56, 58, 59, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188,
-	189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198,
-	199, 200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208,
-	209, 61, 65, 86, 88, 91, 95, 92, 94, 0,
-	0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 153, 155, 0,
-	0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 45, 46,
-	49, 231, 50, 71, 0, -2, 78, 51, 0, 57,
-	63, 139, 222, 141, 0, 144, 0, 0, 0, 151,
-	156, 152, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
-	0, 76, 77, 52, 55, 142, 0, 0, 150, 154,
-	157, 0, 224, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 0, 163,
-	164, 165, 145, 146, 223, 0, 169, 0, 167, 170,
-	166, 168,
+	-2, -2, -2, -2, 217, 218, 0, 5, 98, 0,
+	126, 129, 0, 134, 135, 139, 43, 43, 43, 43,
+	43, 43, 43, 43, 43, 43, 43, 43, 43, 43,
+	43, 43, 0, 0, 0, 0, 22, 23, 0, 0,
+	0, 60, 0, 81, 82, 0, 87, 89, 0, 93,
+	97, 234, 124, 0, 130, 0, 133, 138, 0, 42,
+	47, 48, 44, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
+	0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 67, 0,
+	69, 232, 70, 0, 72, 227, 228, 73, 74, 224,
+	0, 0, 0, 80, 20, 21, 24, 0, 54, 25,
+	0, 62, 64, 66, 85, 0, 90, 0, 96, 219,
+	220, 221, 222, 0, 125, 128, 131, 132, 137, 140,
+	142, 145, 149, 150, 151, 0, 26, 0, 0, -2,
+	-2, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35,
+	36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 68, 0, 225, 226,
+	75, -2, 79, 0, 53, 56, 58, 59, 188, 189,
+	190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199,
+	200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209,
+	210, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216, 61, 65, 86,
+	88, 91, 95, 92, 94, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
+	0, 0, 0, 155, 157, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
+	0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 45, 46, 49, 238, 50,
+	71, 0, -2, 78, 51, 0, 57, 63, 141, 229,
+	143, 0, 146, 0, 0, 0, 153, 158, 154, 0,
+	0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 76,
+	77, 52, 55, 144, 0, 0, 152, 156, 159, 0,
+	231, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 0, 165, 166, 167,
+	168, 147, 148, 230, 0, 172, 0, 170, 173, 169,
+	171,
 }
 
 var yyTok1 = [...]int8{
@@ -645,7 +675,7 @@ var yyTok2 = [...]int8{
 	62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71,
 	72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81,
 	82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91,
-	92,
+	92, 93, 94, 95,
 }
 
 var yyTok3 = [...]int8{
@@ -1501,66 +1531,66 @@ yydefault:
 		{
 			yyVAL.labels = yyDollar[1].labels
 		}
-	case 122:
+	case 124:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-3 : yypt+1]
 		{
 			yyVAL.labels = labels.New(yyDollar[2].lblList...)
 		}
-	case 123:
+	case 125:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-4 : yypt+1]
 		{
 			yyVAL.labels = labels.New(yyDollar[2].lblList...)
 		}
-	case 124:
+	case 126:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-2 : yypt+1]
 		{
 			yyVAL.labels = labels.New()
 		}
-	case 125:
+	case 127:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-0 : yypt+1]
 		{
 			yyVAL.labels = labels.New()
 		}
-	case 126:
+	case 128:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-3 : yypt+1]
 		{
 			yyVAL.lblList = append(yyDollar[1].lblList, yyDollar[3].label)
 		}
-	case 127:
+	case 129:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-1 : yypt+1]
 		{
 			yyVAL.lblList = []labels.Label{yyDollar[1].label}
 		}
-	case 128:
+	case 130:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-2 : yypt+1]
 		{
 			yylex.(*parser).unexpected("label set", "\",\" or \"}\"")
 			yyVAL.lblList = yyDollar[1].lblList
 		}
-	case 129:
+	case 131:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-3 : yypt+1]
 		{
 			yyVAL.label = labels.Label{Name: yyDollar[1].item.Val, Value: yylex.(*parser).unquoteString(yyDollar[3].item.Val)}
 		}
-	case 130:
+	case 132:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-3 : yypt+1]
 		{
 			yylex.(*parser).unexpected("label set", "string")
 			yyVAL.label = labels.Label{}
 		}
-	case 131:
+	case 133:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-2 : yypt+1]
 		{
 			yylex.(*parser).unexpected("label set", "\"=\"")
 			yyVAL.label = labels.Label{}
 		}
-	case 132:
+	case 134:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-1 : yypt+1]
 		{
 			yylex.(*parser).unexpected("label set", "identifier or \"}\"")
 			yyVAL.label = labels.Label{}
 		}
-	case 133:
+	case 135:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-2 : yypt+1]
 		{
 			yylex.(*parser).generatedParserResult = &seriesDescription{
@@ -1568,33 +1598,33 @@ yydefault:
 				values: yyDollar[2].series,
 			}
 		}
-	case 134:
+	case 136:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-0 : yypt+1]
 		{
 			yyVAL.series = []SequenceValue{}
 		}
-	case 135:
+	case 137:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-3 : yypt+1]
 		{
 			yyVAL.series = append(yyDollar[1].series, yyDollar[3].series...)
 		}
-	case 136:
+	case 138:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-2 : yypt+1]
 		{
 			yyVAL.series = yyDollar[1].series
 		}
-	case 137:
+	case 139:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-1 : yypt+1]
 		{
 			yylex.(*parser).unexpected("series values", "")
 			yyVAL.series = nil
 		}
-	case 138:
+	case 140:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-1 : yypt+1]
 		{
 			yyVAL.series = []SequenceValue{{Omitted: true}}
 		}
-	case 139:
+	case 141:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-3 : yypt+1]
 		{
 			yyVAL.series = []SequenceValue{}
@@ -1602,12 +1632,12 @@ yydefault:
 				yyVAL.series = append(yyVAL.series, SequenceValue{Omitted: true})
 			}
 		}
-	case 140:
+	case 142:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-1 : yypt+1]
 		{
 			yyVAL.series = []SequenceValue{{Value: yyDollar[1].float}}
 		}
-	case 141:
+	case 143:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-3 : yypt+1]
 		{
 			yyVAL.series = []SequenceValue{}
@@ -1616,7 +1646,7 @@ yydefault:
 				yyVAL.series = append(yyVAL.series, SequenceValue{Value: yyDollar[1].float})
 			}
 		}
-	case 142:
+	case 144:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-4 : yypt+1]
 		{
 			yyVAL.series = []SequenceValue{}
@@ -1626,12 +1656,12 @@ yydefault:
 				yyDollar[1].float += yyDollar[2].float
 			}
 		}
-	case 143:
+	case 145:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-1 : yypt+1]
 		{
 			yyVAL.series = []SequenceValue{{Histogram: yyDollar[1].histogram}}
 		}
-	case 144:
+	case 146:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-3 : yypt+1]
 		{
 			yyVAL.series = []SequenceValue{}
@@ -1641,7 +1671,7 @@ yydefault:
 				//$1 += $2
 			}
 		}
-	case 145:
+	case 147:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-5 : yypt+1]
 		{
 			val, err := yylex.(*parser).histogramsIncreaseSeries(yyDollar[1].histogram, yyDollar[3].histogram, yyDollar[5].uint)
@@ -1650,7 +1680,7 @@ yydefault:
 			}
 			yyVAL.series = val
 		}
-	case 146:
+	case 148:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-5 : yypt+1]
 		{
 			val, err := yylex.(*parser).histogramsDecreaseSeries(yyDollar[1].histogram, yyDollar[3].histogram, yyDollar[5].uint)
@@ -1659,7 +1689,7 @@ yydefault:
 			}
 			yyVAL.series = val
 		}
-	case 147:
+	case 149:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-1 : yypt+1]
 		{
 			if yyDollar[1].item.Val != "stale" {
@@ -1667,118 +1697,124 @@ yydefault:
 			}
 			yyVAL.float = math.Float64frombits(value.StaleNaN)
 		}
-	case 150:
+	case 152:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-4 : yypt+1]
 		{
 			yyVAL.histogram = yylex.(*parser).buildHistogramFromMap(&yyDollar[2].descriptors)
 		}
-	case 151:
+	case 153:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-3 : yypt+1]
 		{
 			yyVAL.histogram = yylex.(*parser).buildHistogramFromMap(&yyDollar[2].descriptors)
 		}
-	case 152:
+	case 154:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-3 : yypt+1]
 		{
 			m := yylex.(*parser).newMap()
 			yyVAL.histogram = yylex.(*parser).buildHistogramFromMap(&m)
 		}
-	case 153:
+	case 155:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-2 : yypt+1]
 		{
 			m := yylex.(*parser).newMap()
 			yyVAL.histogram = yylex.(*parser).buildHistogramFromMap(&m)
 		}
-	case 154:
+	case 156:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-3 : yypt+1]
 		{
 			yyVAL.descriptors = *(yylex.(*parser).mergeMaps(&yyDollar[1].descriptors, &yyDollar[3].descriptors))
 		}
-	case 155:
+	case 157:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-1 : yypt+1]
 		{
 			yyVAL.descriptors = yyDollar[1].descriptors
 		}
-	case 156:
+	case 158:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-2 : yypt+1]
 		{
 			yylex.(*parser).unexpected("histogram description", "histogram description key, e.g. buckets:[5 10 7]")
 		}
-	case 157:
-		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-3 : yypt+1]
-		{
-			yyVAL.descriptors = yylex.(*parser).newMap()
-			yyVAL.descriptors["schema"] = yyDollar[3].int
-		}
-	case 158:
-		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-3 : yypt+1]
-		{
-			yyVAL.descriptors = yylex.(*parser).newMap()
-			yyVAL.descriptors["sum"] = yyDollar[3].float
-		}
 	case 159:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-3 : yypt+1]
 		{
 			yyVAL.descriptors = yylex.(*parser).newMap()
-			yyVAL.descriptors["count"] = yyDollar[3].float
+			yyVAL.descriptors["schema"] = yyDollar[3].int
 		}
 	case 160:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-3 : yypt+1]
 		{
 			yyVAL.descriptors = yylex.(*parser).newMap()
-			yyVAL.descriptors["z_bucket"] = yyDollar[3].float
+			yyVAL.descriptors["sum"] = yyDollar[3].float
 		}
 	case 161:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-3 : yypt+1]
 		{
 			yyVAL.descriptors = yylex.(*parser).newMap()
-			yyVAL.descriptors["z_bucket_w"] = yyDollar[3].float
+			yyVAL.descriptors["count"] = yyDollar[3].float
 		}
 	case 162:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-3 : yypt+1]
 		{
 			yyVAL.descriptors = yylex.(*parser).newMap()
-			yyVAL.descriptors["buckets"] = yyDollar[3].bucket_set
+			yyVAL.descriptors["z_bucket"] = yyDollar[3].float
 		}
 	case 163:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-3 : yypt+1]
 		{
 			yyVAL.descriptors = yylex.(*parser).newMap()
-			yyVAL.descriptors["offset"] = yyDollar[3].int
+			yyVAL.descriptors["z_bucket_w"] = yyDollar[3].float
 		}
 	case 164:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-3 : yypt+1]
 		{
 			yyVAL.descriptors = yylex.(*parser).newMap()
-			yyVAL.descriptors["n_buckets"] = yyDollar[3].bucket_set
+			yyVAL.descriptors["custom_values"] = yyDollar[3].bucket_set
 		}
 	case 165:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-3 : yypt+1]
 		{
 			yyVAL.descriptors = yylex.(*parser).newMap()
-			yyVAL.descriptors["n_offset"] = yyDollar[3].int
+			yyVAL.descriptors["buckets"] = yyDollar[3].bucket_set
 		}
 	case 166:
-		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-4 : yypt+1]
+		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-3 : yypt+1]
 		{
-			yyVAL.bucket_set = yyDollar[2].bucket_set
+			yyVAL.descriptors = yylex.(*parser).newMap()
+			yyVAL.descriptors["offset"] = yyDollar[3].int
 		}
 	case 167:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-3 : yypt+1]
 		{
-			yyVAL.bucket_set = yyDollar[2].bucket_set
+			yyVAL.descriptors = yylex.(*parser).newMap()
+			yyVAL.descriptors["n_buckets"] = yyDollar[3].bucket_set
 		}
 	case 168:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-3 : yypt+1]
 		{
-			yyVAL.bucket_set = append(yyDollar[1].bucket_set, yyDollar[3].float)
+			yyVAL.descriptors = yylex.(*parser).newMap()
+			yyVAL.descriptors["n_offset"] = yyDollar[3].int
 		}
 	case 169:
+		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-4 : yypt+1]
+		{
+			yyVAL.bucket_set = yyDollar[2].bucket_set
+		}
+	case 170:
+		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-3 : yypt+1]
+		{
+			yyVAL.bucket_set = yyDollar[2].bucket_set
+		}
+	case 171:
+		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-3 : yypt+1]
+		{
+			yyVAL.bucket_set = append(yyDollar[1].bucket_set, yyDollar[3].float)
+		}
+	case 172:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-1 : yypt+1]
 		{
 			yyVAL.bucket_set = []float64{yyDollar[1].float}
 		}
-	case 216:
+	case 223:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-1 : yypt+1]
 		{
 			yyVAL.node = &NumberLiteral{
@@ -1786,22 +1822,22 @@ yydefault:
 				PosRange: yyDollar[1].item.PositionRange(),
 			}
 		}
-	case 217:
+	case 224:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-1 : yypt+1]
 		{
 			yyVAL.float = yylex.(*parser).number(yyDollar[1].item.Val)
 		}
-	case 218:
+	case 225:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-2 : yypt+1]
 		{
 			yyVAL.float = yyDollar[2].float
 		}
-	case 219:
+	case 226:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-2 : yypt+1]
 		{
 			yyVAL.float = -yyDollar[2].float
 		}
-	case 222:
+	case 229:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-1 : yypt+1]
 		{
 			var err error
@@ -1810,17 +1846,17 @@ yydefault:
 				yylex.(*parser).addParseErrf(yyDollar[1].item.PositionRange(), "invalid repetition in series values: %s", err)
 			}
 		}
-	case 223:
+	case 230:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-2 : yypt+1]
 		{
 			yyVAL.int = -int64(yyDollar[2].uint)
 		}
-	case 224:
+	case 231:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-1 : yypt+1]
 		{
 			yyVAL.int = int64(yyDollar[1].uint)
 		}
-	case 225:
+	case 232:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-1 : yypt+1]
 		{
 			var err error
@@ -1829,7 +1865,7 @@ yydefault:
 				yylex.(*parser).addParseErr(yyDollar[1].item.PositionRange(), err)
 			}
 		}
-	case 226:
+	case 233:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-1 : yypt+1]
 		{
 			yyVAL.node = &StringLiteral{
@@ -1837,7 +1873,7 @@ yydefault:
 				PosRange: yyDollar[1].item.PositionRange(),
 			}
 		}
-	case 227:
+	case 234:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-1 : yypt+1]
 		{
 			yyVAL.item = Item{
@@ -1846,12 +1882,12 @@ yydefault:
 				Val: yylex.(*parser).unquoteString(yyDollar[1].item.Val),
 			}
 		}
-	case 228:
+	case 235:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-0 : yypt+1]
 		{
 			yyVAL.duration = 0
 		}
-	case 230:
+	case 237:
 		yyDollar = yyS[yypt-0 : yypt+1]
 		{
 			yyVAL.strings = nil
diff --git a/promql/parser/lex.go b/promql/parser/lex.go
index 4e3de2a668..8c7fbb89b9 100644
--- a/promql/parser/lex.go
+++ b/promql/parser/lex.go
@@ -65,7 +65,7 @@ func (i ItemType) IsAggregator() bool { return i > aggregatorsStart && i < aggre
 // IsAggregatorWithParam returns true if the Item is an aggregator that takes a parameter.
 // Returns false otherwise.
 func (i ItemType) IsAggregatorWithParam() bool {
-	return i == TOPK || i == BOTTOMK || i == COUNT_VALUES || i == QUANTILE
+	return i == TOPK || i == BOTTOMK || i == COUNT_VALUES || i == QUANTILE || i == LIMITK || i == LIMIT_RATIO
 }
 
 // IsKeyword returns true if the Item corresponds to a keyword.
@@ -118,6 +118,8 @@ var key = map[string]ItemType{
 	"bottomk":      BOTTOMK,
 	"count_values": COUNT_VALUES,
 	"quantile":     QUANTILE,
+	"limitk":       LIMITK,
+	"limit_ratio":  LIMIT_RATIO,
 
 	// Keywords.
 	"offset":      OFFSET,
@@ -135,15 +137,16 @@ var key = map[string]ItemType{
 }
 
 var histogramDesc = map[string]ItemType{
-	"sum":        SUM_DESC,
-	"count":      COUNT_DESC,
-	"schema":     SCHEMA_DESC,
-	"offset":     OFFSET_DESC,
-	"n_offset":   NEGATIVE_OFFSET_DESC,
-	"buckets":    BUCKETS_DESC,
-	"n_buckets":  NEGATIVE_BUCKETS_DESC,
-	"z_bucket":   ZERO_BUCKET_DESC,
-	"z_bucket_w": ZERO_BUCKET_WIDTH_DESC,
+	"sum":           SUM_DESC,
+	"count":         COUNT_DESC,
+	"schema":        SCHEMA_DESC,
+	"offset":        OFFSET_DESC,
+	"n_offset":      NEGATIVE_OFFSET_DESC,
+	"buckets":       BUCKETS_DESC,
+	"n_buckets":     NEGATIVE_BUCKETS_DESC,
+	"z_bucket":      ZERO_BUCKET_DESC,
+	"z_bucket_w":    ZERO_BUCKET_WIDTH_DESC,
+	"custom_values": CUSTOM_VALUES_DESC,
 }
 
 // ItemTypeStr is the default string representations for common Items. It does not
@@ -313,6 +316,11 @@ func (l *Lexer) accept(valid string) bool {
 	return false
 }
 
+// is peeks and returns true if the next rune is contained in the provided string.
+func (l *Lexer) is(valid string) bool {
+	return strings.ContainsRune(valid, l.peek())
+}
+
 // acceptRun consumes a run of runes from the valid set.
 func (l *Lexer) acceptRun(valid string) {
 	for strings.ContainsRune(valid, l.next()) {
@@ -901,19 +909,78 @@ func acceptRemainingDuration(l *Lexer) bool {
 // scanNumber scans numbers of different formats. The scanned Item is
 // not necessarily a valid number. This case is caught by the parser.
 func (l *Lexer) scanNumber() bool {
-	digits := "0123456789"
+	// Modify the digit pattern if the number is hexadecimal.
+	digitPattern := "0123456789"
 	// Disallow hexadecimal in series descriptions as the syntax is ambiguous.
-	if !l.seriesDesc && l.accept("0") && l.accept("xX") {
-		digits = "0123456789abcdefABCDEF"
+	if !l.seriesDesc &&
+		l.accept("0") && l.accept("xX") {
+		l.accept("_") // eg., 0X_1FFFP-16 == 0.1249847412109375
+		digitPattern = "0123456789abcdefABCDEF"
 	}
-	l.acceptRun(digits)
-	if l.accept(".") {
-		l.acceptRun(digits)
-	}
-	if l.accept("eE") {
-		l.accept("+-")
-		l.acceptRun("0123456789")
+	const (
+		// Define dot, exponent, and underscore patterns.
+		dotPattern        = "."
+		exponentPattern   = "eE"
+		underscorePattern = "_"
+		// Anti-patterns are rune sets that cannot follow their respective rune.
+		dotAntiPattern        = "_."
+		exponentAntiPattern   = "._eE" // and EOL.
+		underscoreAntiPattern = "._eE" // and EOL.
+	)
+	// All numbers follow the prefix: [.][d][d._eE]*
+	l.accept(dotPattern)
+	l.accept(digitPattern)
+	// [d._eE]* hereon.
+	dotConsumed := false
+	exponentConsumed := false
+	for l.is(digitPattern + dotPattern + underscorePattern + exponentPattern) {
+		// "." cannot repeat.
+		if l.is(dotPattern) {
+			if dotConsumed {
+				l.accept(dotPattern)
+				return false
+			}
+		}
+		// "eE" cannot repeat.
+		if l.is(exponentPattern) {
+			if exponentConsumed {
+				l.accept(exponentPattern)
+				return false
+			}
+		}
+		// Handle dots.
+		if l.accept(dotPattern) {
+			dotConsumed = true
+			if l.accept(dotAntiPattern) {
+				return false
+			}
+			// Fractional hexadecimal literals are not allowed.
+			if len(digitPattern) > 10 /* 0x[\da-fA-F].[\d]+p[\d] */ {
+				return false
+			}
+			continue
+		}
+		// Handle exponents.
+		if l.accept(exponentPattern) {
+			exponentConsumed = true
+			l.accept("+-")
+			if l.accept(exponentAntiPattern) || l.peek() == eof {
+				return false
+			}
+			continue
+		}
+		// Handle underscores.
+		if l.accept(underscorePattern) {
+			if l.accept(underscoreAntiPattern) || l.peek() == eof {
+				return false
+			}
+
+			continue
+		}
+		// Handle digits at the end since we already consumed before this loop.
+		l.acceptRun(digitPattern)
 	}
+
 	// Next thing must not be alphanumeric unless it's the times token
 	// for series repetitions.
 	if r := l.peek(); (l.seriesDesc && r == 'x') || !isAlphaNumeric(r) {
diff --git a/promql/parser/lex_test.go b/promql/parser/lex_test.go
index f48c457c0c..ac9aa27625 100644
--- a/promql/parser/lex_test.go
+++ b/promql/parser/lex_test.go
@@ -132,6 +132,84 @@ var tests = []struct {
 			}, {
 				input:    "0x123",
 				expected: []Item{{NUMBER, 0, "0x123"}},
+			}, {
+				input: "1..2",
+				fail:  true,
+			}, {
+				input: "1.2.",
+				fail:  true,
+			}, {
+				input:    "00_1_23_4.56_7_8",
+				expected: []Item{{NUMBER, 0, "00_1_23_4.56_7_8"}},
+			}, {
+				input: "00_1_23__4.56_7_8",
+				fail:  true,
+			}, {
+				input: "00_1_23_4._56_7_8",
+				fail:  true,
+			}, {
+				input: "00_1_23_4_.56_7_8",
+				fail:  true,
+			}, {
+				input:    "0x1_2_34",
+				expected: []Item{{NUMBER, 0, "0x1_2_34"}},
+			}, {
+				input: "0x1_2__34",
+				fail:  true,
+			}, {
+				input: "0x1_2__34.5_6p1", // "0x1.1p1"-based formats are not supported yet.
+				fail:  true,
+			}, {
+				input: "0x1_2__34.5_6",
+				fail:  true,
+			}, {
+				input: "0x1_2__34.56",
+				fail:  true,
+			}, {
+				input: "1_e2",
+				fail:  true,
+			}, {
+				input:    "1.e2",
+				expected: []Item{{NUMBER, 0, "1.e2"}},
+			}, {
+				input: "1e.2",
+				fail:  true,
+			}, {
+				input: "1e+.2",
+				fail:  true,
+			}, {
+				input: "1ee2",
+				fail:  true,
+			}, {
+				input: "1e+e2",
+				fail:  true,
+			}, {
+				input: "1e",
+				fail:  true,
+			}, {
+				input: "1e+",
+				fail:  true,
+			}, {
+				input:    "1e1_2_34",
+				expected: []Item{{NUMBER, 0, "1e1_2_34"}},
+			}, {
+				input: "1e_1_2_34",
+				fail:  true,
+			}, {
+				input: "1e1_2__34",
+				fail:  true,
+			}, {
+				input: "1e+_1_2_34",
+				fail:  true,
+			}, {
+				input: "1e-_1_2_34",
+				fail:  true,
+			}, {
+				input: "12_",
+				fail:  true,
+			}, {
+				input:    "_1_2",
+				expected: []Item{{IDENTIFIER, 0, "_1_2"}},
 			},
 		},
 	},
diff --git a/promql/parser/parse.go b/promql/parser/parse.go
index 2679336d6c..6f73e2427b 100644
--- a/promql/parser/parse.go
+++ b/promql/parser/parse.go
@@ -447,6 +447,10 @@ func (p *parser) newAggregateExpr(op Item, modifier, args Node) (ret *AggregateE
 
 	desiredArgs := 1
 	if ret.Op.IsAggregatorWithParam() {
+		if !EnableExperimentalFunctions && (ret.Op == LIMITK || ret.Op == LIMIT_RATIO) {
+			p.addParseErrf(ret.PositionRange(), "limitk() and limit_ratio() are experimental and must be enabled with --enable-feature=promql-experimental-functions")
+			return
+		}
 		desiredArgs = 2
 
 		ret.Param = arguments[0]
@@ -481,19 +485,19 @@ func (p *parser) mergeMaps(left, right *map[string]interface{}) (ret *map[string
 }
 
 func (p *parser) histogramsIncreaseSeries(base, inc *histogram.FloatHistogram, times uint64) ([]SequenceValue, error) {
-	return p.histogramsSeries(base, inc, times, func(a, b *histogram.FloatHistogram) *histogram.FloatHistogram {
+	return p.histogramsSeries(base, inc, times, func(a, b *histogram.FloatHistogram) (*histogram.FloatHistogram, error) {
 		return a.Add(b)
 	})
 }
 
 func (p *parser) histogramsDecreaseSeries(base, inc *histogram.FloatHistogram, times uint64) ([]SequenceValue, error) {
-	return p.histogramsSeries(base, inc, times, func(a, b *histogram.FloatHistogram) *histogram.FloatHistogram {
+	return p.histogramsSeries(base, inc, times, func(a, b *histogram.FloatHistogram) (*histogram.FloatHistogram, error) {
 		return a.Sub(b)
 	})
 }
 
 func (p *parser) histogramsSeries(base, inc *histogram.FloatHistogram, times uint64,
-	combine func(*histogram.FloatHistogram, *histogram.FloatHistogram) *histogram.FloatHistogram,
+	combine func(*histogram.FloatHistogram, *histogram.FloatHistogram) (*histogram.FloatHistogram, error),
 ) ([]SequenceValue, error) {
 	ret := make([]SequenceValue, times+1)
 	// Add an additional value (the base) for time 0, which we ignore in tests.
@@ -504,7 +508,11 @@ func (p *parser) histogramsSeries(base, inc *histogram.FloatHistogram, times uin
 			return nil, fmt.Errorf("error combining histograms: cannot merge from schema %d to %d", inc.Schema, cur.Schema)
 		}
 
-		cur = combine(cur.Copy(), inc)
+		var err error
+		cur, err = combine(cur.Copy(), inc)
+		if err != nil {
+			return ret, err
+		}
 		ret[i] = SequenceValue{Histogram: cur}
 	}
 
@@ -562,6 +570,15 @@ func (p *parser) buildHistogramFromMap(desc *map[string]interface{}) *histogram.
 			p.addParseErrf(p.yyParser.lval.item.PositionRange(), "error parsing z_bucket_w number: %v", val)
 		}
 	}
+	val, ok = (*desc)["custom_values"]
+	if ok {
+		customValues, ok := val.([]float64)
+		if ok {
+			output.CustomValues = customValues
+		} else {
+			p.addParseErrf(p.yyParser.lval.item.PositionRange(), "error parsing custom_values: %v", val)
+		}
+	}
 
 	buckets, spans := p.buildHistogramBucketsAndSpans(desc, "buckets", "offset")
 	output.PositiveBuckets = buckets
@@ -659,7 +676,7 @@ func (p *parser) checkAST(node Node) (typ ValueType) {
 			p.addParseErrf(n.PositionRange(), "aggregation operator expected in aggregation expression but got %q", n.Op)
 		}
 		p.expectType(n.Expr, ValueTypeVector, "aggregation expression")
-		if n.Op == TOPK || n.Op == BOTTOMK || n.Op == QUANTILE {
+		if n.Op == TOPK || n.Op == BOTTOMK || n.Op == QUANTILE || n.Op == LIMITK || n.Op == LIMIT_RATIO {
 			p.expectType(n.Param, ValueTypeScalar, "aggregation parameter")
 		}
 		if n.Op == COUNT_VALUES {
diff --git a/promql/parser/parse_test.go b/promql/parser/parse_test.go
index c56d845947..a4fe28e5b8 100644
--- a/promql/parser/parse_test.go
+++ b/promql/parser/parse_test.go
@@ -513,12 +513,12 @@ var testExpr = []struct {
 	{
 		input:  "2.5.",
 		fail:   true,
-		errMsg: "unexpected character: '.'",
+		errMsg: `1:1: parse error: bad number or duration syntax: "2.5."`,
 	},
 	{
 		input:  "100..4",
 		fail:   true,
-		errMsg: `unexpected number ".4"`,
+		errMsg: `1:1: parse error: bad number or duration syntax: "100.."`,
 	},
 	{
 		input:  "0deadbeef",
diff --git a/promql/parser/printer.go b/promql/parser/printer.go
index ff171f2152..f3bdefdeb1 100644
--- a/promql/parser/printer.go
+++ b/promql/parser/printer.go
@@ -204,8 +204,8 @@ func (node *VectorSelector) String() string {
 		labelStrings = make([]string, 0, len(node.LabelMatchers)-1)
 	}
 	for _, matcher := range node.LabelMatchers {
-		// Only include the __name__ label if its equality matching and matches the name.
-		if matcher.Name == labels.MetricName && matcher.Type == labels.MatchEqual && matcher.Value == node.Name {
+		// Only include the __name__ label if its equality matching and matches the name, but don't skip if it's an explicit empty name matcher.
+		if matcher.Name == labels.MetricName && matcher.Type == labels.MatchEqual && matcher.Value == node.Name && matcher.Value != "" {
 			continue
 		}
 		labelStrings = append(labelStrings, matcher.String())
diff --git a/promql/parser/printer_test.go b/promql/parser/printer_test.go
index a044b6969c..d2e301a884 100644
--- a/promql/parser/printer_test.go
+++ b/promql/parser/printer_test.go
@@ -135,6 +135,26 @@ func TestExprString(t *testing.T) {
 		{
 			in: `a[1m] @ end()`,
 		},
+		{
+			in: `{__name__="",a="x"}`,
+		},
+		{
+			in: `{"a.b"="c"}`,
+		},
+		{
+			in: `{"0"="1"}`,
+		},
+		{
+			in:  `{"_0"="1"}`,
+			out: `{_0="1"}`,
+		},
+		{
+			in: `{""="0"}`,
+		},
+		{
+			in:  "{``=\"0\"}",
+			out: `{""="0"}`,
+		},
 	}
 
 	for _, test := range inputs {
@@ -216,6 +236,16 @@ func TestVectorSelector_String(t *testing.T) {
 			},
 			expected: `{__name__="foobar"}`,
 		},
+		{
+			name: "empty name matcher",
+			vs: VectorSelector{
+				LabelMatchers: []*labels.Matcher{
+					labels.MustNewMatcher(labels.MatchEqual, labels.MetricName, ""),
+					labels.MustNewMatcher(labels.MatchEqual, "a", "x"),
+				},
+			},
+			expected: `{__name__="",a="x"}`,
+		},
 	} {
 		t.Run(tc.name, func(t *testing.T) {
 			require.Equal(t, tc.expected, tc.vs.String())
diff --git a/promql/promql_test.go b/promql/promql_test.go
index 05821b1c11..a423f90ee8 100644
--- a/promql/promql_test.go
+++ b/promql/promql_test.go
@@ -11,7 +11,7 @@
 // See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 // limitations under the License.
 
-package promql
+package promql_test
 
 import (
 	"context"
@@ -22,37 +22,33 @@ import (
 	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
 	"golang.org/x/sync/errgroup"
 
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/promql"
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/promql/parser"
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/promql/promqltest"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/util/teststorage"
 )
 
-func newTestEngine() *Engine {
-	return NewEngine(EngineOpts{
-		Logger:                   nil,
-		Reg:                      nil,
-		MaxSamples:               10000,
-		Timeout:                  100 * time.Second,
-		NoStepSubqueryIntervalFn: func(int64) int64 { return durationMilliseconds(1 * time.Minute) },
-		EnableAtModifier:         true,
-		EnableNegativeOffset:     true,
-		EnablePerStepStats:       true,
-	})
+func newTestEngine() *promql.Engine {
+	return promqltest.NewTestEngine(false, 0, promqltest.DefaultMaxSamplesPerQuery)
 }
 
 func TestEvaluations(t *testing.T) {
-	RunBuiltinTests(t, newTestEngine())
+	promqltest.RunBuiltinTests(t, newTestEngine())
 }
 
 // Run a lot of queries at the same time, to check for race conditions.
 func TestConcurrentRangeQueries(t *testing.T) {
 	stor := teststorage.New(t)
 	defer stor.Close()
-	opts := EngineOpts{
+	opts := promql.EngineOpts{
 		Logger:     nil,
 		Reg:        nil,
 		MaxSamples: 50000000,
 		Timeout:    100 * time.Second,
 	}
-	engine := NewEngine(opts)
+	// Enable experimental functions testing
+	parser.EnableExperimentalFunctions = true
+	engine := promql.NewEngine(opts)
 
 	const interval = 10000 // 10s interval.
 	// A day of data plus 10k steps.
diff --git a/promql/promqltest/README.md b/promql/promqltest/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..af34354241
--- /dev/null
+++ b/promql/promqltest/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,132 @@
+# The PromQL test scripting language
+
+This package contains two things:
+
+* an implementation of a test scripting language for PromQL engines
+* a predefined set of tests written in that scripting language
+
+The predefined set of tests can be run against any PromQL engine implementation by calling `promqltest.RunBuiltinTests()`.
+Any other test script can be run with `promqltest.RunTest()`.
+
+The rest of this document explains the test scripting language.
+
+Each test script is written in plain text.
+
+Comments can be given by prefixing the comment with a `#`, for example:
+
+```
+# This is a comment.
+```
+
+Each test file contains a series of commands. There are three kinds of commands:
+
+* `load`
+* `clear`
+* `eval`
+
+Each command is executed in the order given in the file.
+
+## `load` command
+
+`load` adds some data to the test environment.
+
+The syntax is as follows:
+
+```
+load <interval>
+    <series> <points>
+    ...
+    <series> <points>
+```
+
+* `<interval>` is the step between points (eg. `1m` or `30s`)
+* `<series>` is a Prometheus series name in the usual `metric{label="value"}` syntax
+* `<points>` is a specification of the points to add for that series, following the same expanding syntax as for `promtool unittest` documented [here](../../docs/configuration/unit_testing_rules.md#series)
+
+For example:
+
+```
+load 1m
+    my_metric{env="prod"} 5 2+3x2 _ stale {{schema:1 sum:3 count:22 buckets:[5 10 7]}}
+```
+
+...will create a single series with labels `my_metric{env="prod"}`, with the following points:
+
+* t=0: value is 5
+* t=1m: value is 2
+* t=2m: value is 5
+* t=3m: value is 7
+* t=4m: no point
+* t=5m: stale marker
+* t=6m: native histogram with schema 1, sum -3, count 22 and bucket counts 5, 10 and 7
+
+Each `load` command is additive - it does not replace any data loaded in a previous `load` command.
+Use `clear` to remove all loaded data.
+
+### Native histograms with custom buckets (NHCB)
+
+When loading a batch of classic histogram float series, you can optionally append the suffix `_with_nhcb` to convert them to native histograms with custom buckets and load both the original float series and the new histogram series.
+
+## `clear` command
+
+`clear` removes all data previously loaded with `load` commands.
+
+## `eval` command
+
+`eval` runs a query against the test environment and asserts that the result is as expected.
+
+Both instant and range queries are supported.
+
+The syntax is as follows:
+
+```
+# Instant query
+eval instant at <time> <query>
+    <series> <points>
+    ...
+    <series> <points>
+    
+# Range query
+eval range from <start> to <end> step <step> <query>
+    <series> <points>
+    ...
+    <series> <points>
+```
+
+* `<time>` is the timestamp to evaluate the instant query at (eg. `1m`)
+* `<start>` and `<end>` specify the time range of the range query, and use the same syntax as `<time>`
+* `<step>` is the step of the range query, and uses the same syntax as `<time>` (eg. `30s`)
+* `<series>` and `<points>` specify the expected values, and follow the same syntax as for `load` above
+
+For example:
+
+```
+eval instant at 1m sum by (env) (my_metric)
+    {env="prod"} 5
+    {env="test"} 20
+    
+eval range from 0 to 3m step 1m sum by (env) (my_metric)
+    {env="prod"} 2 5 10 20
+    {env="test"} 10 20 30 45
+```
+
+Instant queries also support asserting that the series are returned in exactly the order specified: use `eval_ordered instant ...` instead of `eval instant ...`.
+This is not supported for range queries.
+
+It is also possible to test that queries fail: use `eval_fail instant ...` or `eval_fail range ...`.
+`eval_fail` optionally takes an expected error message string or regexp to assert that the error message is as expected.
+
+For example:
+
+```
+# Assert that the query fails for any reason without asserting on the error message.
+eval_fail instant at 1m ceil({__name__=~'testmetric1|testmetric2'})
+
+# Assert that the query fails with exactly the provided error message string.
+eval_fail instant at 1m ceil({__name__=~'testmetric1|testmetric2'})
+    expected_fail_message vector cannot contain metrics with the same labelset
+
+# Assert that the query fails with an error message matching the regexp provided.
+eval_fail instant at 1m ceil({__name__=~'testmetric1|testmetric2'})
+    expected_fail_regexp (vector cannot contain metrics .*|something else went wrong)
+```
diff --git a/promql/test.go b/promql/promqltest/test.go
similarity index 64%
rename from promql/test.go
rename to promql/promqltest/test.go
index 1cdfe8d311..f3a773be8d 100644
--- a/promql/test.go
+++ b/promql/promqltest/test.go
@@ -11,7 +11,7 @@
 // See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 // limitations under the License.
 
-package promql
+package promqltest
 
 import (
 	"context"
@@ -20,6 +20,7 @@ import (
 	"fmt"
 	"io/fs"
 	"math"
+	"sort"
 	"strconv"
 	"strings"
 	"testing"
@@ -33,24 +34,25 @@ import (
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/histogram"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/labels"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/timestamp"
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/promql"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/promql/parser"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/promql/parser/posrange"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/storage"
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/util/almost"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/util/teststorage"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/util/testutil"
 )
 
 var (
-	minNormal = math.Float64frombits(0x0010000000000000) // The smallest positive normal value of type float64.
-
 	patSpace       = regexp.MustCompile("[\t ]+")
-	patLoad        = regexp.MustCompile(`^load\s+(.+?)$`)
-	patEvalInstant = regexp.MustCompile(`^eval(?:_(fail|ordered))?\s+instant\s+(?:at\s+(.+?))?\s+(.+)$`)
-	patEvalRange   = regexp.MustCompile(`^eval(?:_(fail))?\s+range\s+from\s+(.+)\s+to\s+(.+)\s+step\s+(.+?)\s+(.+)$`)
+	patLoad        = regexp.MustCompile(`^load(?:_(with_nhcb))?\s+(.+?)$`)
+	patEvalInstant = regexp.MustCompile(`^eval(?:_(fail|warn|ordered))?\s+instant\s+(?:at\s+(.+?))?\s+(.+)$`)
+	patEvalRange   = regexp.MustCompile(`^eval(?:_(fail|warn))?\s+range\s+from\s+(.+)\s+to\s+(.+)\s+step\s+(.+?)\s+(.+)$`)
 )
 
 const (
-	defaultEpsilon = 0.000001 // Relative error allowed for sample values.
+	defaultEpsilon            = 0.000001 // Relative error allowed for sample values.
+	DefaultMaxSamplesPerQuery = 10000
 )
 
 var testStartTime = time.Unix(0, 0).UTC()
@@ -72,8 +74,22 @@ func LoadedStorage(t testutil.T, input string) *teststorage.TestStorage {
 	return test.storage
 }
 
+func NewTestEngine(enablePerStepStats bool, lookbackDelta time.Duration, maxSamples int) *promql.Engine {
+	return promql.NewEngine(promql.EngineOpts{
+		Logger:                   nil,
+		Reg:                      nil,
+		MaxSamples:               maxSamples,
+		Timeout:                  100 * time.Second,
+		NoStepSubqueryIntervalFn: func(int64) int64 { return durationMilliseconds(1 * time.Minute) },
+		EnableAtModifier:         true,
+		EnableNegativeOffset:     true,
+		EnablePerStepStats:       enablePerStepStats,
+		LookbackDelta:            lookbackDelta,
+	})
+}
+
 // RunBuiltinTests runs an acceptance test suite against the provided engine.
-func RunBuiltinTests(t *testing.T, engine QueryEngine) {
+func RunBuiltinTests(t *testing.T, engine promql.QueryEngine) {
 	t.Cleanup(func() { parser.EnableExperimentalFunctions = false })
 	parser.EnableExperimentalFunctions = true
 
@@ -90,11 +106,11 @@ func RunBuiltinTests(t *testing.T, engine QueryEngine) {
 }
 
 // RunTest parses and runs the test against the provided engine.
-func RunTest(t testutil.T, input string, engine QueryEngine) {
+func RunTest(t testutil.T, input string, engine promql.QueryEngine) {
 	require.NoError(t, runTest(t, input, engine))
 }
 
-func runTest(t testutil.T, input string, engine QueryEngine) error {
+func runTest(t testutil.T, input string, engine promql.QueryEngine) error {
 	test, err := newTest(t, input)
 
 	// Why do this before checking err? newTest() can create the test storage and then return an error,
@@ -163,15 +179,18 @@ func raise(line int, format string, v ...interface{}) error {
 
 func parseLoad(lines []string, i int) (int, *loadCmd, error) {
 	if !patLoad.MatchString(lines[i]) {
-		return i, nil, raise(i, "invalid load command. (load <step:duration>)")
+		return i, nil, raise(i, "invalid load command. (load[_with_nhcb] <step:duration>)")
 	}
 	parts := patLoad.FindStringSubmatch(lines[i])
-
-	gap, err := model.ParseDuration(parts[1])
+	var (
+		withNHCB = parts[1] == "with_nhcb"
+		step     = parts[2]
+	)
+	gap, err := model.ParseDuration(step)
 	if err != nil {
-		return i, nil, raise(i, "invalid step definition %q: %s", parts[1], err)
+		return i, nil, raise(i, "invalid step definition %q: %s", step, err)
 	}
-	cmd := newLoadCmd(time.Duration(gap))
+	cmd := newLoadCmd(time.Duration(gap), withNHCB)
 	for i+1 < len(lines) {
 		i++
 		defLine := lines[i]
@@ -204,7 +223,7 @@ func (t *test) parseEval(lines []string, i int) (int, *evalCmd, error) {
 	rangeParts := patEvalRange.FindStringSubmatch(lines[i])
 
 	if instantParts == nil && rangeParts == nil {
-		return i, nil, raise(i, "invalid evaluation command. Must be either 'eval[_fail|_ordered] instant [at <offset:duration>] <query>' or 'eval[_fail] range from <from> to <to> step <step> <query>'")
+		return i, nil, raise(i, "invalid evaluation command. Must be either 'eval[_fail|_warn|_ordered] instant [at <offset:duration>] <query>' or 'eval[_fail|_warn] range from <from> to <to> step <step> <query>'")
 	}
 
 	isInstant := instantParts != nil
@@ -283,6 +302,8 @@ func (t *test) parseEval(lines []string, i int) (int, *evalCmd, error) {
 		cmd.ordered = true
 	case "fail":
 		cmd.fail = true
+	case "warn":
+		cmd.warn = true
 	}
 
 	for j := 1; i+1 < len(lines); j++ {
@@ -292,6 +313,21 @@ func (t *test) parseEval(lines []string, i int) (int, *evalCmd, error) {
 			i--
 			break
 		}
+
+		if cmd.fail && strings.HasPrefix(defLine, "expected_fail_message") {
+			cmd.expectedFailMessage = strings.TrimSpace(strings.TrimPrefix(defLine, "expected_fail_message"))
+			break
+		}
+
+		if cmd.fail && strings.HasPrefix(defLine, "expected_fail_regexp") {
+			pattern := strings.TrimSpace(strings.TrimPrefix(defLine, "expected_fail_regexp"))
+			cmd.expectedFailRegexp, err = regexp.Compile(pattern)
+			if err != nil {
+				return i, nil, formatErr("invalid regexp '%s' for expected_fail_regexp: %w", pattern, err)
+			}
+			break
+		}
+
 		if f, err := parseNumber(defLine); err == nil {
 			cmd.expect(0, parser.SequenceValue{Value: f})
 			break
@@ -338,7 +374,7 @@ func (t *test) parse(input string) error {
 		switch c := strings.ToLower(patSpace.Split(l, 2)[0]); {
 		case c == "clear":
 			cmd = &clearCmd{}
-		case c == "load":
+		case strings.HasPrefix(c, "load"):
 			i, cmd, err = parseLoad(lines, i)
 		case strings.HasPrefix(c, "eval"):
 			i, cmd, err = t.parseEval(lines, i)
@@ -368,16 +404,18 @@ func (*evalCmd) testCmd()  {}
 type loadCmd struct {
 	gap       time.Duration
 	metrics   map[uint64]labels.Labels
-	defs      map[uint64][]Sample
+	defs      map[uint64][]promql.Sample
 	exemplars map[uint64][]exemplar.Exemplar
+	withNHCB  bool
 }
 
-func newLoadCmd(gap time.Duration) *loadCmd {
+func newLoadCmd(gap time.Duration, withNHCB bool) *loadCmd {
 	return &loadCmd{
 		gap:       gap,
 		metrics:   map[uint64]labels.Labels{},
-		defs:      map[uint64][]Sample{},
+		defs:      map[uint64][]promql.Sample{},
 		exemplars: map[uint64][]exemplar.Exemplar{},
+		withNHCB:  withNHCB,
 	}
 }
 
@@ -389,11 +427,11 @@ func (cmd loadCmd) String() string {
 func (cmd *loadCmd) set(m labels.Labels, vals ...parser.SequenceValue) {
 	h := m.Hash()
 
-	samples := make([]Sample, 0, len(vals))
+	samples := make([]promql.Sample, 0, len(vals))
 	ts := testStartTime
 	for _, v := range vals {
 		if !v.Omitted {
-			samples = append(samples, Sample{
+			samples = append(samples, promql.Sample{
 				T: ts.UnixNano() / int64(time.Millisecond/time.Nanosecond),
 				F: v.Value,
 				H: v.Histogram,
@@ -416,10 +454,171 @@ func (cmd *loadCmd) append(a storage.Appender) error {
 			}
 		}
 	}
+	if cmd.withNHCB {
+		return cmd.appendCustomHistogram(a)
+	}
 	return nil
 }
 
-func appendSample(a storage.Appender, s Sample, m labels.Labels) error {
+func getHistogramMetricBase(m labels.Labels, suffix string) (labels.Labels, uint64) {
+	mName := m.Get(labels.MetricName)
+	baseM := labels.NewBuilder(m).
+		Set(labels.MetricName, strings.TrimSuffix(mName, suffix)).
+		Del(labels.BucketLabel).
+		Labels()
+	hash := baseM.Hash()
+	return baseM, hash
+}
+
+type tempHistogramWrapper struct {
+	metric        labels.Labels
+	upperBounds   []float64
+	histogramByTs map[int64]tempHistogram
+}
+
+func newTempHistogramWrapper() tempHistogramWrapper {
+	return tempHistogramWrapper{
+		upperBounds:   []float64{},
+		histogramByTs: map[int64]tempHistogram{},
+	}
+}
+
+type tempHistogram struct {
+	bucketCounts map[float64]float64
+	count        float64
+	sum          float64
+}
+
+func newTempHistogram() tempHistogram {
+	return tempHistogram{
+		bucketCounts: map[float64]float64{},
+	}
+}
+
+func processClassicHistogramSeries(m labels.Labels, suffix string, histogramMap map[uint64]tempHistogramWrapper, smpls []promql.Sample, updateHistogramWrapper func(*tempHistogramWrapper), updateHistogram func(*tempHistogram, float64)) {
+	m2, m2hash := getHistogramMetricBase(m, suffix)
+	histogramWrapper, exists := histogramMap[m2hash]
+	if !exists {
+		histogramWrapper = newTempHistogramWrapper()
+	}
+	histogramWrapper.metric = m2
+	if updateHistogramWrapper != nil {
+		updateHistogramWrapper(&histogramWrapper)
+	}
+	for _, s := range smpls {
+		if s.H != nil {
+			continue
+		}
+		histogram, exists := histogramWrapper.histogramByTs[s.T]
+		if !exists {
+			histogram = newTempHistogram()
+		}
+		updateHistogram(&histogram, s.F)
+		histogramWrapper.histogramByTs[s.T] = histogram
+	}
+	histogramMap[m2hash] = histogramWrapper
+}
+
+func processUpperBoundsAndCreateBaseHistogram(upperBounds0 []float64) ([]float64, *histogram.FloatHistogram) {
+	sort.Float64s(upperBounds0)
+	upperBounds := make([]float64, 0, len(upperBounds0))
+	prevLE := math.Inf(-1)
+	for _, le := range upperBounds0 {
+		if le != prevLE { // deduplicate
+			upperBounds = append(upperBounds, le)
+			prevLE = le
+		}
+	}
+	var customBounds []float64
+	if upperBounds[len(upperBounds)-1] == math.Inf(1) {
+		customBounds = upperBounds[:len(upperBounds)-1]
+	} else {
+		customBounds = upperBounds
+	}
+	return upperBounds, &histogram.FloatHistogram{
+		Count:  0,
+		Sum:    0,
+		Schema: histogram.CustomBucketsSchema,
+		PositiveSpans: []histogram.Span{
+			{Offset: 0, Length: uint32(len(upperBounds))},
+		},
+		PositiveBuckets: make([]float64, len(upperBounds)),
+		CustomValues:    customBounds,
+	}
+}
+
+// If classic histograms are defined, convert them into native histograms with custom
+// bounds and append the defined time series to the storage.
+func (cmd *loadCmd) appendCustomHistogram(a storage.Appender) error {
+	histogramMap := map[uint64]tempHistogramWrapper{}
+
+	// Go through all the time series to collate classic histogram data
+	// and organise them by timestamp.
+	for hash, smpls := range cmd.defs {
+		m := cmd.metrics[hash]
+		mName := m.Get(labels.MetricName)
+		switch {
+		case strings.HasSuffix(mName, "_bucket") && m.Has(labels.BucketLabel):
+			le, err := strconv.ParseFloat(m.Get(labels.BucketLabel), 64)
+			if err != nil || math.IsNaN(le) {
+				continue
+			}
+			processClassicHistogramSeries(m, "_bucket", histogramMap, smpls, func(histogramWrapper *tempHistogramWrapper) {
+				histogramWrapper.upperBounds = append(histogramWrapper.upperBounds, le)
+			}, func(histogram *tempHistogram, f float64) {
+				histogram.bucketCounts[le] = f
+			})
+		case strings.HasSuffix(mName, "_count"):
+			processClassicHistogramSeries(m, "_count", histogramMap, smpls, nil, func(histogram *tempHistogram, f float64) {
+				histogram.count = f
+			})
+		case strings.HasSuffix(mName, "_sum"):
+			processClassicHistogramSeries(m, "_sum", histogramMap, smpls, nil, func(histogram *tempHistogram, f float64) {
+				histogram.sum = f
+			})
+		}
+	}
+
+	// Convert the collated classic histogram data into native histograms
+	// with custom bounds and append them to the storage.
+	for _, histogramWrapper := range histogramMap {
+		upperBounds, fhBase := processUpperBoundsAndCreateBaseHistogram(histogramWrapper.upperBounds)
+		samples := make([]promql.Sample, 0, len(histogramWrapper.histogramByTs))
+		for t, histogram := range histogramWrapper.histogramByTs {
+			fh := fhBase.Copy()
+			var prevCount, total float64
+			for i, le := range upperBounds {
+				currCount, exists := histogram.bucketCounts[le]
+				if !exists {
+					currCount = 0
+				}
+				count := currCount - prevCount
+				fh.PositiveBuckets[i] = count
+				total += count
+				prevCount = currCount
+			}
+			fh.Sum = histogram.sum
+			if histogram.count != 0 {
+				total = histogram.count
+			}
+			fh.Count = total
+			s := promql.Sample{T: t, H: fh.Compact(0)}
+			if err := s.H.Validate(); err != nil {
+				return err
+			}
+			samples = append(samples, s)
+		}
+		sort.Slice(samples, func(i, j int) bool { return samples[i].T < samples[j].T })
+		for _, s := range samples {
+			if err := appendSample(a, s, histogramWrapper.metric); err != nil {
+				return err
+			}
+		}
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+
+func appendSample(a storage.Appender, s promql.Sample, m labels.Labels) error {
 	if s.H != nil {
 		if _, err := a.AppendHistogram(0, m, s.T, nil, s.H); err != nil {
 			return err
@@ -441,8 +640,10 @@ type evalCmd struct {
 	step  time.Duration
 	line  int
 
-	isRange       bool // if false, instant query
-	fail, ordered bool
+	isRange             bool // if false, instant query
+	fail, warn, ordered bool
+	expectedFailMessage string
+	expectedFailRegexp  *regexp.Regexp
 
 	metrics  map[uint64]labels.Labels
 	expected map[uint64]entry
@@ -503,7 +704,7 @@ func (ev *evalCmd) expectMetric(pos int, m labels.Labels, vals ...parser.Sequenc
 // compareResult compares the result value with the defined expectation.
 func (ev *evalCmd) compareResult(result parser.Value) error {
 	switch val := result.(type) {
-	case Matrix:
+	case promql.Matrix:
 		if ev.ordered {
 			return fmt.Errorf("expected ordered result, but query returned a matrix")
 		}
@@ -521,8 +722,8 @@ func (ev *evalCmd) compareResult(result parser.Value) error {
 			seen[hash] = true
 			exp := ev.expected[hash]
 
-			var expectedFloats []FPoint
-			var expectedHistograms []HPoint
+			var expectedFloats []promql.FPoint
+			var expectedHistograms []promql.HPoint
 
 			for i, e := range exp.vals {
 				ts := ev.start.Add(time.Duration(i) * ev.step)
@@ -534,9 +735,9 @@ func (ev *evalCmd) compareResult(result parser.Value) error {
 				t := ts.UnixNano() / int64(time.Millisecond/time.Nanosecond)
 
 				if e.Histogram != nil {
-					expectedHistograms = append(expectedHistograms, HPoint{T: t, H: e.Histogram})
+					expectedHistograms = append(expectedHistograms, promql.HPoint{T: t, H: e.Histogram})
 				} else if !e.Omitted {
-					expectedFloats = append(expectedFloats, FPoint{T: t, F: e.Value})
+					expectedFloats = append(expectedFloats, promql.FPoint{T: t, F: e.Value})
 				}
 			}
 
@@ -551,7 +752,7 @@ func (ev *evalCmd) compareResult(result parser.Value) error {
 					return fmt.Errorf("expected float value at index %v for %s to have timestamp %v, but it had timestamp %v (result has %s)", i, ev.metrics[hash], expected.T, actual.T, formatSeriesResult(s))
 				}
 
-				if !almostEqual(actual.F, expected.F, defaultEpsilon) {
+				if !almost.Equal(actual.F, expected.F, defaultEpsilon) {
 					return fmt.Errorf("expected float value at index %v (t=%v) for %s to be %v, but got %v (result has %s)", i, actual.T, ev.metrics[hash], expected.F, actual.F, formatSeriesResult(s))
 				}
 			}
@@ -575,7 +776,7 @@ func (ev *evalCmd) compareResult(result parser.Value) error {
 			}
 		}
 
-	case Vector:
+	case promql.Vector:
 		seen := map[uint64]bool{}
 		for pos, v := range val {
 			fp := v.Metric.Hash()
@@ -601,7 +802,7 @@ func (ev *evalCmd) compareResult(result parser.Value) error {
 			if expH != nil && !expH.Compact(0).Equals(v.H) {
 				return fmt.Errorf("expected %v for %s but got %s", HistogramTestExpression(expH), v.Metric, HistogramTestExpression(v.H))
 			}
-			if !almostEqual(exp0.Value, v.F, defaultEpsilon) {
+			if !almost.Equal(exp0.Value, v.F, defaultEpsilon) {
 				return fmt.Errorf("expected %v for %s but got %v", exp0.Value, v.Metric, v.F)
 			}
 
@@ -613,7 +814,7 @@ func (ev *evalCmd) compareResult(result parser.Value) error {
 			}
 		}
 
-	case Scalar:
+	case promql.Scalar:
 		if len(ev.expected) != 1 {
 			return fmt.Errorf("expected vector result, but got scalar %s", val.String())
 		}
@@ -621,7 +822,7 @@ func (ev *evalCmd) compareResult(result parser.Value) error {
 		if exp0.Histogram != nil {
 			return fmt.Errorf("expected Histogram %v but got scalar %s", exp0.Histogram.TestExpression(), val.String())
 		}
-		if !almostEqual(exp0.Value, val.V, defaultEpsilon) {
+		if !almost.Equal(exp0.Value, val.V, defaultEpsilon) {
 			return fmt.Errorf("expected Scalar %v but got %v", val.V, exp0.Value)
 		}
 
@@ -631,7 +832,25 @@ func (ev *evalCmd) compareResult(result parser.Value) error {
 	return nil
 }
 
-func formatSeriesResult(s Series) string {
+func (ev *evalCmd) checkExpectedFailure(actual error) error {
+	if ev.expectedFailMessage != "" {
+		if ev.expectedFailMessage != actual.Error() {
+			return fmt.Errorf("expected error %q evaluating query %q (line %d), but got: %s", ev.expectedFailMessage, ev.expr, ev.line, actual.Error())
+		}
+	}
+
+	if ev.expectedFailRegexp != nil {
+		if !ev.expectedFailRegexp.MatchString(actual.Error()) {
+			return fmt.Errorf("expected error matching pattern %q evaluating query %q (line %d), but got: %s", ev.expectedFailRegexp.String(), ev.expr, ev.line, actual.Error())
+		}
+	}
+
+	// We're not expecting a particular error, or we got the error we expected.
+	// This test passes.
+	return nil
+}
+
+func formatSeriesResult(s promql.Series) string {
 	floatPlural := "s"
 	histogramPlural := "s"
 
@@ -678,8 +897,7 @@ func atModifierTestCases(exprStr string, evalTime time.Time) ([]atModifierTestCa
 	// If there is a subquery, then the selectors inside it don't get the @ timestamp.
 	// If any selector already has the @ timestamp set, then it is untouched.
 	parser.Inspect(expr, func(node parser.Node, path []parser.Node) error {
-		_, _, subqTs := subqueryTimes(path)
-		if subqTs != nil {
+		if hasAtModifier(path) {
 			// There is a subquery with timestamp in the path,
 			// hence don't change any timestamps further.
 			return nil
@@ -701,7 +919,7 @@ func atModifierTestCases(exprStr string, evalTime time.Time) ([]atModifierTestCa
 			}
 
 		case *parser.Call:
-			_, ok := AtModifierUnsafeFunctions[n.Func.Name]
+			_, ok := promql.AtModifierUnsafeFunctions[n.Func.Name]
 			containsNonStepInvariant = containsNonStepInvariant || ok
 		}
 		return nil
@@ -729,8 +947,19 @@ func atModifierTestCases(exprStr string, evalTime time.Time) ([]atModifierTestCa
 	return testCases, nil
 }
 
+func hasAtModifier(path []parser.Node) bool {
+	for _, node := range path {
+		if n, ok := node.(*parser.SubqueryExpr); ok {
+			if n.Timestamp != nil {
+				return true
+			}
+		}
+	}
+	return false
+}
+
 // exec processes a single step of the test.
-func (t *test) exec(tc testCommand, engine QueryEngine) error {
+func (t *test) exec(tc testCommand, engine promql.QueryEngine) error {
 	switch cmd := tc.(type) {
 	case *clearCmd:
 		t.clear()
@@ -755,7 +984,7 @@ func (t *test) exec(tc testCommand, engine QueryEngine) error {
 	return nil
 }
 
-func (t *test) execEval(cmd *evalCmd, engine QueryEngine) error {
+func (t *test) execEval(cmd *evalCmd, engine promql.QueryEngine) error {
 	if cmd.isRange {
 		return t.execRangeEval(cmd, engine)
 	}
@@ -763,15 +992,22 @@ func (t *test) execEval(cmd *evalCmd, engine QueryEngine) error {
 	return t.execInstantEval(cmd, engine)
 }
 
-func (t *test) execRangeEval(cmd *evalCmd, engine QueryEngine) error {
+func (t *test) execRangeEval(cmd *evalCmd, engine promql.QueryEngine) error {
 	q, err := engine.NewRangeQuery(t.context, t.storage, nil, cmd.expr, cmd.start, cmd.end, cmd.step)
 	if err != nil {
 		return fmt.Errorf("error creating range query for %q (line %d): %w", cmd.expr, cmd.line, err)
 	}
 	res := q.Exec(t.context)
+	countWarnings, _ := res.Warnings.CountWarningsAndInfo()
+	if !cmd.warn && countWarnings > 0 {
+		return fmt.Errorf("unexpected warnings evaluating query %q (line %d): %v", cmd.expr, cmd.line, res.Warnings)
+	}
+	if cmd.warn && countWarnings == 0 {
+		return fmt.Errorf("expected warnings evaluating query %q (line %d) but got none", cmd.expr, cmd.line)
+	}
 	if res.Err != nil {
 		if cmd.fail {
-			return nil
+			return cmd.checkExpectedFailure(res.Err)
 		}
 
 		return fmt.Errorf("error evaluating query %q (line %d): %w", cmd.expr, cmd.line, res.Err)
@@ -788,83 +1024,100 @@ func (t *test) execRangeEval(cmd *evalCmd, engine QueryEngine) error {
 	return nil
 }
 
-func (t *test) execInstantEval(cmd *evalCmd, engine QueryEngine) error {
+func (t *test) execInstantEval(cmd *evalCmd, engine promql.QueryEngine) error {
 	queries, err := atModifierTestCases(cmd.expr, cmd.start)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
 	queries = append([]atModifierTestCase{{expr: cmd.expr, evalTime: cmd.start}}, queries...)
 	for _, iq := range queries {
-		q, err := engine.NewInstantQuery(t.context, t.storage, nil, iq.expr, iq.evalTime)
-		if err != nil {
-			return fmt.Errorf("error creating instant query for %q (line %d): %w", cmd.expr, cmd.line, err)
-		}
-		defer q.Close()
-		res := q.Exec(t.context)
-		if res.Err != nil {
-			if cmd.fail {
-				continue
-			}
-			return fmt.Errorf("error evaluating query %q (line %d): %w", iq.expr, cmd.line, res.Err)
-		}
-		if res.Err == nil && cmd.fail {
-			return fmt.Errorf("expected error evaluating query %q (line %d) but got none", iq.expr, cmd.line)
-		}
-		err = cmd.compareResult(res.Value)
-		if err != nil {
-			return fmt.Errorf("error in %s %s (line %d): %w", cmd, iq.expr, cmd.line, err)
-		}
-
-		// Check query returns same result in range mode,
-		// by checking against the middle step.
-		q, err = engine.NewRangeQuery(t.context, t.storage, nil, iq.expr, iq.evalTime.Add(-time.Minute), iq.evalTime.Add(time.Minute), time.Minute)
-		if err != nil {
-			return fmt.Errorf("error creating range query for %q (line %d): %w", cmd.expr, cmd.line, err)
-		}
-		rangeRes := q.Exec(t.context)
-		if rangeRes.Err != nil {
-			return fmt.Errorf("error evaluating query %q (line %d) in range mode: %w", iq.expr, cmd.line, rangeRes.Err)
-		}
-		defer q.Close()
-		if cmd.ordered {
-			// Range queries are always sorted by labels, so skip this test case that expects results in a particular order.
-			continue
-		}
-		mat := rangeRes.Value.(Matrix)
-		if err := assertMatrixSorted(mat); err != nil {
+		if err := t.runInstantQuery(iq, cmd, engine); err != nil {
 			return err
 		}
-
-		vec := make(Vector, 0, len(mat))
-		for _, series := range mat {
-			// We expect either Floats or Histograms.
-			for _, point := range series.Floats {
-				if point.T == timeMilliseconds(iq.evalTime) {
-					vec = append(vec, Sample{Metric: series.Metric, T: point.T, F: point.F})
-					break
-				}
-			}
-			for _, point := range series.Histograms {
-				if point.T == timeMilliseconds(iq.evalTime) {
-					vec = append(vec, Sample{Metric: series.Metric, T: point.T, H: point.H})
-					break
-				}
-			}
-		}
-		if _, ok := res.Value.(Scalar); ok {
-			err = cmd.compareResult(Scalar{V: vec[0].F})
-		} else {
-			err = cmd.compareResult(vec)
-		}
-		if err != nil {
-			return fmt.Errorf("error in %s %s (line %d) range mode: %w", cmd, iq.expr, cmd.line, err)
-		}
 	}
-
 	return nil
 }
 
-func assertMatrixSorted(m Matrix) error {
+func (t *test) runInstantQuery(iq atModifierTestCase, cmd *evalCmd, engine promql.QueryEngine) error {
+	q, err := engine.NewInstantQuery(t.context, t.storage, nil, iq.expr, iq.evalTime)
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("error creating instant query for %q (line %d): %w", cmd.expr, cmd.line, err)
+	}
+	defer q.Close()
+	res := q.Exec(t.context)
+	countWarnings, _ := res.Warnings.CountWarningsAndInfo()
+	if !cmd.warn && countWarnings > 0 {
+		return fmt.Errorf("unexpected warnings evaluating query %q (line %d): %v", iq.expr, cmd.line, res.Warnings)
+	}
+	if cmd.warn && countWarnings == 0 {
+		return fmt.Errorf("expected warnings evaluating query %q (line %d) but got none", iq.expr, cmd.line)
+	}
+	if res.Err != nil {
+		if cmd.fail {
+			if err := cmd.checkExpectedFailure(res.Err); err != nil {
+				return err
+			}
+
+			return nil
+		}
+		return fmt.Errorf("error evaluating query %q (line %d): %w", iq.expr, cmd.line, res.Err)
+	}
+	if res.Err == nil && cmd.fail {
+		return fmt.Errorf("expected error evaluating query %q (line %d) but got none", iq.expr, cmd.line)
+	}
+	err = cmd.compareResult(res.Value)
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("error in %s %s (line %d): %w", cmd, iq.expr, cmd.line, err)
+	}
+
+	// Check query returns same result in range mode,
+	// by checking against the middle step.
+	q, err = engine.NewRangeQuery(t.context, t.storage, nil, iq.expr, iq.evalTime.Add(-time.Minute), iq.evalTime.Add(time.Minute), time.Minute)
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("error creating range query for %q (line %d): %w", cmd.expr, cmd.line, err)
+	}
+	rangeRes := q.Exec(t.context)
+	if rangeRes.Err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("error evaluating query %q (line %d) in range mode: %w", iq.expr, cmd.line, rangeRes.Err)
+	}
+	defer q.Close()
+	if cmd.ordered {
+		// Range queries are always sorted by labels, so skip this test case that expects results in a particular order.
+		return nil
+	}
+	mat := rangeRes.Value.(promql.Matrix)
+	if err := assertMatrixSorted(mat); err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+
+	vec := make(promql.Vector, 0, len(mat))
+	for _, series := range mat {
+		// We expect either Floats or Histograms.
+		for _, point := range series.Floats {
+			if point.T == timeMilliseconds(iq.evalTime) {
+				vec = append(vec, promql.Sample{Metric: series.Metric, T: point.T, F: point.F})
+				break
+			}
+		}
+		for _, point := range series.Histograms {
+			if point.T == timeMilliseconds(iq.evalTime) {
+				vec = append(vec, promql.Sample{Metric: series.Metric, T: point.T, H: point.H})
+				break
+			}
+		}
+	}
+	if _, ok := res.Value.(promql.Scalar); ok {
+		err = cmd.compareResult(promql.Scalar{V: vec[0].F})
+	} else {
+		err = cmd.compareResult(vec)
+	}
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("error in %s %s (line %d) range mode: %w", cmd, iq.expr, cmd.line, err)
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+
+func assertMatrixSorted(m promql.Matrix) error {
 	if len(m) <= 1 {
 		return nil
 	}
@@ -894,29 +1147,6 @@ func (t *test) clear() {
 	t.context, t.cancelCtx = context.WithCancel(context.Background())
 }
 
-// almostEqual returns true if a and b differ by less than their sum
-// multiplied by epsilon.
-func almostEqual(a, b, epsilon float64) bool {
-	// NaN has no equality but for testing we still want to know whether both values
-	// are NaN.
-	if math.IsNaN(a) && math.IsNaN(b) {
-		return true
-	}
-
-	// Cf. http://floating-point-gui.de/errors/comparison/
-	if a == b {
-		return true
-	}
-
-	absSum := math.Abs(a) + math.Abs(b)
-	diff := math.Abs(a - b)
-
-	if a == 0 || b == 0 || absSum < minNormal {
-		return diff < epsilon*minNormal
-	}
-	return diff/math.Min(absSum, math.MaxFloat64) < epsilon
-}
-
 func parseNumber(s string) (float64, error) {
 	n, err := strconv.ParseInt(s, 0, 64)
 	f := float64(n)
@@ -937,7 +1167,7 @@ type LazyLoader struct {
 	storage          storage.Storage
 	SubqueryInterval time.Duration
 
-	queryEngine *Engine
+	queryEngine *promql.Engine
 	context     context.Context
 	cancelCtx   context.CancelFunc
 
@@ -974,7 +1204,7 @@ func (ll *LazyLoader) parse(input string) error {
 		if len(l) == 0 {
 			continue
 		}
-		if strings.ToLower(patSpace.Split(l, 2)[0]) == "load" {
+		if strings.HasPrefix(strings.ToLower(patSpace.Split(l, 2)[0]), "load") {
 			_, cmd, err := parseLoad(lines, i)
 			if err != nil {
 				return err
@@ -1004,7 +1234,7 @@ func (ll *LazyLoader) clear() error {
 		return err
 	}
 
-	opts := EngineOpts{
+	opts := promql.EngineOpts{
 		Logger:                   nil,
 		Reg:                      nil,
 		MaxSamples:               10000,
@@ -1014,7 +1244,7 @@ func (ll *LazyLoader) clear() error {
 		EnableNegativeOffset:     ll.opts.EnableNegativeOffset,
 	}
 
-	ll.queryEngine = NewEngine(opts)
+	ll.queryEngine = promql.NewEngine(opts)
 	ll.context, ll.cancelCtx = context.WithCancel(context.Background())
 	return nil
 }
@@ -1048,7 +1278,7 @@ func (ll *LazyLoader) WithSamplesTill(ts time.Time, fn func(error)) {
 }
 
 // QueryEngine returns the LazyLoader's query engine.
-func (ll *LazyLoader) QueryEngine() *Engine {
+func (ll *LazyLoader) QueryEngine() *promql.Engine {
 	return ll.queryEngine
 }
 
@@ -1074,3 +1304,17 @@ func (ll *LazyLoader) Close() error {
 	ll.cancelCtx()
 	return ll.storage.Close()
 }
+
+func makeInt64Pointer(val int64) *int64 {
+	valp := new(int64)
+	*valp = val
+	return valp
+}
+
+func timeMilliseconds(t time.Time) int64 {
+	return t.UnixNano() / int64(time.Millisecond/time.Nanosecond)
+}
+
+func durationMilliseconds(d time.Duration) int64 {
+	return int64(d / (time.Millisecond / time.Nanosecond))
+}
diff --git a/promql/test_test.go b/promql/promqltest/test_test.go
similarity index 71%
rename from promql/test_test.go
rename to promql/promqltest/test_test.go
index a5b24ac698..faffb1dd17 100644
--- a/promql/test_test.go
+++ b/promql/promqltest/test_test.go
@@ -11,7 +11,7 @@
 // See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 // limitations under the License.
 
-package promql
+package promqltest
 
 import (
 	"math"
@@ -21,14 +21,15 @@ import (
 	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
 
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/labels"
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/promql"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/tsdb/chunkenc"
 )
 
 func TestLazyLoader_WithSamplesTill(t *testing.T) {
 	type testCase struct {
 		ts             time.Time
-		series         []Series // Each series is checked separately. Need not mention all series here.
-		checkOnlyError bool     // If this is true, series is not checked.
+		series         []promql.Series // Each series is checked separately. Need not mention all series here.
+		checkOnlyError bool            // If this is true, series is not checked.
 	}
 
 	cases := []struct {
@@ -44,33 +45,33 @@ func TestLazyLoader_WithSamplesTill(t *testing.T) {
 			testCases: []testCase{
 				{
 					ts: time.Unix(40, 0),
-					series: []Series{
+					series: []promql.Series{
 						{
 							Metric: labels.FromStrings("__name__", "metric1"),
-							Floats: []FPoint{
-								{0, 1}, {10000, 2}, {20000, 3}, {30000, 4}, {40000, 5},
+							Floats: []promql.FPoint{
+								{T: 0, F: 1}, {T: 10000, F: 2}, {T: 20000, F: 3}, {T: 30000, F: 4}, {T: 40000, F: 5},
 							},
 						},
 					},
 				},
 				{
 					ts: time.Unix(10, 0),
-					series: []Series{
+					series: []promql.Series{
 						{
 							Metric: labels.FromStrings("__name__", "metric1"),
-							Floats: []FPoint{
-								{0, 1}, {10000, 2}, {20000, 3}, {30000, 4}, {40000, 5},
+							Floats: []promql.FPoint{
+								{T: 0, F: 1}, {T: 10000, F: 2}, {T: 20000, F: 3}, {T: 30000, F: 4}, {T: 40000, F: 5},
 							},
 						},
 					},
 				},
 				{
 					ts: time.Unix(60, 0),
-					series: []Series{
+					series: []promql.Series{
 						{
 							Metric: labels.FromStrings("__name__", "metric1"),
-							Floats: []FPoint{
-								{0, 1}, {10000, 2}, {20000, 3}, {30000, 4}, {40000, 5}, {50000, 6}, {60000, 7},
+							Floats: []promql.FPoint{
+								{T: 0, F: 1}, {T: 10000, F: 2}, {T: 20000, F: 3}, {T: 30000, F: 4}, {T: 40000, F: 5}, {T: 50000, F: 6}, {T: 60000, F: 7},
 							},
 						},
 					},
@@ -86,17 +87,17 @@ func TestLazyLoader_WithSamplesTill(t *testing.T) {
 			testCases: []testCase{
 				{ // Adds all samples of metric1.
 					ts: time.Unix(70, 0),
-					series: []Series{
+					series: []promql.Series{
 						{
 							Metric: labels.FromStrings("__name__", "metric1"),
-							Floats: []FPoint{
-								{0, 1}, {10000, 1}, {20000, 1}, {30000, 1}, {40000, 1}, {50000, 1},
+							Floats: []promql.FPoint{
+								{T: 0, F: 1}, {T: 10000, F: 1}, {T: 20000, F: 1}, {T: 30000, F: 1}, {T: 40000, F: 1}, {T: 50000, F: 1},
 							},
 						},
 						{
 							Metric: labels.FromStrings("__name__", "metric2"),
-							Floats: []FPoint{
-								{0, 1}, {10000, 2}, {20000, 3}, {30000, 4}, {40000, 5}, {50000, 6}, {60000, 7}, {70000, 8},
+							Floats: []promql.FPoint{
+								{T: 0, F: 1}, {T: 10000, F: 2}, {T: 20000, F: 3}, {T: 30000, F: 4}, {T: 40000, F: 5}, {T: 50000, F: 6}, {T: 60000, F: 7}, {T: 70000, F: 8},
 							},
 						},
 					},
@@ -140,13 +141,13 @@ func TestLazyLoader_WithSamplesTill(t *testing.T) {
 					require.False(t, ss.Next(), "Expecting only 1 series")
 
 					// Convert `storage.Series` to `promql.Series`.
-					got := Series{
+					got := promql.Series{
 						Metric: storageSeries.Labels(),
 					}
 					it := storageSeries.Iterator(nil)
 					for it.Next() == chunkenc.ValFloat {
 						t, v := it.At()
-						got.Floats = append(got.Floats, FPoint{T: t, F: v})
+						got.Floats = append(got.Floats, promql.FPoint{T: t, F: v})
 					}
 					require.NoError(t, it.Err())
 
@@ -262,6 +263,60 @@ eval_fail instant at 0m ceil({__name__=~'testmetric1|testmetric2'})
 			input:         `eval_fail instant at 0s vector(0)`,
 			expectedError: `expected error evaluating query "vector(0)" (line 1) but got none`,
 		},
+		"instant query expected to fail with specific error message, and query fails with that error": {
+			input: `
+load 5m
+	testmetric1{src="a",dst="b"} 0
+	testmetric2{src="a",dst="b"} 1
+
+eval_fail instant at 0m ceil({__name__=~'testmetric1|testmetric2'})
+	expected_fail_message vector cannot contain metrics with the same labelset
+`,
+		},
+		"instant query expected to fail with specific error message, and query fails with a different error": {
+			input: `
+load 5m
+	testmetric1{src="a",dst="b"} 0
+	testmetric2{src="a",dst="b"} 1
+
+eval_fail instant at 0m ceil({__name__=~'testmetric1|testmetric2'})
+	expected_fail_message something else went wrong
+`,
+			expectedError: `expected error "something else went wrong" evaluating query "ceil({__name__=~'testmetric1|testmetric2'})" (line 6), but got: vector cannot contain metrics with the same labelset`,
+		},
+
+		"instant query expected to fail with error matching pattern, and query fails with that error": {
+			input: `
+load 5m
+	testmetric1{src="a",dst="b"} 0
+	testmetric2{src="a",dst="b"} 1
+
+eval_fail instant at 0m ceil({__name__=~'testmetric1|testmetric2'})
+	expected_fail_regexp vector .* contain metrics
+`,
+		},
+		"instant query expected to fail with error matching pattern, and query fails with a different error": {
+			input: `
+load 5m
+	testmetric1{src="a",dst="b"} 0
+	testmetric2{src="a",dst="b"} 1
+
+eval_fail instant at 0m ceil({__name__=~'testmetric1|testmetric2'})
+	expected_fail_regexp something else went wrong
+`,
+			expectedError: `expected error matching pattern "something else went wrong" evaluating query "ceil({__name__=~'testmetric1|testmetric2'})" (line 6), but got: vector cannot contain metrics with the same labelset`,
+		},
+		"instant query expected to fail with error matching pattern, and pattern is not a valid regexp": {
+			input: `
+load 5m
+	testmetric1{src="a",dst="b"} 0
+	testmetric2{src="a",dst="b"} 1
+
+eval_fail instant at 0m ceil({__name__=~'testmetric1|testmetric2'})
+	expected_fail_regexp [
+`,
+			expectedError: `error in eval ceil({__name__=~'testmetric1|testmetric2'}) (line 7): invalid regexp '[' for expected_fail_regexp: error parsing regexp: missing closing ]: ` + "`[`",
+		},
 		"instant query with results expected to match provided order, and result is in expected order": {
 			input: testData + `
 eval_ordered instant at 50m sort(http_requests)
@@ -383,6 +438,59 @@ eval_fail range from 0 to 10m step 5m ceil({__name__=~'testmetric1|testmetric2'}
 			input:         `eval_fail range from 0 to 10m step 5m vector(0)`,
 			expectedError: `expected error evaluating query "vector(0)" (line 1) but got none`,
 		},
+		"range query expected to fail with specific error message, and query fails with that error": {
+			input: `
+load 5m
+	testmetric1{src="a",dst="b"} 0
+	testmetric2{src="a",dst="b"} 1
+
+eval_fail range from 0 to 10m step 5m ceil({__name__=~'testmetric1|testmetric2'})
+	expected_fail_message vector cannot contain metrics with the same labelset
+`,
+		},
+		"range query expected to fail with specific error message, and query fails with a different error": {
+			input: `
+load 5m
+	testmetric1{src="a",dst="b"} 0
+	testmetric2{src="a",dst="b"} 1
+
+eval_fail range from 0 to 10m step 5m ceil({__name__=~'testmetric1|testmetric2'})
+	expected_fail_message something else went wrong
+`,
+			expectedError: `expected error "something else went wrong" evaluating query "ceil({__name__=~'testmetric1|testmetric2'})" (line 6), but got: vector cannot contain metrics with the same labelset`,
+		},
+		"range query expected to fail with error matching pattern, and query fails with that error": {
+			input: `
+load 5m
+	testmetric1{src="a",dst="b"} 0
+	testmetric2{src="a",dst="b"} 1
+
+eval_fail range from 0 to 10m step 5m ceil({__name__=~'testmetric1|testmetric2'})
+	expected_fail_regexp vector .* contain metrics
+`,
+		},
+		"range query expected to fail with error matching pattern, and query fails with a different error": {
+			input: `
+load 5m
+	testmetric1{src="a",dst="b"} 0
+	testmetric2{src="a",dst="b"} 1
+
+eval_fail range from 0 to 10m step 5m ceil({__name__=~'testmetric1|testmetric2'})
+	expected_fail_regexp something else went wrong
+`,
+			expectedError: `expected error matching pattern "something else went wrong" evaluating query "ceil({__name__=~'testmetric1|testmetric2'})" (line 6), but got: vector cannot contain metrics with the same labelset`,
+		},
+		"range query expected to fail with error matching pattern, and pattern is not a valid regexp": {
+			input: `
+load 5m
+	testmetric1{src="a",dst="b"} 0
+	testmetric2{src="a",dst="b"} 1
+
+eval_fail range from 0 to 10m step 5m ceil({__name__=~'testmetric1|testmetric2'})
+	expected_fail_regexp [
+`,
+			expectedError: `error in eval ceil({__name__=~'testmetric1|testmetric2'}) (line 7): invalid regexp '[' for expected_fail_regexp: error parsing regexp: missing closing ]: ` + "`[`",
+		},
 		"range query with from and to timestamps in wrong order": {
 			input:         `eval range from 10m to 9m step 5m vector(0)`,
 			expectedError: `error in eval vector(0) (line 1): invalid test definition, end timestamp (9m) is before start timestamp (10m)`,
@@ -450,7 +558,7 @@ eval range from 0 to 5m step 5m testmetric
 
 	for name, testCase := range testCases {
 		t.Run(name, func(t *testing.T) {
-			err := runTest(t, testCase.input, newTestEngine())
+			err := runTest(t, testCase.input, NewTestEngine(false, 0, DefaultMaxSamplesPerQuery))
 
 			if testCase.expectedError == "" {
 				require.NoError(t, err)
@@ -463,42 +571,42 @@ eval range from 0 to 5m step 5m testmetric
 
 func TestAssertMatrixSorted(t *testing.T) {
 	testCases := map[string]struct {
-		matrix        Matrix
+		matrix        promql.Matrix
 		expectedError string
 	}{
 		"empty matrix": {
-			matrix: Matrix{},
+			matrix: promql.Matrix{},
 		},
 		"matrix with one series": {
-			matrix: Matrix{
-				Series{Metric: labels.FromStrings("the_label", "value_1")},
+			matrix: promql.Matrix{
+				promql.Series{Metric: labels.FromStrings("the_label", "value_1")},
 			},
 		},
 		"matrix with two series, series in sorted order": {
-			matrix: Matrix{
-				Series{Metric: labels.FromStrings("the_label", "value_1")},
-				Series{Metric: labels.FromStrings("the_label", "value_2")},
+			matrix: promql.Matrix{
+				promql.Series{Metric: labels.FromStrings("the_label", "value_1")},
+				promql.Series{Metric: labels.FromStrings("the_label", "value_2")},
 			},
 		},
 		"matrix with two series, series in reverse order": {
-			matrix: Matrix{
-				Series{Metric: labels.FromStrings("the_label", "value_2")},
-				Series{Metric: labels.FromStrings("the_label", "value_1")},
+			matrix: promql.Matrix{
+				promql.Series{Metric: labels.FromStrings("the_label", "value_2")},
+				promql.Series{Metric: labels.FromStrings("the_label", "value_1")},
 			},
 			expectedError: `matrix results should always be sorted by labels, but matrix is not sorted: series at index 1 with labels {the_label="value_1"} sorts before series at index 0 with labels {the_label="value_2"}`,
 		},
 		"matrix with three series, series in sorted order": {
-			matrix: Matrix{
-				Series{Metric: labels.FromStrings("the_label", "value_1")},
-				Series{Metric: labels.FromStrings("the_label", "value_2")},
-				Series{Metric: labels.FromStrings("the_label", "value_3")},
+			matrix: promql.Matrix{
+				promql.Series{Metric: labels.FromStrings("the_label", "value_1")},
+				promql.Series{Metric: labels.FromStrings("the_label", "value_2")},
+				promql.Series{Metric: labels.FromStrings("the_label", "value_3")},
 			},
 		},
 		"matrix with three series, series not in sorted order": {
-			matrix: Matrix{
-				Series{Metric: labels.FromStrings("the_label", "value_1")},
-				Series{Metric: labels.FromStrings("the_label", "value_3")},
-				Series{Metric: labels.FromStrings("the_label", "value_2")},
+			matrix: promql.Matrix{
+				promql.Series{Metric: labels.FromStrings("the_label", "value_1")},
+				promql.Series{Metric: labels.FromStrings("the_label", "value_3")},
+				promql.Series{Metric: labels.FromStrings("the_label", "value_2")},
 			},
 			expectedError: `matrix results should always be sorted by labels, but matrix is not sorted: series at index 2 with labels {the_label="value_2"} sorts before series at index 1 with labels {the_label="value_3"}`,
 		},
diff --git a/promql/testdata/aggregators.test b/promql/promqltest/testdata/aggregators.test
similarity index 93%
rename from promql/testdata/aggregators.test
rename to promql/promqltest/testdata/aggregators.test
index 8709b393b2..cbb255a122 100644
--- a/promql/testdata/aggregators.test
+++ b/promql/promqltest/testdata/aggregators.test
@@ -399,7 +399,7 @@ eval instant at 1m quantile without(point)((scalar(foo)), data)
 	{test="three samples"} 1.6
 	{test="uneven samples"} 2.8
 
-eval instant at 1m quantile without(point)(NaN, data)
+eval_warn instant at 1m quantile without(point)(NaN, data)
     {test="two samples"} NaN
     {test="three samples"} NaN
     {test="uneven samples"} NaN
@@ -503,6 +503,47 @@ eval instant at 1m avg(data{test="-big"})
 eval instant at 1m avg(data{test="bigzero"})
 	{} 0
 
+# Test summing extreme values.
+clear
+
+load 10s
+	data{test="ten",point="a"} 2
+	data{test="ten",point="b"} 8
+	data{test="ten",point="c"} 1e+100
+	data{test="ten",point="d"} -1e100
+	data{test="pos_inf",group="1",point="a"} Inf
+	data{test="pos_inf",group="1",point="b"} 2
+	data{test="pos_inf",group="2",point="a"} 2
+	data{test="pos_inf",group="2",point="b"} Inf
+	data{test="neg_inf",group="1",point="a"} -Inf
+	data{test="neg_inf",group="1",point="b"} 2
+	data{test="neg_inf",group="2",point="a"} 2
+	data{test="neg_inf",group="2",point="b"} -Inf
+	data{test="inf_inf",point="a"} Inf
+	data{test="inf_inf",point="b"} -Inf
+	data{test="nan",group="1",point="a"} NaN
+	data{test="nan",group="1",point="b"} 2
+	data{test="nan",group="2",point="a"} 2
+	data{test="nan",group="2",point="b"} NaN
+
+eval instant at 1m sum(data{test="ten"})
+	{} 10
+
+eval instant at 1m sum by (group) (data{test="pos_inf"})
+	{group="1"} Inf
+	{group="2"} Inf
+
+eval instant at 1m sum by (group) (data{test="neg_inf"})
+	{group="1"} -Inf
+	{group="2"} -Inf
+
+eval instant at 1m sum(data{test="inf_inf"})
+	{} NaN
+
+eval instant at 1m sum by (group) (data{test="nan"})
+	{group="1"} NaN
+	{group="2"} NaN
+
 clear
 
 # Test that aggregations are deterministic.
diff --git a/promql/testdata/at_modifier.test b/promql/promqltest/testdata/at_modifier.test
similarity index 100%
rename from promql/testdata/at_modifier.test
rename to promql/promqltest/testdata/at_modifier.test
diff --git a/promql/testdata/collision.test b/promql/promqltest/testdata/collision.test
similarity index 100%
rename from promql/testdata/collision.test
rename to promql/promqltest/testdata/collision.test
diff --git a/promql/testdata/functions.test b/promql/promqltest/testdata/functions.test
similarity index 98%
rename from promql/testdata/functions.test
rename to promql/promqltest/testdata/functions.test
index e01c75a7f6..718e001c3e 100644
--- a/promql/testdata/functions.test
+++ b/promql/promqltest/testdata/functions.test
@@ -764,6 +764,14 @@ eval instant at 1m avg_over_time(metric10[1m])
 eval instant at 1m sum_over_time(metric10[1m])/count_over_time(metric10[1m])
   {} 0
 
+# Test if very big intermediate values cause loss of detail.
+clear
+load 10s
+  metric 1 1e100 1 -1e100
+
+eval instant at 1m sum_over_time(metric[1m])
+  {} 2
+
 # Tests for stddev_over_time and stdvar_over_time.
 clear
 load 10s
@@ -830,17 +838,17 @@ eval instant at 1m quantile_over_time(1, data[1m])
 	{test="three samples"} 2
 	{test="uneven samples"} 4
 
-eval instant at 1m quantile_over_time(-1, data[1m])
+eval_warn instant at 1m quantile_over_time(-1, data[1m])
 	{test="two samples"} -Inf
 	{test="three samples"} -Inf
 	{test="uneven samples"} -Inf
 
-eval instant at 1m quantile_over_time(2, data[1m])
+eval_warn instant at 1m quantile_over_time(2, data[1m])
 	{test="two samples"} +Inf
 	{test="three samples"} +Inf
 	{test="uneven samples"} +Inf
 
-eval instant at 1m (quantile_over_time(2, (data[1m])))
+eval_warn instant at 1m (quantile_over_time(2, (data[1m])))
 	{test="two samples"} +Inf
 	{test="three samples"} +Inf
 	{test="uneven samples"} +Inf
@@ -1205,3 +1213,11 @@ eval instant at 5m log10(exp_root_log - 20)
 	{l="y"} -Inf
 
 clear
+
+# Test that timestamp() handles the scenario where there are more steps than samples.
+load 1m
+  metric 0+1x1000
+
+# We expect the value to be 0 for t=0s to t=59s (inclusive), then 60 for t=60s and t=61s.
+eval range from 0 to 61s step 1s timestamp(metric)
+  {} 0x59 60 60
diff --git a/promql/testdata/histograms.test b/promql/promqltest/testdata/histograms.test
similarity index 73%
rename from promql/testdata/histograms.test
rename to promql/promqltest/testdata/histograms.test
index f30c07e7b3..e1fb1d85ac 100644
--- a/promql/testdata/histograms.test
+++ b/promql/promqltest/testdata/histograms.test
@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@
 # server has to cope with it.
 
 # Test histogram.
-load 5m
+load_with_nhcb 5m
 	testhistogram_bucket{le="0.1", start="positive"}	0+5x10
 	testhistogram_bucket{le=".2", start="positive"}		0+7x10
 	testhistogram_bucket{le="1e0", start="positive"}	0+11x10
@@ -18,15 +18,33 @@ load 5m
 # Another test histogram, where q(1/6), q(1/2), and q(5/6) are each in
 # the middle of a bucket and should therefore be 1, 3, and 5,
 # respectively.
-load 5m
+load_with_nhcb 5m
 	testhistogram2_bucket{le="0"}	 0+0x10
 	testhistogram2_bucket{le="2"}	 0+1x10
 	testhistogram2_bucket{le="4"}    0+2x10
 	testhistogram2_bucket{le="6"}	 0+3x10
 	testhistogram2_bucket{le="+Inf"} 0+3x10
 
+# Another test histogram, this time without any observations in the +Inf bucket.
+# This enables a meaningful calculation of standard deviation and variance.
+load_with_nhcb 5m
+	testhistogram3_bucket{le="0", start="positive"}	0+0x10
+	testhistogram3_bucket{le="0.1", start="positive"}	0+5x10
+	testhistogram3_bucket{le=".2", start="positive"}		0+7x10
+	testhistogram3_bucket{le="1e0", start="positive"}	0+11x10
+	testhistogram3_bucket{le="+Inf", start="positive"}	0+11x10
+	testhistogram3_sum{start="positive"}	0+33x10
+	testhistogram3_count{start="positive"}	0+11x10
+	testhistogram3_bucket{le="-.25", start="negative"}	0+0x10
+	testhistogram3_bucket{le="-.2", start="negative"}	0+1x10
+	testhistogram3_bucket{le="-0.1", start="negative"}	0+2x10
+	testhistogram3_bucket{le="0.3", start="negative"}	0+2x10
+	testhistogram3_bucket{le="+Inf", start="negative"}	0+2x10
+	testhistogram3_sum{start="negative"}	0+8x10
+	testhistogram3_count{start="negative"}	0+2x10
+
 # Now a more realistic histogram per job and instance to test aggregation.
-load 5m
+load_with_nhcb 5m
 	request_duration_seconds_bucket{job="job1", instance="ins1", le="0.1"}	0+1x10
 	request_duration_seconds_bucket{job="job1", instance="ins1", le="0.2"}	0+3x10
 	request_duration_seconds_bucket{job="job1", instance="ins1", le="+Inf"}	0+4x10
@@ -41,7 +59,7 @@ load 5m
 	request_duration_seconds_bucket{job="job2", instance="ins2", le="+Inf"}	0+9x10
 
 # Different le representations in one histogram.
-load 5m
+load_with_nhcb 5m
 	mixed_bucket{job="job1", instance="ins1", le="0.1"}	0+1x10
 	mixed_bucket{job="job1", instance="ins1", le="0.2"}	0+1x10
 	mixed_bucket{job="job1", instance="ins1", le="2e-1"}	0+1x10
@@ -50,27 +68,81 @@ load 5m
 	mixed_bucket{job="job1", instance="ins2", le="+inf"}	0+0x10
 	mixed_bucket{job="job1", instance="ins2", le="+Inf"}	0+0x10
 
+# Test histogram_count.
+eval instant at 50m histogram_count(testhistogram3)
+	{start="positive"} 110
+	{start="negative"} 20
+
+# Test histogram_sum.
+eval instant at 50m histogram_sum(testhistogram3)
+	{start="positive"} 330
+	{start="negative"} 80
+
+# Test histogram_avg.
+eval instant at 50m histogram_avg(testhistogram3)
+	{start="positive"} 3
+	{start="negative"} 4
+
+# Test histogram_stddev.
+eval instant at 50m histogram_stddev(testhistogram3)
+	{start="positive"} 2.8189265757336734
+	{start="negative"} 4.182715937754936
+
+# Test histogram_stdvar.
+eval instant at 50m histogram_stdvar(testhistogram3)
+	{start="positive"} 7.946347039377573
+	{start="negative"} 17.495112615949154
+
+# Test histogram_fraction.
+
+eval instant at 50m histogram_fraction(0, 0.2, testhistogram3)
+	{start="positive"} 0.6363636363636364
+	{start="negative"} 0
+	
+eval instant at 50m histogram_fraction(0, 0.2, rate(testhistogram3[5m]))
+	{start="positive"} 0.6363636363636364
+	{start="negative"} 0
+
+# Test histogram_quantile.
+
+eval instant at 50m histogram_quantile(0, testhistogram3_bucket)
+	{start="positive"} 0
+	{start="negative"} -0.25
+
+eval instant at 50m histogram_quantile(0.25, testhistogram3_bucket)
+	{start="positive"} 0.055
+	{start="negative"} -0.225
+
+eval instant at 50m histogram_quantile(0.5, testhistogram3_bucket)
+	{start="positive"} 0.125
+	{start="negative"} -0.2
+
+eval instant at 50m histogram_quantile(0.75, testhistogram3_bucket)
+	{start="positive"} 0.45
+	{start="negative"} -0.15
+
+eval instant at 50m histogram_quantile(1, testhistogram3_bucket)
+	{start="positive"} 1
+	{start="negative"} -0.1
+
 # Quantile too low.
-eval instant at 50m histogram_quantile(-0.1, testhistogram_bucket)
+eval_warn instant at 50m histogram_quantile(-0.1, testhistogram_bucket)
 	{start="positive"} -Inf
 	{start="negative"} -Inf
 
 # Quantile too high.
-eval instant at 50m histogram_quantile(1.01, testhistogram_bucket)
+eval_warn instant at 50m histogram_quantile(1.01, testhistogram_bucket)
 	{start="positive"} +Inf
 	{start="negative"} +Inf
 
 # Quantile invalid.
-eval instant at 50m histogram_quantile(NaN, testhistogram_bucket)
+eval_warn instant at 50m histogram_quantile(NaN, testhistogram_bucket)
 	{start="positive"} NaN
 	{start="negative"} NaN
 
-# Quantile value in lowest bucket, which is positive.
-eval instant at 50m histogram_quantile(0, testhistogram_bucket{start="positive"})
+# Quantile value in lowest bucket.
+eval instant at 50m histogram_quantile(0, testhistogram_bucket)
 	{start="positive"} 0
-
-# Quantile value in lowest bucket, which is negative.
-eval instant at 50m histogram_quantile(0, testhistogram_bucket{start="negative"})
 	{start="negative"} -0.2
 
 # Quantile value in highest bucket.
@@ -83,7 +155,6 @@ eval instant at 50m histogram_quantile(0.2, testhistogram_bucket)
 	{start="positive"} 0.048
 	{start="negative"} -0.2
 
-
 eval instant at 50m histogram_quantile(0.5, testhistogram_bucket)
 	{start="positive"} 0.15
 	{start="negative"} -0.15
@@ -182,6 +253,9 @@ eval instant at 50m histogram_quantile(0.5, rate(request_duration_seconds_bucket
 	{instance="ins1", job="job2"} 0.1
 	{instance="ins2", job="job2"} 0.11666666666666667
 
+eval instant at 50m sum(request_duration_seconds)
+	{} {{schema:-53 count:250 custom_values:[0.1 0.2] buckets:[100 90 60]}}
+
 # A histogram with nonmonotonic bucket counts. This may happen when recording
 # rule evaluation or federation races scrape ingestion, causing some buckets
 # counts to be derived from fewer samples.
@@ -209,6 +283,10 @@ eval instant at 50m histogram_quantile(0.5, rate(mixed_bucket[5m]))
 	{instance="ins1", job="job1"} 0.15
 	{instance="ins2", job="job1"} NaN
 
+eval instant at 50m histogram_quantile(0.5, rate(mixed[5m]))
+	{instance="ins1", job="job1"} 0.2
+	{instance="ins2", job="job1"} NaN
+
 eval instant at 50m histogram_quantile(0.75, rate(mixed_bucket[5m]))
 	{instance="ins1", job="job1"} 0.2
 	{instance="ins2", job="job1"} NaN
@@ -217,7 +295,7 @@ eval instant at 50m histogram_quantile(1, rate(mixed_bucket[5m]))
 	{instance="ins1", job="job1"} 0.2
 	{instance="ins2", job="job1"} NaN
 
-load 5m
+load_with_nhcb 5m
 	empty_bucket{le="0.1", job="job1", instance="ins1"}    0x10
 	empty_bucket{le="0.2", job="job1", instance="ins1"}    0x10
 	empty_bucket{le="+Inf", job="job1", instance="ins1"}   0x10
@@ -227,9 +305,9 @@ eval instant at 50m histogram_quantile(0.2, rate(empty_bucket[5m]))
 
 # Load a duplicate histogram with a different name to test failure scenario on multiple histograms with the same label set
 # https://github.com/prometheus/prometheus/issues/9910
-load 5m
+load_with_nhcb 5m
 	request_duration_seconds2_bucket{job="job1", instance="ins1", le="0.1"}	0+1x10
 	request_duration_seconds2_bucket{job="job1", instance="ins1", le="0.2"}	0+3x10
 	request_duration_seconds2_bucket{job="job1", instance="ins1", le="+Inf"}	0+4x10
 
-eval_fail instant at 50m histogram_quantile(0.99, {__name__=~"request_duration.*"})
+eval_fail instant at 50m histogram_quantile(0.99, {__name__=~"request_duration_seconds\\d*_bucket$"})
diff --git a/promql/promqltest/testdata/limit.test b/promql/promqltest/testdata/limit.test
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..0ab363f9ae
--- /dev/null
+++ b/promql/promqltest/testdata/limit.test
@@ -0,0 +1,119 @@
+# Tests for limitk
+#
+# NB: those many `and http_requests` are to ensure that the series _are_ indeed
+# a subset of the original series.
+load 5m
+	http_requests{job="api-server", instance="0", group="production"}	0+10x10
+	http_requests{job="api-server", instance="1", group="production"}	0+20x10
+	http_requests{job="api-server", instance="0", group="canary"}		0+30x10
+	http_requests{job="api-server", instance="1", group="canary"}		0+40x10
+	http_requests{job="api-server", instance="2", group="canary"}		0+50x10
+	http_requests{job="api-server", instance="3", group="canary"}		0+60x10
+
+eval instant at 50m count(limitk by (group) (0, http_requests))
+# empty
+
+eval instant at 50m count(limitk by (group) (-1, http_requests))
+# empty
+
+# Exercise k==1 special case (as sample is added before the main series loop
+eval instant at 50m count(limitk by (group) (1, http_requests) and http_requests)
+        {} 2
+
+eval instant at 50m count(limitk by (group) (2, http_requests) and http_requests)
+        {} 4
+
+eval instant at 50m count(limitk(100, http_requests) and http_requests)
+        {} 6
+
+# Exercise k==1 special case (as sample is added before the main series loop
+eval instant at 50m count(limitk by (group) (1, http_requests) and http_requests)
+        {} 2
+
+eval instant at 50m count(limitk by (group) (2, http_requests) and http_requests)
+        {} 4
+
+eval instant at 50m count(limitk(100, http_requests) and http_requests)
+        {} 6
+
+# limit_ratio
+eval range from 0 to 50m step 5m count(limit_ratio(0.0, http_requests))
+# empty
+
+# limitk(2, ...) should always return a 2-count subset of the timeseries (hence the AND'ing)
+eval range from 0 to 50m step 5m count(limitk(2, http_requests) and http_requests)
+        {} 2+0x10
+
+# Tests for limit_ratio
+#
+# NB: below 0.5 ratio will depend on some hashing "luck" (also there's no guarantee that
+# an integer comes from: total number of series * ratio), as it depends on:
+#
+# * ratioLimit = [0.0, 1.0]:	
+#     float64(sample.Metric.Hash()) / float64MaxUint64 < Ratio ?
+# * ratioLimit = [-1.0, 1.0):
+#     float64(sample.Metric.Hash()) / float64MaxUint64 >= (1.0 + Ratio) ?
+#
+# See `AddRatioSample()` in promql/engine.go for more details.
+
+# Half~ish samples: verify we get "near" 3 (of 0.5 * 6)
+eval range from 0 to 50m step 5m count(limit_ratio(0.5, http_requests) and http_requests) <= bool (3+1)
+        {} 1+0x10
+
+eval range from 0 to 50m step 5m count(limit_ratio(0.5, http_requests) and http_requests) >= bool (3-1)
+        {} 1+0x10
+
+# All samples
+eval range from 0 to 50m step 5m count(limit_ratio(1.0, http_requests) and http_requests)
+        {} 6+0x10
+
+# All samples
+eval range from 0 to 50m step 5m count(limit_ratio(-1.0, http_requests) and http_requests)
+        {} 6+0x10
+
+# Capped to 1.0 -> all samples
+eval_warn range from 0 to 50m step 5m count(limit_ratio(1.1, http_requests) and http_requests)
+        {} 6+0x10
+
+# Capped to -1.0 -> all samples
+eval_warn range from 0 to 50m step 5m count(limit_ratio(-1.1, http_requests) and http_requests)
+        {} 6+0x10
+
+# Verify that limit_ratio(value) and limit_ratio(1.0-value) return the "complement" of each other
+# Complement below for [0.2, -0.8]
+#
+# Complement 1of2: `or` should return all samples
+eval range from 0 to 50m step 5m count(limit_ratio(0.2, http_requests) or limit_ratio(-0.8, http_requests))
+        {} 6+0x10
+
+# Complement 2of2: `and` should return no samples
+eval range from 0 to 50m step 5m count(limit_ratio(0.2, http_requests) and limit_ratio(-0.8, http_requests))
+# empty
+
+# Complement below for [0.5, -0.5]
+eval range from 0 to 50m step 5m count(limit_ratio(0.5, http_requests) or limit_ratio(-0.5, http_requests))
+        {} 6+0x10
+
+eval range from 0 to 50m step 5m count(limit_ratio(0.5, http_requests) and limit_ratio(-0.5, http_requests))
+# empty
+
+# Complement below for [0.8, -0.2]
+eval range from 0 to 50m step 5m count(limit_ratio(0.8, http_requests) or limit_ratio(-0.2, http_requests))
+        {} 6+0x10
+
+eval range from 0 to 50m step 5m count(limit_ratio(0.8, http_requests) and limit_ratio(-0.2, http_requests))
+# empty
+
+# Complement below for [some_ratio, 1.0 - some_ratio], some_ratio derived from time(),
+# using a small prime number to avoid rounded ratio values, and a small set of them.
+eval range from 0 to 50m step 5m count(limit_ratio(time() % 17/17, http_requests) or limit_ratio(1.0 - (time() % 17/17), http_requests))
+        {} 6+0x10
+
+eval range from 0 to 50m step 5m count(limit_ratio(time() % 17/17, http_requests) and limit_ratio(1.0 - (time() % 17/17), http_requests))
+# empty
+
+# Poor man's normality check: ok (loaded samples follow a nice linearity over labels and time)
+# The check giving: 1 (i.e. true)
+eval range from 0 to 50m step 5m abs(avg(limit_ratio(0.5, http_requests)) - avg(limit_ratio(-0.5, http_requests))) <= bool stddev(http_requests)
+	{} 1+0x10
+
diff --git a/promql/testdata/literals.test b/promql/promqltest/testdata/literals.test
similarity index 100%
rename from promql/testdata/literals.test
rename to promql/promqltest/testdata/literals.test
diff --git a/promql/promqltest/testdata/native_histograms.test b/promql/promqltest/testdata/native_histograms.test
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..6a8189a545
--- /dev/null
+++ b/promql/promqltest/testdata/native_histograms.test
@@ -0,0 +1,750 @@
+# Minimal valid case: an empty histogram.
+load 5m
+	empty_histogram	{{}}
+
+eval instant at 5m empty_histogram
+	{__name__="empty_histogram"} {{}}
+
+eval instant at 5m histogram_count(empty_histogram)
+	{} 0
+
+eval instant at 5m histogram_sum(empty_histogram)
+	{} 0
+
+eval instant at 5m histogram_avg(empty_histogram)
+	{} NaN
+
+eval instant at 5m histogram_fraction(-Inf, +Inf, empty_histogram)
+	{} NaN
+
+eval instant at 5m histogram_fraction(0, 8, empty_histogram)
+	{} NaN
+
+
+
+# buckets:[1 2 1] means 1 observation in the 1st bucket, 2 observations in the 2nd and 1 observation in the 3rd (total 4).
+load 5m
+	single_histogram	{{schema:0 sum:5 count:4 buckets:[1 2 1]}}
+
+# histogram_count extracts the count property from the histogram.
+eval instant at 5m histogram_count(single_histogram)
+	{} 4
+
+# histogram_sum extracts the sum property from the histogram.
+eval instant at 5m histogram_sum(single_histogram)
+	{} 5
+
+# histogram_avg calculates the average from sum and count properties.
+eval instant at 5m histogram_avg(single_histogram)
+	{} 1.25
+
+# We expect half of the values to fall in the range 1 < x <= 2.
+eval instant at 5m histogram_fraction(1, 2, single_histogram)
+	{} 0.5
+
+# We expect all values to fall in the range 0 < x <= 8.
+eval instant at 5m histogram_fraction(0, 8, single_histogram)
+	{} 1
+
+# Median is 1.5 due to linear estimation of the midpoint of the middle bucket, whose values are within range 1 < x <= 2.
+eval instant at 5m histogram_quantile(0.5, single_histogram)
+	{} 1.5
+
+
+
+# Repeat the same histogram 10 times.
+load 5m
+	multi_histogram	{{schema:0 sum:5 count:4 buckets:[1 2 1]}}x10
+
+eval instant at 5m histogram_count(multi_histogram)
+	{} 4
+
+eval instant at 5m histogram_sum(multi_histogram)
+	{} 5
+
+eval instant at 5m histogram_avg(multi_histogram)
+	{} 1.25
+
+eval instant at 5m histogram_fraction(1, 2, multi_histogram)
+	{} 0.5
+
+eval instant at 5m histogram_quantile(0.5, multi_histogram)
+	{} 1.5
+
+
+# Each entry should look the same as the first.
+eval instant at 50m histogram_count(multi_histogram)
+	{} 4
+
+eval instant at 50m histogram_sum(multi_histogram)
+	{} 5
+
+eval instant at 50m histogram_avg(multi_histogram)
+	{} 1.25
+
+eval instant at 50m histogram_fraction(1, 2, multi_histogram)
+	{} 0.5
+
+eval instant at 50m histogram_quantile(0.5, multi_histogram)
+	{} 1.5
+
+
+
+# Accumulate the histogram addition for 10 iterations, offset is a bucket position where offset:0 is always the bucket
+# with an upper limit of 1 and offset:1 is the bucket which follows to the right. Negative offsets represent bucket
+# positions for upper limits <1 (tending toward zero), where offset:-1 is the bucket to the left of offset:0.
+load 5m
+	incr_histogram	{{schema:0 sum:4 count:4 buckets:[1 2 1]}}+{{sum:2 count:1 buckets:[1] offset:1}}x10
+
+eval instant at 5m histogram_count(incr_histogram)
+	{} 5
+
+eval instant at 5m histogram_sum(incr_histogram)
+	{} 6
+
+eval instant at 5m histogram_avg(incr_histogram)
+	{} 1.2
+
+# We expect 3/5ths of the values to fall in the range 1 < x <= 2.
+eval instant at 5m histogram_fraction(1, 2, incr_histogram)
+	{} 0.6
+
+eval instant at 5m histogram_quantile(0.5, incr_histogram)
+	{} 1.5
+
+
+eval instant at 50m incr_histogram
+	{__name__="incr_histogram"} {{count:14 sum:24 buckets:[1 12 1]}}
+
+eval instant at 50m histogram_count(incr_histogram)
+	{} 14
+
+eval instant at 50m histogram_sum(incr_histogram)
+	{} 24
+
+eval instant at 50m histogram_avg(incr_histogram)
+    {} 1.7142857142857142
+
+# We expect 12/14ths of the values to fall in the range 1 < x <= 2.
+eval instant at 50m histogram_fraction(1, 2, incr_histogram)
+	{} 0.8571428571428571
+
+eval instant at 50m histogram_quantile(0.5, incr_histogram)
+	{} 1.5
+
+# Per-second average rate of increase should be 1/(5*60) for count and buckets, then 2/(5*60) for sum.
+eval instant at 50m rate(incr_histogram[5m])
+	{} {{count:0.0033333333333333335 sum:0.006666666666666667 offset:1 buckets:[0.0033333333333333335]}}
+
+# Calculate the 50th percentile of observations over the last 10m.
+eval instant at 50m histogram_quantile(0.5, rate(incr_histogram[10m]))
+	{} 1.5
+
+
+
+# Schema represents the histogram resolution, different schema have compatible bucket boundaries, e.g.:
+#  0: 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 (higher resolution)
+# -1: 1   4   16    64  (lower resolution)
+#
+# Histograms can be merged as long as the histogram to the right is same resolution or higher.
+load 5m
+	low_res_histogram	{{schema:-1 sum:4 count:1 buckets:[1] offset:1}}+{{schema:0 sum:4 count:4 buckets:[2 2] offset:1}}x1
+
+eval instant at 5m low_res_histogram
+	{__name__="low_res_histogram"} {{schema:-1 count:5 sum:8 offset:1 buckets:[5]}}
+
+eval instant at 5m histogram_count(low_res_histogram)
+	{} 5
+
+eval instant at 5m histogram_sum(low_res_histogram)
+	{} 8
+
+eval instant at 5m histogram_avg(low_res_histogram)
+	{} 1.6
+
+# We expect all values to fall into the lower-resolution bucket with the range 1 < x <= 4.
+eval instant at 5m histogram_fraction(1, 4, low_res_histogram)
+	{} 1
+
+
+
+# z_bucket:1 means there is one observation in the zero bucket and z_bucket_w:0.5 means the zero bucket has the range
+# 0 < x <= 0.5. Sum and count are expected to represent all observations in the histogram, including those in the zero bucket.
+load 5m
+	single_zero_histogram {{schema:0 z_bucket:1 z_bucket_w:0.5 sum:0.25 count:1}}
+
+eval instant at 5m histogram_count(single_zero_histogram)
+	{} 1
+
+eval instant at 5m histogram_sum(single_zero_histogram)
+	{} 0.25
+
+eval instant at 5m histogram_avg(single_zero_histogram)
+	{} 0.25
+
+# When only the zero bucket is populated, or there are negative buckets, the distribution is assumed to be equally
+# distributed around zero; i.e. that there are an equal number of positive and negative observations. Therefore the
+# entire distribution must lie within the full range of the zero bucket, in this case: -0.5 < x <= +0.5.
+eval instant at 5m histogram_fraction(-0.5, 0.5, single_zero_histogram)
+	{} 1
+
+# Half of the observations are estimated to be zero, as this is the midpoint between -0.5 and +0.5.
+eval instant at 5m histogram_quantile(0.5, single_zero_histogram)
+	{} 0
+
+
+
+# Let's turn single_histogram upside-down.
+load 5m
+	negative_histogram {{schema:0 sum:-5 count:4 n_buckets:[1 2 1]}}
+
+eval instant at 5m histogram_count(negative_histogram)
+	{} 4
+
+eval instant at 5m histogram_sum(negative_histogram)
+	{} -5
+
+eval instant at 5m histogram_avg(negative_histogram)
+	{} -1.25
+
+# We expect half of the values to fall in the range -2 < x <= -1.
+eval instant at 5m histogram_fraction(-2, -1, negative_histogram)
+	{} 0.5
+
+eval instant at 5m histogram_quantile(0.5, negative_histogram)
+	{} -1.5
+
+
+
+# Two histogram samples.
+load 5m
+	two_samples_histogram {{schema:0 sum:4 count:4 buckets:[1 2 1]}} {{schema:0 sum:-4 count:4 n_buckets:[1 2 1]}}
+
+# We expect to see the newest sample.
+eval instant at 10m histogram_count(two_samples_histogram)
+	{} 4
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_sum(two_samples_histogram)
+	{} -4
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_avg(two_samples_histogram)
+	{} -1
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(-2, -1, two_samples_histogram)
+	{} 0.5
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_quantile(0.5, two_samples_histogram)
+	{} -1.5
+
+
+
+# Add two histograms with negated data.
+load 5m
+	balanced_histogram {{schema:0 sum:4 count:4 buckets:[1 2 1]}}+{{schema:0 sum:-4 count:4 n_buckets:[1 2 1]}}x1
+
+eval instant at 5m histogram_count(balanced_histogram)
+	{} 8
+
+eval instant at 5m histogram_sum(balanced_histogram)
+	{} 0
+
+eval instant at 5m histogram_avg(balanced_histogram)
+	{} 0
+
+eval instant at 5m histogram_fraction(0, 4, balanced_histogram)
+	{} 0.5
+
+# If the quantile happens to be located in a span of empty buckets, the actually returned value is the lower bound of
+# the first populated bucket after the span of empty buckets.
+eval instant at 5m histogram_quantile(0.5, balanced_histogram)
+	{} 0.5
+
+# Add histogram to test sum(last_over_time) regression
+load 5m
+    incr_sum_histogram{number="1"} {{schema:0 sum:0 count:0 buckets:[1]}}+{{schema:0 sum:1 count:1 buckets:[1]}}x10
+    incr_sum_histogram{number="2"} {{schema:0 sum:0 count:0 buckets:[1]}}+{{schema:0 sum:2 count:1 buckets:[1]}}x10
+
+eval instant at 50m histogram_sum(sum(incr_sum_histogram))
+    {} 30
+
+eval instant at 50m histogram_sum(sum(last_over_time(incr_sum_histogram[5m])))
+    {} 30
+
+# Apply rate function to histogram.
+load 15s
+    histogram_rate {{schema:1 count:12 sum:18.4 z_bucket:2 z_bucket_w:0.001 buckets:[1 2 0 1 1] n_buckets:[1 2 0 1 1]}}+{{schema:1 count:9 sum:18.4 z_bucket:1 z_bucket_w:0.001 buckets:[1 1 0 1 1] n_buckets:[1 1 0 1 1]}}x100
+
+eval instant at 5m rate(histogram_rate[45s])
+    {} {{schema:1 count:0.6 sum:1.2266666666666652 z_bucket:0.06666666666666667 z_bucket_w:0.001 buckets:[0.06666666666666667 0.06666666666666667 0 0.06666666666666667 0.06666666666666667] n_buckets:[0.06666666666666667 0.06666666666666667 0 0.06666666666666667 0.06666666666666667]}}
+
+eval range from 5m to 5m30s step 30s rate(histogram_rate[45s])
+    {} {{schema:1 count:0.6 sum:1.2266666666666652 z_bucket:0.06666666666666667 z_bucket_w:0.001 buckets:[0.06666666666666667 0.06666666666666667 0 0.06666666666666667 0.06666666666666667] n_buckets:[0.06666666666666667 0.06666666666666667 0 0.06666666666666667 0.06666666666666667]}}x1
+
+# Apply count and sum function to histogram.
+load 10m
+    histogram_count_sum_2 {{schema:0 count:24 sum:100 z_bucket:4 z_bucket_w:0.001 buckets:[2 3 0 1 4] n_buckets:[2 3 0 1 4]}}x1
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_count(histogram_count_sum_2)
+    {} 24
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_sum(histogram_count_sum_2)
+    {} 100
+
+# Apply stddev and stdvar function to histogram with {1, 2, 3, 4} (low res).
+load 10m
+   histogram_stddev_stdvar_1 {{schema:2 count:4 sum:10 buckets:[1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1]}}x1
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_stddev(histogram_stddev_stdvar_1)
+    {} 1.0787993180043811
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_stdvar(histogram_stddev_stdvar_1)
+    {} 1.163807968526718
+
+# Apply stddev and stdvar function to histogram with {1, 1, 1, 1} (high res).
+load 10m
+   histogram_stddev_stdvar_2 {{schema:8 count:10 sum:10 buckets:[1 2 3 4]}}x1
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_stddev(histogram_stddev_stdvar_2)
+    {} 0.0048960313898237465
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_stdvar(histogram_stddev_stdvar_2)
+    {} 2.3971123370139447e-05
+
+# Apply stddev and stdvar function to histogram with {-50, -8, 0, 3, 8, 9}.
+load 10m
+   histogram_stddev_stdvar_3 {{schema:3 count:7 sum:62 z_bucket:1 buckets:[0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 ] n_buckets:[0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 ]}}x1
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_stddev(histogram_stddev_stdvar_3)
+    {} 42.947236400258
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_stdvar(histogram_stddev_stdvar_3)
+    {} 1844.4651144196398
+
+# Apply stddev and stdvar function to histogram with {-100000, -10000, -1000, -888, -888, -100, -50, -9, -8, -3}.
+load 10m
+   histogram_stddev_stdvar_4 {{schema:0 count:10 sum:-112946 z_bucket:0 n_buckets:[0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 3 0 0 0 1 0 0 1]}}x1
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_stddev(histogram_stddev_stdvar_4)
+    {} 27556.344499842
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_stdvar(histogram_stddev_stdvar_4)
+    {} 759352122.1939945
+
+# Apply stddev and stdvar function to histogram with {-10x10}.
+load 10m
+   histogram_stddev_stdvar_5 {{schema:0 count:10 sum:-100 z_bucket:0 n_buckets:[0 0 0 0 10]}}x1
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_stddev(histogram_stddev_stdvar_5)
+    {} 1.3137084989848
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_stdvar(histogram_stddev_stdvar_5)
+    {} 1.725830020304794
+
+# Apply stddev and stdvar function to histogram with {-50, -8, 0, 3, 8, 9, NaN}.
+load 10m
+   histogram_stddev_stdvar_6 {{schema:3 count:7 sum:NaN z_bucket:1 buckets:[0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 ] n_buckets:[0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 ]}}x1
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_stddev(histogram_stddev_stdvar_6)
+    {} NaN
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_stdvar(histogram_stddev_stdvar_6)
+    {} NaN
+
+# Apply stddev and stdvar function to histogram with {-50, -8, 0, 3, 8, 9, Inf}.
+load 10m
+   histogram_stddev_stdvar_7 {{schema:3 count:7 sum:Inf z_bucket:1 buckets:[0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 ] n_buckets:[0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 ]}}x1
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_stddev(histogram_stddev_stdvar_7)
+    {} Inf
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_stdvar(histogram_stddev_stdvar_7)
+    {} Inf
+
+# Apply quantile function to histogram with all positive buckets with zero bucket.
+load 10m
+    histogram_quantile_1 {{schema:0 count:12 sum:100 z_bucket:2 z_bucket_w:0.001 buckets:[2 3 0 1 4]}}x1
+
+eval_warn instant at 10m histogram_quantile(1.001, histogram_quantile_1)
+    {} Inf
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_quantile(1, histogram_quantile_1)
+    {} 16
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_quantile(0.99, histogram_quantile_1)
+    {} 15.759999999999998
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_quantile(0.9, histogram_quantile_1)
+    {} 13.600000000000001
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_quantile(0.6, histogram_quantile_1)
+    {} 4.799999999999997
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_quantile(0.5, histogram_quantile_1)
+    {} 1.6666666666666665
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_quantile(0.1, histogram_quantile_1)
+    {} 0.0006000000000000001
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_quantile(0, histogram_quantile_1)
+    {} 0
+
+eval_warn instant at 10m histogram_quantile(-1, histogram_quantile_1)
+    {} -Inf
+
+# Apply quantile function to histogram with all negative buckets with zero bucket.
+load 10m
+    histogram_quantile_2 {{schema:0 count:12 sum:100 z_bucket:2 z_bucket_w:0.001 n_buckets:[2 3 0 1 4]}}x1
+
+eval_warn instant at 10m histogram_quantile(1.001, histogram_quantile_2)
+    {} Inf
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_quantile(1, histogram_quantile_2)
+    {} 0
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_quantile(0.99, histogram_quantile_2)
+    {} -6.000000000000048e-05
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_quantile(0.9, histogram_quantile_2)
+    {} -0.0005999999999999996
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_quantile(0.5, histogram_quantile_2)
+    {} -1.6666666666666667
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_quantile(0.1, histogram_quantile_2)
+    {} -13.6
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_quantile(0, histogram_quantile_2)
+    {} -16
+
+eval_warn instant at 10m histogram_quantile(-1, histogram_quantile_2)
+    {} -Inf
+
+# Apply quantile function to histogram with both positive and negative buckets with zero bucket.
+load 10m
+    histogram_quantile_3 {{schema:0 count:24 sum:100 z_bucket:4 z_bucket_w:0.001 buckets:[2 3 0 1 4] n_buckets:[2 3 0 1 4]}}x1
+
+eval_warn instant at 10m histogram_quantile(1.001, histogram_quantile_3)
+    {} Inf
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_quantile(1, histogram_quantile_3)
+    {} 16
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_quantile(0.99, histogram_quantile_3)
+    {} 15.519999999999996
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_quantile(0.9, histogram_quantile_3)
+    {} 11.200000000000003
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_quantile(0.7, histogram_quantile_3)
+    {} 1.2666666666666657
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_quantile(0.55, histogram_quantile_3)
+    {} 0.0006000000000000005
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_quantile(0.5, histogram_quantile_3)
+    {} 0
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_quantile(0.45, histogram_quantile_3)
+    {} -0.0005999999999999996
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_quantile(0.3, histogram_quantile_3)
+    {} -1.266666666666667
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_quantile(0.1, histogram_quantile_3)
+    {} -11.2
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_quantile(0.01, histogram_quantile_3)
+    {} -15.52
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_quantile(0, histogram_quantile_3)
+    {} -16
+
+eval_warn instant at 10m histogram_quantile(-1, histogram_quantile_3)
+    {} -Inf
+
+# Apply fraction function to empty histogram.
+load 10m
+    histogram_fraction_1 {{}}x1
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(3.1415, 42, histogram_fraction_1)
+    {} NaN
+
+# Apply fraction function to histogram with positive and zero buckets.
+load 10m
+    histogram_fraction_2 {{schema:0 count:12 sum:100 z_bucket:2 z_bucket_w:0.001 buckets:[2 3 0 1 4]}}x1
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(0, +Inf, histogram_fraction_2)
+    {} 1
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(-Inf, 0, histogram_fraction_2)
+    {} 0
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(-0.001, 0, histogram_fraction_2)
+    {} 0
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(0, 0.001, histogram_fraction_2)
+    {} 0.16666666666666666
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(0, 0.0005, histogram_fraction_2)
+    {} 0.08333333333333333
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(0.001, inf, histogram_fraction_2)
+    {} 0.8333333333333334
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(-inf, -0.001, histogram_fraction_2)
+    {} 0
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(1, 2, histogram_fraction_2)
+    {} 0.25
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(1.5, 2, histogram_fraction_2)
+    {} 0.125
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(1, 8, histogram_fraction_2)
+    {} 0.3333333333333333
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(1, 6, histogram_fraction_2)
+    {} 0.2916666666666667
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(1.5, 6, histogram_fraction_2)
+    {} 0.16666666666666666
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(-2, -1, histogram_fraction_2)
+    {} 0
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(-2, -1.5, histogram_fraction_2)
+    {} 0
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(-8, -1, histogram_fraction_2)
+    {} 0
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(-6, -1, histogram_fraction_2)
+    {} 0
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(-6, -1.5, histogram_fraction_2)
+    {} 0
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(42, 3.1415, histogram_fraction_2)
+    {} 0
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(0, 0, histogram_fraction_2)
+    {} 0
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(0.000001, 0.000001, histogram_fraction_2)
+    {} 0
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(42, 42, histogram_fraction_2)
+    {} 0
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(-3.1, -3.1, histogram_fraction_2)
+    {} 0
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(3.1415, NaN, histogram_fraction_2)
+    {} NaN
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(NaN, 42, histogram_fraction_2)
+    {} NaN
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(NaN, NaN, histogram_fraction_2)
+    {} NaN
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(-Inf, +Inf, histogram_fraction_2)
+    {} 1
+
+# Apply fraction function to histogram with negative and zero buckets.
+load 10m
+    histogram_fraction_3 {{schema:0 count:12 sum:100 z_bucket:2 z_bucket_w:0.001 n_buckets:[2 3 0 1 4]}}x1
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(0, +Inf, histogram_fraction_3)
+    {} 0
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(-Inf, 0, histogram_fraction_3)
+    {} 1
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(-0.001, 0, histogram_fraction_3)
+    {} 0.16666666666666666
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(0, 0.001, histogram_fraction_3)
+    {} 0
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(-0.0005, 0, histogram_fraction_3)
+    {} 0.08333333333333333
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(0.001, inf, histogram_fraction_3)
+    {} 0
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(-inf, -0.001, histogram_fraction_3)
+    {} 0.8333333333333334
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(1, 2, histogram_fraction_3)
+    {} 0
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(1.5, 2, histogram_fraction_3)
+    {} 0
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(1, 8, histogram_fraction_3)
+    {} 0
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(1, 6, histogram_fraction_3)
+    {} 0
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(1.5, 6, histogram_fraction_3)
+    {} 0
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(-2, -1, histogram_fraction_3)
+    {} 0.25
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(-2, -1.5, histogram_fraction_3)
+    {} 0.125
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(-8, -1, histogram_fraction_3)
+    {} 0.3333333333333333
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(-6, -1, histogram_fraction_3)
+    {} 0.2916666666666667
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(-6, -1.5, histogram_fraction_3)
+    {} 0.16666666666666666
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(42, 3.1415, histogram_fraction_3)
+    {} 0
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(0, 0, histogram_fraction_3)
+    {} 0
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(0.000001, 0.000001, histogram_fraction_3)
+    {} 0
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(42, 42, histogram_fraction_3)
+    {} 0
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(-3.1, -3.1, histogram_fraction_3)
+    {} 0
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(3.1415, NaN, histogram_fraction_3)
+    {} NaN
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(NaN, 42, histogram_fraction_3)
+    {} NaN
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(NaN, NaN, histogram_fraction_3)
+    {} NaN
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(-Inf, +Inf, histogram_fraction_3)
+    {} 1
+
+# Apply fraction function to histogram with both positive, negative and zero buckets.
+load 10m
+    histogram_fraction_4 {{schema:0 count:24 sum:100 z_bucket:4 z_bucket_w:0.001 buckets:[2 3 0 1 4] n_buckets:[2 3 0 1 4]}}x1
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(0, +Inf, histogram_fraction_4)
+    {} 0.5
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(-Inf, 0, histogram_fraction_4)
+    {} 0.5
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(-0.001, 0, histogram_fraction_4)
+    {} 0.08333333333333333
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(0, 0.001, histogram_fraction_4)
+    {} 0.08333333333333333
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(-0.0005, 0.0005, histogram_fraction_4)
+    {} 0.08333333333333333
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(0.001, inf, histogram_fraction_4)
+    {} 0.4166666666666667
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(-inf, -0.001, histogram_fraction_4)
+    {} 0.4166666666666667
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(1, 2, histogram_fraction_4)
+    {} 0.125
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(1.5, 2, histogram_fraction_4)
+    {} 0.0625
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(1, 8, histogram_fraction_4)
+    {} 0.16666666666666666
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(1, 6, histogram_fraction_4)
+    {} 0.14583333333333334
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(1.5, 6, histogram_fraction_4)
+    {} 0.08333333333333333
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(-2, -1, histogram_fraction_4)
+    {} 0.125
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(-2, -1.5, histogram_fraction_4)
+    {} 0.0625
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(-8, -1, histogram_fraction_4)
+    {} 0.16666666666666666
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(-6, -1, histogram_fraction_4)
+    {} 0.14583333333333334
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(-6, -1.5, histogram_fraction_4)
+    {} 0.08333333333333333
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(42, 3.1415, histogram_fraction_4)
+    {} 0
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(0, 0, histogram_fraction_4)
+    {} 0
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(0.000001, 0.000001, histogram_fraction_4)
+    {} 0
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(42, 42, histogram_fraction_4)
+    {} 0
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(-3.1, -3.1, histogram_fraction_4)
+    {} 0
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(3.1415, NaN, histogram_fraction_4)
+    {} NaN
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(NaN, 42, histogram_fraction_4)
+    {} NaN
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(NaN, NaN, histogram_fraction_4)
+    {} NaN
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(-Inf, +Inf, histogram_fraction_4)
+    {} 1
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_sum(scalar(histogram_fraction(-Inf, +Inf, sum(histogram_fraction_4))) * histogram_fraction_4)
+    {} 100
+
+clear
+
+# Counter reset only noticeable in a single bucket.
+load 5m
+     reset_in_bucket {{schema:0 count:4 sum:5 buckets:[1 2 1]}} {{schema:0 count:5 sum:6 buckets:[1 1 3]}} {{schema:0 count:6 sum:7 buckets:[1 2 3]}}
+
+eval instant at 10m increase(reset_in_bucket[15m])
+     {} {{count:9 sum:10.5 buckets:[1.5 3 4.5]}}
+
+# The following two test the "fast path" where only sum and count is decoded.
+eval instant at 10m histogram_count(increase(reset_in_bucket[15m]))
+     {} 9
+
+eval instant at 10m histogram_sum(increase(reset_in_bucket[15m]))
+     {} 10.5
+
+clear
+
+# Test native histograms with custom buckets.
+load 5m
+    custom_buckets_histogram {{schema:-53 sum:5 count:4 custom_values:[5 10] buckets:[1 2 1]}}x10
+
+eval instant at 5m histogram_fraction(5, 10, custom_buckets_histogram)
+    {} 0.5
+
+eval instant at 5m histogram_quantile(0.5, custom_buckets_histogram)
+    {} 7.5
+
+eval instant at 5m sum(custom_buckets_histogram)
+    {} {{schema:-53 sum:5 count:4 custom_values:[5 10] buckets:[1 2 1]}}
diff --git a/promql/testdata/operators.test b/promql/promqltest/testdata/operators.test
similarity index 100%
rename from promql/testdata/operators.test
rename to promql/promqltest/testdata/operators.test
diff --git a/promql/promqltest/testdata/range_queries.test b/promql/promqltest/testdata/range_queries.test
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..e695109602
--- /dev/null
+++ b/promql/promqltest/testdata/range_queries.test
@@ -0,0 +1,73 @@
+# sum_over_time with all values
+load 30s
+  bar 0 1 10 100 1000
+
+eval range from 0 to 2m step 1m sum_over_time(bar[30s])
+  {} 0 11 1100
+
+clear
+
+# sum_over_time with trailing values
+load 30s
+  bar 0 1 10 100 1000 0 0 0 0
+
+eval range from 0 to 2m step 1m sum_over_time(bar[30s])
+  {} 0 11 1100
+
+clear
+
+# sum_over_time with all values long
+load 30s
+  bar 0 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000
+
+eval range from 0 to 4m step 1m sum_over_time(bar[30s])
+  {} 0 11 1100 110000 11000000
+
+clear
+
+# sum_over_time with all values random
+load 30s
+  bar 5 17 42 2 7 905 51
+
+eval range from 0 to 3m step 1m sum_over_time(bar[30s])
+  {} 5 59 9 956
+
+clear
+
+# metric query
+load 30s
+  metric 1+1x4
+
+eval range from 0 to 2m step 1m metric
+  metric 1 3 5
+
+clear
+
+# metric query with trailing values
+load 30s
+  metric 1+1x8
+
+eval range from 0 to 2m step 1m metric
+  metric 1 3 5
+
+clear
+
+# short-circuit
+load 30s
+  foo{job="1"} 1+1x4
+  bar{job="2"} 1+1x4
+
+eval range from 0 to 2m step 1m foo > 2 or bar
+  foo{job="1"} _ 3 5
+  bar{job="2"} 1 3 5
+
+clear
+
+# Drop metric name
+load 30s
+  requests{job="1", __address__="bar"} 100
+
+eval range from 0 to 2m step 1m requests * 2
+  {job="1", __address__="bar"} 200 200 200
+
+clear
diff --git a/promql/testdata/selectors.test b/promql/promqltest/testdata/selectors.test
similarity index 100%
rename from promql/testdata/selectors.test
rename to promql/promqltest/testdata/selectors.test
diff --git a/promql/testdata/staleness.test b/promql/promqltest/testdata/staleness.test
similarity index 100%
rename from promql/testdata/staleness.test
rename to promql/promqltest/testdata/staleness.test
diff --git a/promql/testdata/subquery.test b/promql/promqltest/testdata/subquery.test
similarity index 100%
rename from promql/testdata/subquery.test
rename to promql/promqltest/testdata/subquery.test
diff --git a/promql/testdata/trig_functions.test b/promql/promqltest/testdata/trig_functions.test
similarity index 100%
rename from promql/testdata/trig_functions.test
rename to promql/promqltest/testdata/trig_functions.test
diff --git a/promql/quantile.go b/promql/quantile.go
index 6a225afb11..7ddb76acba 100644
--- a/promql/quantile.go
+++ b/promql/quantile.go
@@ -20,6 +20,7 @@ import (
 
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/histogram"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/labels"
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/util/almost"
 )
 
 // smallDeltaTolerance is the threshold for relative deltas between classic
@@ -205,12 +206,15 @@ func histogramQuantile(q float64, h *histogram.FloatHistogram) float64 {
 
 	for it.Next() {
 		bucket = it.At()
+		if bucket.Count == 0 {
+			continue
+		}
 		count += bucket.Count
 		if count >= rank {
 			break
 		}
 	}
-	if bucket.Lower < 0 && bucket.Upper > 0 {
+	if !h.UsesCustomBuckets() && bucket.Lower < 0 && bucket.Upper > 0 {
 		switch {
 		case len(h.NegativeBuckets) == 0 && len(h.PositiveBuckets) > 0:
 			// The result is in the zero bucket and the histogram has only
@@ -221,6 +225,17 @@ func histogramQuantile(q float64, h *histogram.FloatHistogram) float64 {
 			// negative buckets. So we consider 0 to be the upper bound.
 			bucket.Upper = 0
 		}
+	} else if h.UsesCustomBuckets() {
+		if bucket.Lower == math.Inf(-1) {
+			// first bucket, with lower bound -Inf
+			if bucket.Upper <= 0 {
+				return bucket.Upper
+			}
+			bucket.Lower = 0
+		} else if bucket.Upper == math.Inf(1) {
+			// last bucket, with upper bound +Inf
+			return bucket.Lower
+		}
 	}
 	// Due to numerical inaccuracies, we could end up with a higher count
 	// than h.Count. Thus, make sure count is never higher than h.Count.
@@ -397,7 +412,7 @@ func ensureMonotonicAndIgnoreSmallDeltas(buckets buckets, tolerance float64) (bo
 			// No correction needed if the counts are identical between buckets.
 			continue
 		}
-		if almostEqual(prev, curr, tolerance) {
+		if almost.Equal(prev, curr, tolerance) {
 			// Silently correct numerically insignificant differences from floating
 			// point precision errors, regardless of direction.
 			// Do not update the 'prev' value as we are ignoring the difference.
diff --git a/promql/query_logger.go b/promql/query_logger.go
index fa4e1fb079..7e06ebb97f 100644
--- a/promql/query_logger.go
+++ b/promql/query_logger.go
@@ -16,6 +16,8 @@ package promql
 import (
 	"context"
 	"encoding/json"
+	"errors"
+	"fmt"
 	"io"
 	"os"
 	"path/filepath"
@@ -36,6 +38,8 @@ type ActiveQueryTracker struct {
 	maxConcurrent int
 }
 
+var _ io.Closer = &ActiveQueryTracker{}
+
 type Entry struct {
 	Query     string `json:"query"`
 	Timestamp int64  `json:"timestamp_sec"`
@@ -83,6 +87,23 @@ func logUnfinishedQueries(filename string, filesize int, logger log.Logger) {
 	}
 }
 
+type mmapedFile struct {
+	f io.Closer
+	m mmap.MMap
+}
+
+func (f *mmapedFile) Close() error {
+	err := f.m.Unmap()
+	if err != nil {
+		err = fmt.Errorf("mmapedFile: unmapping: %w", err)
+	}
+	if fErr := f.f.Close(); fErr != nil {
+		return errors.Join(fmt.Errorf("close mmapedFile.f: %w", fErr), err)
+	}
+
+	return err
+}
+
 func getMMapedFile(filename string, filesize int, logger log.Logger) ([]byte, io.Closer, error) {
 	file, err := os.OpenFile(filename, os.O_CREATE|os.O_RDWR|os.O_TRUNC, 0o666)
 	if err != nil {
@@ -96,17 +117,19 @@ func getMMapedFile(filename string, filesize int, logger log.Logger) ([]byte, io
 
 	err = file.Truncate(int64(filesize))
 	if err != nil {
+		file.Close()
 		level.Error(logger).Log("msg", "Error setting filesize.", "filesize", filesize, "err", err)
 		return nil, nil, err
 	}
 
 	fileAsBytes, err := mmap.Map(file, mmap.RDWR, 0)
 	if err != nil {
+		file.Close()
 		level.Error(logger).Log("msg", "Failed to mmap", "file", filename, "Attempted size", filesize, "err", err)
 		return nil, nil, err
 	}
 
-	return fileAsBytes, file, err
+	return fileAsBytes, &mmapedFile{f: file, m: fileAsBytes}, err
 }
 
 func NewActiveQueryTracker(localStoragePath string, maxConcurrent int, logger log.Logger) *ActiveQueryTracker {
@@ -202,9 +225,13 @@ func (tracker ActiveQueryTracker) Insert(ctx context.Context, query string) (int
 	}
 }
 
-func (tracker *ActiveQueryTracker) Close() {
+// Close closes tracker.
+func (tracker *ActiveQueryTracker) Close() error {
 	if tracker == nil || tracker.closer == nil {
-		return
+		return nil
 	}
-	tracker.closer.Close()
+	if err := tracker.closer.Close(); err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("close ActiveQueryTracker.closer: %w", err)
+	}
+	return nil
 }
diff --git a/promql/query_logger_test.go b/promql/query_logger_test.go
index 4135753fd7..7bd93781ec 100644
--- a/promql/query_logger_test.go
+++ b/promql/query_logger_test.go
@@ -16,6 +16,7 @@ package promql
 import (
 	"context"
 	"os"
+	"path/filepath"
 	"testing"
 
 	"github.com/grafana/regexp"
@@ -104,29 +105,26 @@ func TestIndexReuse(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestMMapFile(t *testing.T) {
-	file, err := os.CreateTemp("", "mmapedFile")
+	dir := t.TempDir()
+	fpath := filepath.Join(dir, "mmapedFile")
+	const data = "ab"
+
+	fileAsBytes, closer, err := getMMapedFile(fpath, 2, nil)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
+	copy(fileAsBytes, data)
+	require.NoError(t, closer.Close())
 
-	filename := file.Name()
-	defer os.Remove(filename)
-
-	fileAsBytes, closer, err := getMMapedFile(filename, 2, nil)
-	if err != nil {
-		t.Cleanup(func() { closer.Close() })
-	}
-
-	require.NoError(t, err)
-	copy(fileAsBytes, "ab")
-
-	f, err := os.Open(filename)
+	f, err := os.Open(fpath)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
+	t.Cleanup(func() {
+		_ = f.Close()
+	})
 
 	bytes := make([]byte, 4)
 	n, err := f.Read(bytes)
-	require.Equal(t, 2, n)
 	require.NoError(t, err, "Unexpected error while reading file.")
-
-	require.Equal(t, fileAsBytes, bytes[:2], "Mmap failed")
+	require.Equal(t, 2, n)
+	require.Equal(t, []byte(data), bytes[:2], "Mmap failed")
 }
 
 func TestParseBrokenJSON(t *testing.T) {
diff --git a/promql/testdata/native_histograms.test b/promql/testdata/native_histograms.test
deleted file mode 100644
index 1da68a385f..0000000000
--- a/promql/testdata/native_histograms.test
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,271 +0,0 @@
-# Minimal valid case: an empty histogram.
-load 5m
-	empty_histogram	{{}}
-
-eval instant at 5m empty_histogram
-	{__name__="empty_histogram"} {{}}
-
-eval instant at 5m histogram_count(empty_histogram)
-	{} 0
-
-eval instant at 5m histogram_sum(empty_histogram)
-	{} 0
-
-eval instant at 5m histogram_avg(empty_histogram)
-	{} NaN
-
-eval instant at 5m histogram_fraction(-Inf, +Inf, empty_histogram)
-	{} NaN
-
-eval instant at 5m histogram_fraction(0, 8, empty_histogram)
-	{} NaN
-
-
-
-# buckets:[1 2 1] means 1 observation in the 1st bucket, 2 observations in the 2nd and 1 observation in the 3rd (total 4).
-load 5m
-	single_histogram	{{schema:0 sum:5 count:4 buckets:[1 2 1]}}
-
-# histogram_count extracts the count property from the histogram.
-eval instant at 5m histogram_count(single_histogram)
-	{} 4
-
-# histogram_sum extracts the sum property from the histogram.
-eval instant at 5m histogram_sum(single_histogram)
-	{} 5
-
-# histogram_avg calculates the average from sum and count properties.
-eval instant at 5m histogram_avg(single_histogram)
-	{} 1.25
-
-# We expect half of the values to fall in the range 1 < x <= 2.
-eval instant at 5m histogram_fraction(1, 2, single_histogram)
-	{} 0.5
-
-# We expect all values to fall in the range 0 < x <= 8.
-eval instant at 5m histogram_fraction(0, 8, single_histogram)
-	{} 1
-
-# Median is 1.5 due to linear estimation of the midpoint of the middle bucket, whose values are within range 1 < x <= 2.
-eval instant at 5m histogram_quantile(0.5, single_histogram)
-	{} 1.5
-
-
-
-# Repeat the same histogram 10 times.
-load 5m
-	multi_histogram	{{schema:0 sum:5 count:4 buckets:[1 2 1]}}x10
-
-eval instant at 5m histogram_count(multi_histogram)
-	{} 4
-
-eval instant at 5m histogram_sum(multi_histogram)
-	{} 5
-
-eval instant at 5m histogram_avg(multi_histogram)
-	{} 1.25
-
-eval instant at 5m histogram_fraction(1, 2, multi_histogram)
-	{} 0.5
-
-eval instant at 5m histogram_quantile(0.5, multi_histogram)
-	{} 1.5
-
-
-# Each entry should look the same as the first.
-eval instant at 50m histogram_count(multi_histogram)
-	{} 4
-
-eval instant at 50m histogram_sum(multi_histogram)
-	{} 5
-
-eval instant at 50m histogram_avg(multi_histogram)
-	{} 1.25
-
-eval instant at 50m histogram_fraction(1, 2, multi_histogram)
-	{} 0.5
-
-eval instant at 50m histogram_quantile(0.5, multi_histogram)
-	{} 1.5
-
-
-
-# Accumulate the histogram addition for 10 iterations, offset is a bucket position where offset:0 is always the bucket
-# with an upper limit of 1 and offset:1 is the bucket which follows to the right. Negative offsets represent bucket
-# positions for upper limits <1 (tending toward zero), where offset:-1 is the bucket to the left of offset:0.
-load 5m
-	incr_histogram	{{schema:0 sum:4 count:4 buckets:[1 2 1]}}+{{sum:2 count:1 buckets:[1] offset:1}}x10
-
-eval instant at 5m histogram_count(incr_histogram)
-	{} 5
-
-eval instant at 5m histogram_sum(incr_histogram)
-	{} 6
-
-eval instant at 5m histogram_avg(incr_histogram)
-	{} 1.2
-
-# We expect 3/5ths of the values to fall in the range 1 < x <= 2.
-eval instant at 5m histogram_fraction(1, 2, incr_histogram)
-	{} 0.6
-
-eval instant at 5m histogram_quantile(0.5, incr_histogram)
-	{} 1.5
-
-
-eval instant at 50m incr_histogram
-	{__name__="incr_histogram"} {{count:14 sum:24 buckets:[1 12 1]}}
-
-eval instant at 50m histogram_count(incr_histogram)
-	{} 14
-
-eval instant at 50m histogram_sum(incr_histogram)
-	{} 24
-
-eval instant at 50m histogram_avg(incr_histogram)
-    {} 1.7142857142857142
-
-# We expect 12/14ths of the values to fall in the range 1 < x <= 2.
-eval instant at 50m histogram_fraction(1, 2, incr_histogram)
-	{} 0.8571428571428571
-
-eval instant at 50m histogram_quantile(0.5, incr_histogram)
-	{} 1.5
-
-# Per-second average rate of increase should be 1/(5*60) for count and buckets, then 2/(5*60) for sum.
-eval instant at 50m rate(incr_histogram[5m])
-	{} {{count:0.0033333333333333335 sum:0.006666666666666667 offset:1 buckets:[0.0033333333333333335]}}
-
-# Calculate the 50th percentile of observations over the last 10m.
-eval instant at 50m histogram_quantile(0.5, rate(incr_histogram[10m]))
-	{} 1.5
-
-
-
-# Schema represents the histogram resolution, different schema have compatible bucket boundaries, e.g.:
-#  0: 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 (higher resolution)
-# -1: 1   4   16    64  (lower resolution)
-#
-# Histograms can be merged as long as the histogram to the right is same resolution or higher.
-load 5m
-	low_res_histogram	{{schema:-1 sum:4 count:1 buckets:[1] offset:1}}+{{schema:0 sum:4 count:4 buckets:[2 2] offset:1}}x1
-
-eval instant at 5m low_res_histogram
-	{__name__="low_res_histogram"} {{schema:-1 count:5 sum:8 offset:1 buckets:[5]}}
-
-eval instant at 5m histogram_count(low_res_histogram)
-	{} 5
-
-eval instant at 5m histogram_sum(low_res_histogram)
-	{} 8
-
-eval instant at 5m histogram_avg(low_res_histogram)
-	{} 1.6
-
-# We expect all values to fall into the lower-resolution bucket with the range 1 < x <= 4.
-eval instant at 5m histogram_fraction(1, 4, low_res_histogram)
-	{} 1
-
-
-
-# z_bucket:1 means there is one observation in the zero bucket and z_bucket_w:0.5 means the zero bucket has the range
-# 0 < x <= 0.5. Sum and count are expected to represent all observations in the histogram, including those in the zero bucket.
-load 5m
-	single_zero_histogram {{schema:0 z_bucket:1 z_bucket_w:0.5 sum:0.25 count:1}}
-
-eval instant at 5m histogram_count(single_zero_histogram)
-	{} 1
-
-eval instant at 5m histogram_sum(single_zero_histogram)
-	{} 0.25
-
-eval instant at 5m histogram_avg(single_zero_histogram)
-	{} 0.25
-
-# When only the zero bucket is populated, or there are negative buckets, the distribution is assumed to be equally
-# distributed around zero; i.e. that there are an equal number of positive and negative observations. Therefore the
-# entire distribution must lie within the full range of the zero bucket, in this case: -0.5 < x <= +0.5.
-eval instant at 5m histogram_fraction(-0.5, 0.5, single_zero_histogram)
-	{} 1
-
-# Half of the observations are estimated to be zero, as this is the midpoint between -0.5 and +0.5.
-eval instant at 5m histogram_quantile(0.5, single_zero_histogram)
-	{} 0
-
-
-
-# Let's turn single_histogram upside-down.
-load 5m
-	negative_histogram {{schema:0 sum:-5 count:4 n_buckets:[1 2 1]}}
-
-eval instant at 5m histogram_count(negative_histogram)
-	{} 4
-
-eval instant at 5m histogram_sum(negative_histogram)
-	{} -5
-
-eval instant at 5m histogram_avg(negative_histogram)
-	{} -1.25
-
-# We expect half of the values to fall in the range -2 < x <= -1.
-eval instant at 5m histogram_fraction(-2, -1, negative_histogram)
-	{} 0.5
-
-eval instant at 5m histogram_quantile(0.5, negative_histogram)
-	{} -1.5
-
-
-
-# Two histogram samples.
-load 5m
-	two_samples_histogram {{schema:0 sum:4 count:4 buckets:[1 2 1]}} {{schema:0 sum:-4 count:4 n_buckets:[1 2 1]}}
-
-# We expect to see the newest sample.
-eval instant at 10m histogram_count(two_samples_histogram)
-	{} 4
-
-eval instant at 10m histogram_sum(two_samples_histogram)
-	{} -4
-
-eval instant at 10m histogram_avg(two_samples_histogram)
-	{} -1
-
-eval instant at 10m histogram_fraction(-2, -1, two_samples_histogram)
-	{} 0.5
-
-eval instant at 10m histogram_quantile(0.5, two_samples_histogram)
-	{} -1.5
-
-
-
-# Add two histograms with negated data.
-load 5m
-	balanced_histogram {{schema:0 sum:4 count:4 buckets:[1 2 1]}}+{{schema:0 sum:-4 count:4 n_buckets:[1 2 1]}}x1
-
-eval instant at 5m histogram_count(balanced_histogram)
-	{} 8
-
-eval instant at 5m histogram_sum(balanced_histogram)
-	{} 0
-
-eval instant at 5m histogram_avg(balanced_histogram)
-	{} 0
-
-eval instant at 5m histogram_fraction(0, 4, balanced_histogram)
-	{} 0.5
-
-# If the quantile happens to be located in a span of empty buckets, the actually returned value is the lower bound of
-# the first populated bucket after the span of empty buckets.
-eval instant at 5m histogram_quantile(0.5, balanced_histogram)
-	{} 0.5
-
-# Add histogram to test sum(last_over_time) regression
-load 5m
-    incr_sum_histogram{number="1"} {{schema:0 sum:0 count:0 buckets:[1]}}+{{schema:0 sum:1 count:1 buckets:[1]}}x10
-    incr_sum_histogram{number="2"} {{schema:0 sum:0 count:0 buckets:[1]}}+{{schema:0 sum:2 count:1 buckets:[1]}}x10
-
-eval instant at 50m histogram_sum(sum(incr_sum_histogram))
-    {} 30
-
-eval instant at 50m histogram_sum(sum(last_over_time(incr_sum_histogram[5m])))
-    {} 30
diff --git a/promql/value_test.go b/promql/value_test.go
index c93ba8213d..0017b41e2c 100644
--- a/promql/value_test.go
+++ b/promql/value_test.go
@@ -11,7 +11,7 @@
 // See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 // limitations under the License.
 
-package promql
+package promql_test
 
 import (
 	"testing"
@@ -19,39 +19,40 @@ import (
 	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
 
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/labels"
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/promql"
 )
 
 func TestVector_ContainsSameLabelset(t *testing.T) {
 	for name, tc := range map[string]struct {
-		vector   Vector
+		vector   promql.Vector
 		expected bool
 	}{
 		"empty vector": {
-			vector:   Vector{},
+			vector:   promql.Vector{},
 			expected: false,
 		},
 		"vector with one series": {
-			vector: Vector{
+			vector: promql.Vector{
 				{Metric: labels.FromStrings("lbl", "a")},
 			},
 			expected: false,
 		},
 		"vector with two different series": {
-			vector: Vector{
+			vector: promql.Vector{
 				{Metric: labels.FromStrings("lbl", "a")},
 				{Metric: labels.FromStrings("lbl", "b")},
 			},
 			expected: false,
 		},
 		"vector with two equal series": {
-			vector: Vector{
+			vector: promql.Vector{
 				{Metric: labels.FromStrings("lbl", "a")},
 				{Metric: labels.FromStrings("lbl", "a")},
 			},
 			expected: true,
 		},
 		"vector with three series, two equal": {
-			vector: Vector{
+			vector: promql.Vector{
 				{Metric: labels.FromStrings("lbl", "a")},
 				{Metric: labels.FromStrings("lbl", "b")},
 				{Metric: labels.FromStrings("lbl", "a")},
@@ -67,35 +68,35 @@ func TestVector_ContainsSameLabelset(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestMatrix_ContainsSameLabelset(t *testing.T) {
 	for name, tc := range map[string]struct {
-		matrix   Matrix
+		matrix   promql.Matrix
 		expected bool
 	}{
 		"empty matrix": {
-			matrix:   Matrix{},
+			matrix:   promql.Matrix{},
 			expected: false,
 		},
 		"matrix with one series": {
-			matrix: Matrix{
+			matrix: promql.Matrix{
 				{Metric: labels.FromStrings("lbl", "a")},
 			},
 			expected: false,
 		},
 		"matrix with two different series": {
-			matrix: Matrix{
+			matrix: promql.Matrix{
 				{Metric: labels.FromStrings("lbl", "a")},
 				{Metric: labels.FromStrings("lbl", "b")},
 			},
 			expected: false,
 		},
 		"matrix with two equal series": {
-			matrix: Matrix{
+			matrix: promql.Matrix{
 				{Metric: labels.FromStrings("lbl", "a")},
 				{Metric: labels.FromStrings("lbl", "a")},
 			},
 			expected: true,
 		},
 		"matrix with three series, two equal": {
-			matrix: Matrix{
+			matrix: promql.Matrix{
 				{Metric: labels.FromStrings("lbl", "a")},
 				{Metric: labels.FromStrings("lbl", "b")},
 				{Metric: labels.FromStrings("lbl", "a")},
diff --git a/rules/alerting.go b/rules/alerting.go
index 50c67fa2d9..2dc0917dce 100644
--- a/rules/alerting.go
+++ b/rules/alerting.go
@@ -246,13 +246,16 @@ func (r *AlertingRule) sample(alert *Alert, ts time.Time) promql.Sample {
 	return s
 }
 
-// forStateSample returns the sample for ALERTS_FOR_STATE.
+// forStateSample returns a promql.Sample with the rule labels, `ALERTS_FOR_STATE` as the metric name and the rule name as the `alertname` label.
+// Optionally, if an alert is provided it'll copy the labels of the alert into the sample labels.
 func (r *AlertingRule) forStateSample(alert *Alert, ts time.Time, v float64) promql.Sample {
 	lb := labels.NewBuilder(r.labels)
 
-	alert.Labels.Range(func(l labels.Label) {
-		lb.Set(l.Name, l.Value)
-	})
+	if alert != nil {
+		alert.Labels.Range(func(l labels.Label) {
+			lb.Set(l.Name, l.Value)
+		})
+	}
 
 	lb.Set(labels.MetricName, alertForStateMetricName)
 	lb.Set(labels.AlertName, r.name)
@@ -265,9 +268,11 @@ func (r *AlertingRule) forStateSample(alert *Alert, ts time.Time, v float64) pro
 	return s
 }
 
-// QueryforStateSeries returns the series for ALERTS_FOR_STATE.
-func (r *AlertingRule) QueryforStateSeries(ctx context.Context, alert *Alert, q storage.Querier) (storage.Series, error) {
-	smpl := r.forStateSample(alert, time.Now(), 0)
+// QueryForStateSeries returns the series for ALERTS_FOR_STATE of the alert rule.
+func (r *AlertingRule) QueryForStateSeries(ctx context.Context, q storage.Querier) (storage.SeriesSet, error) {
+	// We use a sample to ease the building of matchers.
+	// Don't provide an alert as we want matchers that match all series for the alert rule.
+	smpl := r.forStateSample(nil, time.Now(), 0)
 	var matchers []*labels.Matcher
 	smpl.Metric.Range(func(l labels.Label) {
 		mt, err := labels.NewMatcher(labels.MatchEqual, l.Name, l.Value)
@@ -276,20 +281,9 @@ func (r *AlertingRule) QueryforStateSeries(ctx context.Context, alert *Alert, q
 		}
 		matchers = append(matchers, mt)
 	})
+
 	sset := q.Select(ctx, false, nil, matchers...)
-
-	var s storage.Series
-	for sset.Next() {
-		// Query assures that smpl.Metric is included in sset.At().Labels(),
-		// hence just checking the length would act like equality.
-		// (This is faster than calling labels.Compare again as we already have some info).
-		if sset.At().Labels().Len() == len(matchers) {
-			s = sset.At()
-			break
-		}
-	}
-
-	return s, sset.Err()
+	return sset, sset.Err()
 }
 
 // SetEvaluationDuration updates evaluationDuration to the duration it took to evaluate the rule on its last evaluation.
@@ -344,10 +338,9 @@ const resolvedRetention = 15 * time.Minute
 
 // Eval evaluates the rule expression and then creates pending alerts and fires
 // or removes previously pending alerts accordingly.
-func (r *AlertingRule) Eval(ctx context.Context, ts time.Time, query QueryFunc, externalURL *url.URL, limit int) (promql.Vector, error) {
+func (r *AlertingRule) Eval(ctx context.Context, queryOffset time.Duration, ts time.Time, query QueryFunc, externalURL *url.URL, limit int) (promql.Vector, error) {
 	ctx = NewOriginContext(ctx, NewRuleDetail(r))
-
-	res, err := query(ctx, r.vector.String(), ts)
+	res, err := query(ctx, r.vector.String(), ts.Add(-queryOffset))
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, err
 	}
@@ -457,8 +450,17 @@ func (r *AlertingRule) Eval(ctx context.Context, ts time.Time, query QueryFunc,
 				}
 			}
 
-			// If the alert was previously firing, keep it around for a given
-			// retention time so it is reported as resolved to the AlertManager.
+			// If the alert is resolved (was firing but is now inactive) keep it for
+			// at least the retention period. This is important for a number of reasons:
+			//
+			// 1. It allows for Prometheus to be more resilient to network issues that
+			//    would otherwise prevent a resolved alert from being reported as resolved
+			//    to Alertmanager.
+			//
+			// 2. It helps reduce the chance of resolved notifications being lost if
+			//    Alertmanager crashes or restarts between receiving the resolved alert
+			//    from Prometheus and sending the resolved notification. This tends to
+			//    occur for routes with large Group intervals.
 			if a.State == StatePending || (!a.ResolvedAt.IsZero() && ts.Sub(a.ResolvedAt) > resolvedRetention) {
 				delete(r.active, fp)
 			}
@@ -481,8 +483,8 @@ func (r *AlertingRule) Eval(ctx context.Context, ts time.Time, query QueryFunc,
 		}
 
 		if r.restored.Load() {
-			vec = append(vec, r.sample(a, ts))
-			vec = append(vec, r.forStateSample(a, ts, float64(a.ActiveAt.Unix())))
+			vec = append(vec, r.sample(a, ts.Add(-queryOffset)))
+			vec = append(vec, r.forStateSample(a, ts.Add(-queryOffset), float64(a.ActiveAt.Unix())))
 		}
 	}
 
@@ -548,6 +550,13 @@ func (r *AlertingRule) ForEachActiveAlert(f func(*Alert)) {
 	}
 }
 
+func (r *AlertingRule) ActiveAlertsCount() int {
+	r.activeMtx.Lock()
+	defer r.activeMtx.Unlock()
+
+	return len(r.active)
+}
+
 func (r *AlertingRule) sendAlerts(ctx context.Context, ts time.Time, resendDelay, interval time.Duration, notifyFunc NotifyFunc) {
 	alerts := []*Alert{}
 	r.ForEachActiveAlert(func(alert *Alert) {
diff --git a/rules/alerting_test.go b/rules/alerting_test.go
index ddfe345efb..5ebd049f66 100644
--- a/rules/alerting_test.go
+++ b/rules/alerting_test.go
@@ -30,6 +30,7 @@ import (
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/notifier"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/promql"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/promql/parser"
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/promql/promqltest"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/storage"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/util/teststorage"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/util/testutil"
@@ -122,7 +123,7 @@ func TestAlertingRuleTemplateWithHistogram(t *testing.T) {
 	)
 
 	evalTime := time.Now()
-	res, err := rule.Eval(context.TODO(), evalTime, q, nil, 0)
+	res, err := rule.Eval(context.TODO(), 0, evalTime, q, nil, 0)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 
 	require.Len(t, res, 2)
@@ -148,7 +149,7 @@ func TestAlertingRuleTemplateWithHistogram(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestAlertingRuleLabelsUpdate(t *testing.T) {
-	storage := promql.LoadedStorage(t, `
+	storage := promqltest.LoadedStorage(t, `
 		load 1m
 			http_requests{job="app-server", instance="0"}	75 85 70 70 stale
 	`)
@@ -229,7 +230,7 @@ func TestAlertingRuleLabelsUpdate(t *testing.T) {
 		t.Logf("case %d", i)
 		evalTime := baseTime.Add(time.Duration(i) * time.Minute)
 		result[0].T = timestamp.FromTime(evalTime)
-		res, err := rule.Eval(context.TODO(), evalTime, EngineQueryFunc(testEngine, storage), nil, 0)
+		res, err := rule.Eval(context.TODO(), 0, evalTime, EngineQueryFunc(testEngine, storage), nil, 0)
 		require.NoError(t, err)
 
 		var filteredRes promql.Vector // After removing 'ALERTS_FOR_STATE' samples.
@@ -246,13 +247,13 @@ func TestAlertingRuleLabelsUpdate(t *testing.T) {
 		testutil.RequireEqual(t, result, filteredRes)
 	}
 	evalTime := baseTime.Add(time.Duration(len(results)) * time.Minute)
-	res, err := rule.Eval(context.TODO(), evalTime, EngineQueryFunc(testEngine, storage), nil, 0)
+	res, err := rule.Eval(context.TODO(), 0, evalTime, EngineQueryFunc(testEngine, storage), nil, 0)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	require.Empty(t, res)
 }
 
 func TestAlertingRuleExternalLabelsInTemplate(t *testing.T) {
-	storage := promql.LoadedStorage(t, `
+	storage := promqltest.LoadedStorage(t, `
 		load 1m
 			http_requests{job="app-server", instance="0"}	75 85 70 70
 	`)
@@ -314,7 +315,7 @@ func TestAlertingRuleExternalLabelsInTemplate(t *testing.T) {
 
 	var filteredRes promql.Vector // After removing 'ALERTS_FOR_STATE' samples.
 	res, err := ruleWithoutExternalLabels.Eval(
-		context.TODO(), evalTime, EngineQueryFunc(testEngine, storage), nil, 0,
+		context.TODO(), 0, evalTime, EngineQueryFunc(testEngine, storage), nil, 0,
 	)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	for _, smpl := range res {
@@ -328,7 +329,7 @@ func TestAlertingRuleExternalLabelsInTemplate(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 
 	res, err = ruleWithExternalLabels.Eval(
-		context.TODO(), evalTime, EngineQueryFunc(testEngine, storage), nil, 0,
+		context.TODO(), 0, evalTime, EngineQueryFunc(testEngine, storage), nil, 0,
 	)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	for _, smpl := range res {
@@ -345,7 +346,7 @@ func TestAlertingRuleExternalLabelsInTemplate(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestAlertingRuleExternalURLInTemplate(t *testing.T) {
-	storage := promql.LoadedStorage(t, `
+	storage := promqltest.LoadedStorage(t, `
 		load 1m
 			http_requests{job="app-server", instance="0"}	75 85 70 70
 	`)
@@ -407,7 +408,7 @@ func TestAlertingRuleExternalURLInTemplate(t *testing.T) {
 
 	var filteredRes promql.Vector // After removing 'ALERTS_FOR_STATE' samples.
 	res, err := ruleWithoutExternalURL.Eval(
-		context.TODO(), evalTime, EngineQueryFunc(testEngine, storage), nil, 0,
+		context.TODO(), 0, evalTime, EngineQueryFunc(testEngine, storage), nil, 0,
 	)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	for _, smpl := range res {
@@ -421,7 +422,7 @@ func TestAlertingRuleExternalURLInTemplate(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 
 	res, err = ruleWithExternalURL.Eval(
-		context.TODO(), evalTime, EngineQueryFunc(testEngine, storage), nil, 0,
+		context.TODO(), 0, evalTime, EngineQueryFunc(testEngine, storage), nil, 0,
 	)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	for _, smpl := range res {
@@ -438,7 +439,7 @@ func TestAlertingRuleExternalURLInTemplate(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestAlertingRuleEmptyLabelFromTemplate(t *testing.T) {
-	storage := promql.LoadedStorage(t, `
+	storage := promqltest.LoadedStorage(t, `
 		load 1m
 			http_requests{job="app-server", instance="0"}	75 85 70 70
 	`)
@@ -476,7 +477,7 @@ func TestAlertingRuleEmptyLabelFromTemplate(t *testing.T) {
 
 	var filteredRes promql.Vector // After removing 'ALERTS_FOR_STATE' samples.
 	res, err := rule.Eval(
-		context.TODO(), evalTime, EngineQueryFunc(testEngine, storage), nil, 0,
+		context.TODO(), 0, evalTime, EngineQueryFunc(testEngine, storage), nil, 0,
 	)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	for _, smpl := range res {
@@ -492,7 +493,7 @@ func TestAlertingRuleEmptyLabelFromTemplate(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestAlertingRuleQueryInTemplate(t *testing.T) {
-	storage := promql.LoadedStorage(t, `
+	storage := promqltest.LoadedStorage(t, `
 		load 1m
 			http_requests{job="app-server", instance="0"}	70 85 70 70
 	`)
@@ -543,7 +544,7 @@ instance: {{ $v.Labels.instance }}, value: {{ printf "%.0f" $v.Value }};
 		close(getDoneCh)
 	}()
 	_, err = ruleWithQueryInTemplate.Eval(
-		context.TODO(), evalTime, slowQueryFunc, nil, 0,
+		context.TODO(), 0, evalTime, slowQueryFunc, nil, 0,
 	)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 }
@@ -595,13 +596,13 @@ func TestAlertingRuleDuplicate(t *testing.T) {
 		"",
 		true, log.NewNopLogger(),
 	)
-	_, err := rule.Eval(ctx, now, EngineQueryFunc(engine, storage), nil, 0)
+	_, err := rule.Eval(ctx, 0, now, EngineQueryFunc(engine, storage), nil, 0)
 	require.Error(t, err)
 	require.EqualError(t, err, "vector contains metrics with the same labelset after applying alert labels")
 }
 
 func TestAlertingRuleLimit(t *testing.T) {
-	storage := promql.LoadedStorage(t, `
+	storage := promqltest.LoadedStorage(t, `
 		load 1m
 			metric{label="1"} 1
 			metric{label="2"} 1
@@ -643,7 +644,7 @@ func TestAlertingRuleLimit(t *testing.T) {
 	evalTime := time.Unix(0, 0)
 
 	for _, test := range tests {
-		switch _, err := rule.Eval(context.TODO(), evalTime, EngineQueryFunc(testEngine, storage), nil, test.limit); {
+		switch _, err := rule.Eval(context.TODO(), 0, evalTime, EngineQueryFunc(testEngine, storage), nil, test.limit); {
 		case err != nil:
 			require.EqualError(t, err, test.err)
 		case test.err != "":
@@ -710,19 +711,17 @@ func TestQueryForStateSeries(t *testing.T) {
 			labels.EmptyLabels(), labels.EmptyLabels(), "", true, nil,
 		)
 
-		alert := &Alert{
-			State:       0,
-			Labels:      labels.EmptyLabels(),
-			Annotations: labels.EmptyLabels(),
-			Value:       0,
-			ActiveAt:    time.Time{},
-			FiredAt:     time.Time{},
-			ResolvedAt:  time.Time{},
-			LastSentAt:  time.Time{},
-			ValidUntil:  time.Time{},
-		}
+		sample := rule.forStateSample(nil, time.Time{}, 0)
 
-		series, err := rule.QueryforStateSeries(context.Background(), alert, querier)
+		seriesSet, err := rule.QueryForStateSeries(context.Background(), querier)
+
+		var series storage.Series
+		for seriesSet.Next() {
+			if seriesSet.At().Labels().Len() == sample.Metric.Len() {
+				series = seriesSet.At()
+				break
+			}
+		}
 
 		require.Equal(t, tst.expectedSeries, series)
 		require.Equal(t, tst.expectedError, err)
@@ -785,7 +784,7 @@ func TestSendAlertsDontAffectActiveAlerts(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestKeepFiringFor(t *testing.T) {
-	storage := promql.LoadedStorage(t, `
+	storage := promqltest.LoadedStorage(t, `
 		load 1m
 			http_requests{job="app-server", instance="0"}	75 85 70 70 10x5
 	`)
@@ -872,7 +871,7 @@ func TestKeepFiringFor(t *testing.T) {
 		t.Logf("case %d", i)
 		evalTime := baseTime.Add(time.Duration(i) * time.Minute)
 		result[0].T = timestamp.FromTime(evalTime)
-		res, err := rule.Eval(context.TODO(), evalTime, EngineQueryFunc(testEngine, storage), nil, 0)
+		res, err := rule.Eval(context.TODO(), 0, evalTime, EngineQueryFunc(testEngine, storage), nil, 0)
 		require.NoError(t, err)
 
 		var filteredRes promql.Vector // After removing 'ALERTS_FOR_STATE' samples.
@@ -889,13 +888,13 @@ func TestKeepFiringFor(t *testing.T) {
 		testutil.RequireEqual(t, result, filteredRes)
 	}
 	evalTime := baseTime.Add(time.Duration(len(results)) * time.Minute)
-	res, err := rule.Eval(context.TODO(), evalTime, EngineQueryFunc(testEngine, storage), nil, 0)
+	res, err := rule.Eval(context.TODO(), 0, evalTime, EngineQueryFunc(testEngine, storage), nil, 0)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	require.Empty(t, res)
 }
 
 func TestPendingAndKeepFiringFor(t *testing.T) {
-	storage := promql.LoadedStorage(t, `
+	storage := promqltest.LoadedStorage(t, `
 		load 1m
 			http_requests{job="app-server", instance="0"}	75 10x10
 	`)
@@ -926,7 +925,7 @@ func TestPendingAndKeepFiringFor(t *testing.T) {
 
 	baseTime := time.Unix(0, 0)
 	result.T = timestamp.FromTime(baseTime)
-	res, err := rule.Eval(context.TODO(), baseTime, EngineQueryFunc(testEngine, storage), nil, 0)
+	res, err := rule.Eval(context.TODO(), 0, baseTime, EngineQueryFunc(testEngine, storage), nil, 0)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 
 	require.Len(t, res, 2)
@@ -941,7 +940,7 @@ func TestPendingAndKeepFiringFor(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 
 	evalTime := baseTime.Add(time.Minute)
-	res, err = rule.Eval(context.TODO(), evalTime, EngineQueryFunc(testEngine, storage), nil, 0)
+	res, err = rule.Eval(context.TODO(), 0, evalTime, EngineQueryFunc(testEngine, storage), nil, 0)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	require.Empty(t, res)
 }
@@ -975,7 +974,7 @@ func TestAlertingEvalWithOrigin(t *testing.T) {
 		true, log.NewNopLogger(),
 	)
 
-	_, err = rule.Eval(ctx, now, func(ctx context.Context, qs string, _ time.Time) (promql.Vector, error) {
+	_, err = rule.Eval(ctx, 0, now, func(ctx context.Context, qs string, _ time.Time) (promql.Vector, error) {
 		detail = FromOriginContext(ctx)
 		return nil, nil
 	}, nil, 0)
@@ -1025,3 +1024,24 @@ func TestAlertingRule_SetNoDependencyRules(t *testing.T) {
 	rule.SetNoDependencyRules(true)
 	require.True(t, rule.NoDependencyRules())
 }
+
+func TestAlertingRule_ActiveAlertsCount(t *testing.T) {
+	rule := NewAlertingRule(
+		"TestRule",
+		nil,
+		time.Minute,
+		0,
+		labels.FromStrings("severity", "critical"),
+		labels.EmptyLabels(), labels.EmptyLabels(), "", true, nil,
+	)
+
+	require.Equal(t, 0, rule.ActiveAlertsCount())
+
+	// Set an active alert.
+	lbls := labels.FromStrings("a1", "1")
+	h := lbls.Hash()
+	al := &Alert{State: StateFiring, Labels: lbls, ActiveAt: time.Now()}
+	rule.active[h] = al
+
+	require.Equal(t, 1, rule.ActiveAlertsCount())
+}
diff --git a/rules/group.go b/rules/group.go
index c268d2df7d..0bc219a11b 100644
--- a/rules/group.go
+++ b/rules/group.go
@@ -47,6 +47,7 @@ type Group struct {
 	name                 string
 	file                 string
 	interval             time.Duration
+	queryOffset          *time.Duration
 	limit                int
 	rules                []Rule
 	seriesInPreviousEval []map[string]labels.Labels // One per Rule.
@@ -90,6 +91,7 @@ type GroupOptions struct {
 	Rules             []Rule
 	ShouldRestore     bool
 	Opts              *ManagerOptions
+	QueryOffset       *time.Duration
 	done              chan struct{}
 	EvalIterationFunc GroupEvalIterationFunc
 }
@@ -126,6 +128,7 @@ func NewGroup(o GroupOptions) *Group {
 		name:                  o.Name,
 		file:                  o.File,
 		interval:              o.Interval,
+		queryOffset:           o.QueryOffset,
 		limit:                 o.Limit,
 		rules:                 o.Rules,
 		shouldRestore:         o.ShouldRestore,
@@ -148,7 +151,42 @@ func (g *Group) Name() string { return g.name }
 func (g *Group) File() string { return g.file }
 
 // Rules returns the group's rules.
-func (g *Group) Rules() []Rule { return g.rules }
+func (g *Group) Rules(matcherSets ...[]*labels.Matcher) []Rule {
+	if len(matcherSets) == 0 {
+		return g.rules
+	}
+	var rules []Rule
+	for _, rule := range g.rules {
+		if matchesMatcherSets(matcherSets, rule.Labels()) {
+			rules = append(rules, rule)
+		}
+	}
+	return rules
+}
+
+func matches(lbls labels.Labels, matchers ...*labels.Matcher) bool {
+	for _, m := range matchers {
+		if v := lbls.Get(m.Name); !m.Matches(v) {
+			return false
+		}
+	}
+	return true
+}
+
+// matchesMatcherSets ensures all matches in each matcher set are ANDed and the set of those is ORed.
+func matchesMatcherSets(matcherSets [][]*labels.Matcher, lbls labels.Labels) bool {
+	if len(matcherSets) == 0 {
+		return true
+	}
+
+	var ok bool
+	for _, matchers := range matcherSets {
+		if matches(lbls, matchers...) {
+			ok = true
+		}
+	}
+	return ok
+}
 
 // Queryable returns the group's querable.
 func (g *Group) Queryable() storage.Queryable { return g.opts.Queryable }
@@ -230,7 +268,11 @@ func (g *Group) run(ctx context.Context) {
 			g.evalIterationFunc(ctx, g, evalTimestamp)
 		}
 
-		g.RestoreForState(time.Now())
+		restoreStartTime := time.Now()
+		g.RestoreForState(restoreStartTime)
+		totalRestoreTimeSeconds := time.Since(restoreStartTime).Seconds()
+		g.metrics.GroupLastRestoreDuration.WithLabelValues(GroupKey(g.file, g.name)).Set(totalRestoreTimeSeconds)
+		level.Debug(g.logger).Log("msg", "'for' state restoration completed", "duration_seconds", totalRestoreTimeSeconds)
 		g.shouldRestore = false
 	}
 
@@ -439,6 +481,8 @@ func (g *Group) Eval(ctx context.Context, ts time.Time) {
 		wg           sync.WaitGroup
 	)
 
+	ruleQueryOffset := g.QueryOffset()
+
 	for i, rule := range g.rules {
 		select {
 		case <-g.done:
@@ -469,7 +513,7 @@ func (g *Group) Eval(ctx context.Context, ts time.Time) {
 
 			g.metrics.EvalTotal.WithLabelValues(GroupKey(g.File(), g.Name())).Inc()
 
-			vector, err := rule.Eval(ctx, ts, g.opts.QueryFunc, g.opts.ExternalURL, g.Limit())
+			vector, err := rule.Eval(ctx, ruleQueryOffset, ts, g.opts.QueryFunc, g.opts.ExternalURL, g.Limit())
 			if err != nil {
 				rule.SetHealth(HealthBad)
 				rule.SetLastError(err)
@@ -558,7 +602,7 @@ func (g *Group) Eval(ctx context.Context, ts time.Time) {
 			for metric, lset := range g.seriesInPreviousEval[i] {
 				if _, ok := seriesReturned[metric]; !ok {
 					// Series no longer exposed, mark it stale.
-					_, err = app.Append(0, lset, timestamp.FromTime(ts), math.Float64frombits(value.StaleNaN))
+					_, err = app.Append(0, lset, timestamp.FromTime(ts.Add(-ruleQueryOffset)), math.Float64frombits(value.StaleNaN))
 					unwrappedErr := errors.Unwrap(err)
 					if unwrappedErr == nil {
 						unwrappedErr = err
@@ -597,14 +641,27 @@ func (g *Group) Eval(ctx context.Context, ts time.Time) {
 	g.cleanupStaleSeries(ctx, ts)
 }
 
+func (g *Group) QueryOffset() time.Duration {
+	if g.queryOffset != nil {
+		return *g.queryOffset
+	}
+
+	if g.opts.DefaultRuleQueryOffset != nil {
+		return g.opts.DefaultRuleQueryOffset()
+	}
+
+	return time.Duration(0)
+}
+
 func (g *Group) cleanupStaleSeries(ctx context.Context, ts time.Time) {
 	if len(g.staleSeries) == 0 {
 		return
 	}
 	app := g.opts.Appendable.Appender(ctx)
+	queryOffset := g.QueryOffset()
 	for _, s := range g.staleSeries {
 		// Rule that produced series no longer configured, mark it stale.
-		_, err := app.Append(0, s, timestamp.FromTime(ts), math.Float64frombits(value.StaleNaN))
+		_, err := app.Append(0, s, timestamp.FromTime(ts.Add(-queryOffset)), math.Float64frombits(value.StaleNaN))
 		unwrappedErr := errors.Unwrap(err)
 		if unwrappedErr == nil {
 			unwrappedErr = err
@@ -660,25 +717,40 @@ func (g *Group) RestoreForState(ts time.Time) {
 			continue
 		}
 
+		sset, err := alertRule.QueryForStateSeries(g.opts.Context, q)
+		if err != nil {
+			level.Error(g.logger).Log(
+				"msg", "Failed to restore 'for' state",
+				labels.AlertName, alertRule.Name(),
+				"stage", "Select",
+				"err", err,
+			)
+			// Even if we failed to query the `ALERT_FOR_STATE` series, we currently have no way to retry the restore process.
+			// So the best we can do is mark the rule as restored and let it eventually fire.
+			alertRule.SetRestored(true)
+			continue
+		}
+
+		// While not technically the same number of series we expect, it's as good of an approximation as any.
+		seriesByLabels := make(map[string]storage.Series, alertRule.ActiveAlertsCount())
+		for sset.Next() {
+			seriesByLabels[sset.At().Labels().DropMetricName().String()] = sset.At()
+		}
+
+		// No results for this alert rule.
+		if len(seriesByLabels) == 0 {
+			level.Debug(g.logger).Log("msg", "No series found to restore the 'for' state of the alert rule", labels.AlertName, alertRule.Name())
+			alertRule.SetRestored(true)
+			continue
+		}
+
 		alertRule.ForEachActiveAlert(func(a *Alert) {
 			var s storage.Series
 
-			s, err := alertRule.QueryforStateSeries(g.opts.Context, a, q)
-			if err != nil {
-				// Querier Warnings are ignored. We do not care unless we have an error.
-				level.Error(g.logger).Log(
-					"msg", "Failed to restore 'for' state",
-					labels.AlertName, alertRule.Name(),
-					"stage", "Select",
-					"err", err,
-				)
+			s, ok := seriesByLabels[a.Labels.String()]
+			if !ok {
 				return
 			}
-
-			if s == nil {
-				return
-			}
-
 			// Series found for the 'for' state.
 			var t int64
 			var v float64
@@ -756,6 +828,10 @@ func (g *Group) Equals(ng *Group) bool {
 		return false
 	}
 
+	if ((g.queryOffset == nil) != (ng.queryOffset == nil)) || (g.queryOffset != nil && ng.queryOffset != nil && *g.queryOffset != *ng.queryOffset) {
+		return false
+	}
+
 	if len(g.rules) != len(ng.rules) {
 		return false
 	}
@@ -779,17 +855,18 @@ const namespace = "prometheus"
 
 // Metrics for rule evaluation.
 type Metrics struct {
-	EvalDuration        prometheus.Summary
-	IterationDuration   prometheus.Summary
-	IterationsMissed    *prometheus.CounterVec
-	IterationsScheduled *prometheus.CounterVec
-	EvalTotal           *prometheus.CounterVec
-	EvalFailures        *prometheus.CounterVec
-	GroupInterval       *prometheus.GaugeVec
-	GroupLastEvalTime   *prometheus.GaugeVec
-	GroupLastDuration   *prometheus.GaugeVec
-	GroupRules          *prometheus.GaugeVec
-	GroupSamples        *prometheus.GaugeVec
+	EvalDuration             prometheus.Summary
+	IterationDuration        prometheus.Summary
+	IterationsMissed         *prometheus.CounterVec
+	IterationsScheduled      *prometheus.CounterVec
+	EvalTotal                *prometheus.CounterVec
+	EvalFailures             *prometheus.CounterVec
+	GroupInterval            *prometheus.GaugeVec
+	GroupLastEvalTime        *prometheus.GaugeVec
+	GroupLastDuration        *prometheus.GaugeVec
+	GroupLastRestoreDuration *prometheus.GaugeVec
+	GroupRules               *prometheus.GaugeVec
+	GroupSamples             *prometheus.GaugeVec
 }
 
 // NewGroupMetrics creates a new instance of Metrics and registers it with the provided registerer,
@@ -865,6 +942,14 @@ func NewGroupMetrics(reg prometheus.Registerer) *Metrics {
 			},
 			[]string{"rule_group"},
 		),
+		GroupLastRestoreDuration: prometheus.NewGaugeVec(
+			prometheus.GaugeOpts{
+				Namespace: namespace,
+				Name:      "rule_group_last_restore_duration_seconds",
+				Help:      "The duration of the last alert rules alerts restoration using the `ALERTS_FOR_STATE` series.",
+			},
+			[]string{"rule_group"},
+		),
 		GroupRules: prometheus.NewGaugeVec(
 			prometheus.GaugeOpts{
 				Namespace: namespace,
@@ -894,6 +979,7 @@ func NewGroupMetrics(reg prometheus.Registerer) *Metrics {
 			m.GroupInterval,
 			m.GroupLastEvalTime,
 			m.GroupLastDuration,
+			m.GroupLastRestoreDuration,
 			m.GroupRules,
 			m.GroupSamples,
 		)
diff --git a/rules/group_test.go b/rules/group_test.go
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..ff1ef3d6c1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/rules/group_test.go
@@ -0,0 +1,98 @@
+// Copyright 2013 The Prometheus Authors
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+//
+// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+
+package rules
+
+import (
+	"testing"
+	"time"
+
+	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
+)
+
+func TestGroup_Equals(t *testing.T) {
+	tests := map[string]struct {
+		first    *Group
+		second   *Group
+		expected bool
+	}{
+		"no query offset set on both groups": {
+			first: &Group{
+				name:     "group-1",
+				file:     "file-1",
+				interval: time.Minute,
+			},
+			second: &Group{
+				name:     "group-1",
+				file:     "file-1",
+				interval: time.Minute,
+			},
+			expected: true,
+		},
+		"query offset set only on the first group": {
+			first: &Group{
+				name:        "group-1",
+				file:        "file-1",
+				interval:    time.Minute,
+				queryOffset: pointerOf[time.Duration](time.Minute),
+			},
+			second: &Group{
+				name:     "group-1",
+				file:     "file-1",
+				interval: time.Minute,
+			},
+			expected: false,
+		},
+		"query offset set on both groups to the same value": {
+			first: &Group{
+				name:        "group-1",
+				file:        "file-1",
+				interval:    time.Minute,
+				queryOffset: pointerOf[time.Duration](time.Minute),
+			},
+			second: &Group{
+				name:        "group-1",
+				file:        "file-1",
+				interval:    time.Minute,
+				queryOffset: pointerOf[time.Duration](time.Minute),
+			},
+			expected: true,
+		},
+		"query offset set on both groups to different value": {
+			first: &Group{
+				name:        "group-1",
+				file:        "file-1",
+				interval:    time.Minute,
+				queryOffset: pointerOf[time.Duration](time.Minute),
+			},
+			second: &Group{
+				name:        "group-1",
+				file:        "file-1",
+				interval:    time.Minute,
+				queryOffset: pointerOf[time.Duration](2 * time.Minute),
+			},
+			expected: false,
+		},
+	}
+
+	for testName, testData := range tests {
+		t.Run(testName, func(t *testing.T) {
+			require.Equal(t, testData.expected, testData.first.Equals(testData.second))
+			require.Equal(t, testData.expected, testData.second.Equals(testData.first))
+		})
+	}
+}
+
+func pointerOf[T any](value T) *T {
+	return &value
+}
diff --git a/rules/manager.go b/rules/manager.go
index 165dca144e..ab33c3c7d8 100644
--- a/rules/manager.go
+++ b/rules/manager.go
@@ -116,6 +116,7 @@ type ManagerOptions struct {
 	ForGracePeriod            time.Duration
 	ResendDelay               time.Duration
 	GroupLoader               GroupLoader
+	DefaultRuleQueryOffset    func() time.Duration
 	MaxConcurrentEvals        int64
 	ConcurrentEvalsEnabled    bool
 	RuleConcurrencyController RuleConcurrencyController
@@ -189,10 +190,18 @@ func (m *Manager) Stop() {
 
 // Update the rule manager's state as the config requires. If
 // loading the new rules failed the old rule set is restored.
+// This method will no-op in case the manager is already stopped.
 func (m *Manager) Update(interval time.Duration, files []string, externalLabels labels.Labels, externalURL string, groupEvalIterationFunc GroupEvalIterationFunc) error {
 	m.mtx.Lock()
 	defer m.mtx.Unlock()
 
+	// We cannot update a stopped manager
+	select {
+	case <-m.done:
+		return nil
+	default:
+	}
+
 	groups, errs := m.LoadGroups(interval, externalLabels, externalURL, groupEvalIterationFunc, files...)
 
 	if errs != nil {
@@ -336,6 +345,7 @@ func (m *Manager) LoadGroups(
 				Rules:             rules,
 				ShouldRestore:     shouldRestore,
 				Opts:              m.opts,
+				QueryOffset:       (*time.Duration)(rg.QueryOffset),
 				done:              m.done,
 				EvalIterationFunc: groupEvalIterationFunc,
 			})
@@ -370,13 +380,13 @@ func (m *Manager) RuleGroups() []*Group {
 }
 
 // Rules returns the list of the manager's rules.
-func (m *Manager) Rules() []Rule {
+func (m *Manager) Rules(matcherSets ...[]*labels.Matcher) []Rule {
 	m.mtx.RLock()
 	defer m.mtx.RUnlock()
 
 	var rules []Rule
 	for _, g := range m.groups {
-		rules = append(rules, g.rules...)
+		rules = append(rules, g.Rules(matcherSets...)...)
 	}
 
 	return rules
diff --git a/rules/manager_test.go b/rules/manager_test.go
index 50ab6b861f..51239e6c90 100644
--- a/rules/manager_test.go
+++ b/rules/manager_test.go
@@ -16,9 +16,12 @@ package rules
 import (
 	"context"
 	"fmt"
+	"io/fs"
 	"math"
 	"os"
+	"path"
 	"sort"
+	"strconv"
 	"sync"
 	"testing"
 	"time"
@@ -38,6 +41,7 @@ import (
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/value"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/promql"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/promql/parser"
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/promql/promqltest"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/storage"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/tsdb/chunkenc"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/tsdb/tsdbutil"
@@ -50,7 +54,7 @@ func TestMain(m *testing.M) {
 }
 
 func TestAlertingRule(t *testing.T) {
-	storage := promql.LoadedStorage(t, `
+	storage := promqltest.LoadedStorage(t, `
 		load 5m
 			http_requests{job="app-server", instance="0", group="canary", severity="overwrite-me"}	75 85  95 105 105  95  85
 			http_requests{job="app-server", instance="1", group="canary", severity="overwrite-me"}	80 90 100 110 120 130 140
@@ -160,7 +164,7 @@ func TestAlertingRule(t *testing.T) {
 
 		evalTime := baseTime.Add(test.time)
 
-		res, err := rule.Eval(context.TODO(), evalTime, EngineQueryFunc(testEngine, storage), nil, 0)
+		res, err := rule.Eval(context.TODO(), 0, evalTime, EngineQueryFunc(testEngine, storage), nil, 0)
 		require.NoError(t, err)
 
 		var filteredRes promql.Vector // After removing 'ALERTS_FOR_STATE' samples.
@@ -190,152 +194,156 @@ func TestAlertingRule(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestForStateAddSamples(t *testing.T) {
-	storage := promql.LoadedStorage(t, `
+	for _, queryOffset := range []time.Duration{0, time.Minute} {
+		t.Run(fmt.Sprintf("queryOffset %s", queryOffset.String()), func(t *testing.T) {
+			storage := promqltest.LoadedStorage(t, `
 		load 5m
 			http_requests{job="app-server", instance="0", group="canary", severity="overwrite-me"}	75 85  95 105 105  95  85
 			http_requests{job="app-server", instance="1", group="canary", severity="overwrite-me"}	80 90 100 110 120 130 140
 	`)
-	t.Cleanup(func() { storage.Close() })
+			t.Cleanup(func() { storage.Close() })
 
-	expr, err := parser.ParseExpr(`http_requests{group="canary", job="app-server"} < 100`)
-	require.NoError(t, err)
+			expr, err := parser.ParseExpr(`http_requests{group="canary", job="app-server"} < 100`)
+			require.NoError(t, err)
 
-	rule := NewAlertingRule(
-		"HTTPRequestRateLow",
-		expr,
-		time.Minute,
-		0,
-		labels.FromStrings("severity", "{{\"c\"}}ritical"),
-		labels.EmptyLabels(), labels.EmptyLabels(), "", true, nil,
-	)
-	result := promql.Vector{
-		promql.Sample{
-			Metric: labels.FromStrings(
-				"__name__", "ALERTS_FOR_STATE",
-				"alertname", "HTTPRequestRateLow",
-				"group", "canary",
-				"instance", "0",
-				"job", "app-server",
-				"severity", "critical",
-			),
-			F: 1,
-		},
-		promql.Sample{
-			Metric: labels.FromStrings(
-				"__name__", "ALERTS_FOR_STATE",
-				"alertname", "HTTPRequestRateLow",
-				"group", "canary",
-				"instance", "1",
-				"job", "app-server",
-				"severity", "critical",
-			),
-			F: 1,
-		},
-		promql.Sample{
-			Metric: labels.FromStrings(
-				"__name__", "ALERTS_FOR_STATE",
-				"alertname", "HTTPRequestRateLow",
-				"group", "canary",
-				"instance", "0",
-				"job", "app-server",
-				"severity", "critical",
-			),
-			F: 1,
-		},
-		promql.Sample{
-			Metric: labels.FromStrings(
-				"__name__", "ALERTS_FOR_STATE",
-				"alertname", "HTTPRequestRateLow",
-				"group", "canary",
-				"instance", "1",
-				"job", "app-server",
-				"severity", "critical",
-			),
-			F: 1,
-		},
-	}
-
-	baseTime := time.Unix(0, 0)
-
-	tests := []struct {
-		time            time.Duration
-		result          promql.Vector
-		persistThisTime bool // If true, it means this 'time' is persisted for 'for'.
-	}{
-		{
-			time:            0,
-			result:          append(promql.Vector{}, result[:2]...),
-			persistThisTime: true,
-		},
-		{
-			time:   5 * time.Minute,
-			result: append(promql.Vector{}, result[2:]...),
-		},
-		{
-			time:   10 * time.Minute,
-			result: append(promql.Vector{}, result[2:3]...),
-		},
-		{
-			time:   15 * time.Minute,
-			result: nil,
-		},
-		{
-			time:   20 * time.Minute,
-			result: nil,
-		},
-		{
-			time:            25 * time.Minute,
-			result:          append(promql.Vector{}, result[:1]...),
-			persistThisTime: true,
-		},
-		{
-			time:   30 * time.Minute,
-			result: append(promql.Vector{}, result[2:3]...),
-		},
-	}
-
-	var forState float64
-	for i, test := range tests {
-		t.Logf("case %d", i)
-		evalTime := baseTime.Add(test.time)
-
-		if test.persistThisTime {
-			forState = float64(evalTime.Unix())
-		}
-		if test.result == nil {
-			forState = float64(value.StaleNaN)
-		}
-
-		res, err := rule.Eval(context.TODO(), evalTime, EngineQueryFunc(testEngine, storage), nil, 0)
-		require.NoError(t, err)
-
-		var filteredRes promql.Vector // After removing 'ALERTS' samples.
-		for _, smpl := range res {
-			smplName := smpl.Metric.Get("__name__")
-			if smplName == "ALERTS_FOR_STATE" {
-				filteredRes = append(filteredRes, smpl)
-			} else {
-				// If not 'ALERTS_FOR_STATE', it has to be 'ALERTS'.
-				require.Equal(t, "ALERTS", smplName)
+			rule := NewAlertingRule(
+				"HTTPRequestRateLow",
+				expr,
+				time.Minute,
+				0,
+				labels.FromStrings("severity", "{{\"c\"}}ritical"),
+				labels.EmptyLabels(), labels.EmptyLabels(), "", true, nil,
+			)
+			result := promql.Vector{
+				promql.Sample{
+					Metric: labels.FromStrings(
+						"__name__", "ALERTS_FOR_STATE",
+						"alertname", "HTTPRequestRateLow",
+						"group", "canary",
+						"instance", "0",
+						"job", "app-server",
+						"severity", "critical",
+					),
+					F: 1,
+				},
+				promql.Sample{
+					Metric: labels.FromStrings(
+						"__name__", "ALERTS_FOR_STATE",
+						"alertname", "HTTPRequestRateLow",
+						"group", "canary",
+						"instance", "1",
+						"job", "app-server",
+						"severity", "critical",
+					),
+					F: 1,
+				},
+				promql.Sample{
+					Metric: labels.FromStrings(
+						"__name__", "ALERTS_FOR_STATE",
+						"alertname", "HTTPRequestRateLow",
+						"group", "canary",
+						"instance", "0",
+						"job", "app-server",
+						"severity", "critical",
+					),
+					F: 1,
+				},
+				promql.Sample{
+					Metric: labels.FromStrings(
+						"__name__", "ALERTS_FOR_STATE",
+						"alertname", "HTTPRequestRateLow",
+						"group", "canary",
+						"instance", "1",
+						"job", "app-server",
+						"severity", "critical",
+					),
+					F: 1,
+				},
 			}
-		}
-		for i := range test.result {
-			test.result[i].T = timestamp.FromTime(evalTime)
-			// Updating the expected 'for' state.
-			if test.result[i].F >= 0 {
-				test.result[i].F = forState
-			}
-		}
-		require.Equal(t, len(test.result), len(filteredRes), "%d. Number of samples in expected and actual output don't match (%d vs. %d)", i, len(test.result), len(res))
 
-		sort.Slice(filteredRes, func(i, j int) bool {
-			return labels.Compare(filteredRes[i].Metric, filteredRes[j].Metric) < 0
+			baseTime := time.Unix(0, 0)
+
+			tests := []struct {
+				time            time.Duration
+				result          promql.Vector
+				persistThisTime bool // If true, it means this 'time' is persisted for 'for'.
+			}{
+				{
+					time:            0,
+					result:          append(promql.Vector{}, result[:2]...),
+					persistThisTime: true,
+				},
+				{
+					time:   5 * time.Minute,
+					result: append(promql.Vector{}, result[2:]...),
+				},
+				{
+					time:   10 * time.Minute,
+					result: append(promql.Vector{}, result[2:3]...),
+				},
+				{
+					time:   15 * time.Minute,
+					result: nil,
+				},
+				{
+					time:   20 * time.Minute,
+					result: nil,
+				},
+				{
+					time:            25 * time.Minute,
+					result:          append(promql.Vector{}, result[:1]...),
+					persistThisTime: true,
+				},
+				{
+					time:   30 * time.Minute,
+					result: append(promql.Vector{}, result[2:3]...),
+				},
+			}
+
+			var forState float64
+			for i, test := range tests {
+				t.Logf("case %d", i)
+				evalTime := baseTime.Add(test.time).Add(queryOffset)
+
+				if test.persistThisTime {
+					forState = float64(evalTime.Unix())
+				}
+				if test.result == nil {
+					forState = float64(value.StaleNaN)
+				}
+
+				res, err := rule.Eval(context.TODO(), queryOffset, evalTime, EngineQueryFunc(testEngine, storage), nil, 0)
+				require.NoError(t, err)
+
+				var filteredRes promql.Vector // After removing 'ALERTS' samples.
+				for _, smpl := range res {
+					smplName := smpl.Metric.Get("__name__")
+					if smplName == "ALERTS_FOR_STATE" {
+						filteredRes = append(filteredRes, smpl)
+					} else {
+						// If not 'ALERTS_FOR_STATE', it has to be 'ALERTS'.
+						require.Equal(t, "ALERTS", smplName)
+					}
+				}
+				for i := range test.result {
+					test.result[i].T = timestamp.FromTime(evalTime.Add(-queryOffset))
+					// Updating the expected 'for' state.
+					if test.result[i].F >= 0 {
+						test.result[i].F = forState
+					}
+				}
+				require.Equal(t, len(test.result), len(filteredRes), "%d. Number of samples in expected and actual output don't match (%d vs. %d)", i, len(test.result), len(res))
+
+				sort.Slice(filteredRes, func(i, j int) bool {
+					return labels.Compare(filteredRes[i].Metric, filteredRes[j].Metric) < 0
+				})
+				prom_testutil.RequireEqual(t, test.result, filteredRes)
+
+				for _, aa := range rule.ActiveAlerts() {
+					require.Zero(t, aa.Labels.Get(model.MetricNameLabel), "%s label set on active alert: %s", model.MetricNameLabel, aa.Labels)
+				}
+			}
 		})
-		prom_testutil.RequireEqual(t, test.result, filteredRes)
-
-		for _, aa := range rule.ActiveAlerts() {
-			require.Zero(t, aa.Labels.Get(model.MetricNameLabel), "%s label set on active alert: %s", model.MetricNameLabel, aa.Labels)
-		}
 	}
 }
 
@@ -347,242 +355,251 @@ func sortAlerts(items []*Alert) {
 }
 
 func TestForStateRestore(t *testing.T) {
-	storage := promql.LoadedStorage(t, `
+	for _, queryOffset := range []time.Duration{0, time.Minute} {
+		t.Run(fmt.Sprintf("queryOffset %s", queryOffset.String()), func(t *testing.T) {
+			storage := promqltest.LoadedStorage(t, `
 		load 5m
 		http_requests{job="app-server", instance="0", group="canary", severity="overwrite-me"}	75  85 50 0 0 25 0 0 40 0 120
 		http_requests{job="app-server", instance="1", group="canary", severity="overwrite-me"}	125 90 60 0 0 25 0 0 40 0 130
 	`)
-	t.Cleanup(func() { storage.Close() })
+			t.Cleanup(func() { storage.Close() })
 
-	expr, err := parser.ParseExpr(`http_requests{group="canary", job="app-server"} < 100`)
-	require.NoError(t, err)
+			expr, err := parser.ParseExpr(`http_requests{group="canary", job="app-server"} < 100`)
+			require.NoError(t, err)
 
-	opts := &ManagerOptions{
-		QueryFunc:       EngineQueryFunc(testEngine, storage),
-		Appendable:      storage,
-		Queryable:       storage,
-		Context:         context.Background(),
-		Logger:          log.NewNopLogger(),
-		NotifyFunc:      func(ctx context.Context, expr string, alerts ...*Alert) {},
-		OutageTolerance: 30 * time.Minute,
-		ForGracePeriod:  10 * time.Minute,
-	}
+			opts := &ManagerOptions{
+				QueryFunc:       EngineQueryFunc(testEngine, storage),
+				Appendable:      storage,
+				Queryable:       storage,
+				Context:         context.Background(),
+				Logger:          log.NewNopLogger(),
+				NotifyFunc:      func(ctx context.Context, expr string, alerts ...*Alert) {},
+				OutageTolerance: 30 * time.Minute,
+				ForGracePeriod:  10 * time.Minute,
+			}
 
-	alertForDuration := 25 * time.Minute
-	// Initial run before prometheus goes down.
-	rule := NewAlertingRule(
-		"HTTPRequestRateLow",
-		expr,
-		alertForDuration,
-		0,
-		labels.FromStrings("severity", "critical"),
-		labels.EmptyLabels(), labels.EmptyLabels(), "", true, nil,
-	)
+			alertForDuration := 25 * time.Minute
+			// Initial run before prometheus goes down.
+			rule := NewAlertingRule(
+				"HTTPRequestRateLow",
+				expr,
+				alertForDuration,
+				0,
+				labels.FromStrings("severity", "critical"),
+				labels.EmptyLabels(), labels.EmptyLabels(), "", true, nil,
+			)
 
-	group := NewGroup(GroupOptions{
-		Name:          "default",
-		Interval:      time.Second,
-		Rules:         []Rule{rule},
-		ShouldRestore: true,
-		Opts:          opts,
-	})
-	groups := make(map[string]*Group)
-	groups["default;"] = group
+			group := NewGroup(GroupOptions{
+				Name:          "default",
+				Interval:      time.Second,
+				Rules:         []Rule{rule},
+				ShouldRestore: true,
+				Opts:          opts,
+			})
+			groups := make(map[string]*Group)
+			groups["default;"] = group
 
-	initialRuns := []time.Duration{0, 5 * time.Minute}
+			initialRuns := []time.Duration{0, 5 * time.Minute}
 
-	baseTime := time.Unix(0, 0)
-	for _, duration := range initialRuns {
-		evalTime := baseTime.Add(duration)
-		group.Eval(context.TODO(), evalTime)
-	}
+			baseTime := time.Unix(0, 0)
+			for _, duration := range initialRuns {
+				evalTime := baseTime.Add(duration)
+				group.Eval(context.TODO(), evalTime)
+			}
 
-	exp := rule.ActiveAlerts()
-	for _, aa := range exp {
-		require.Zero(t, aa.Labels.Get(model.MetricNameLabel), "%s label set on active alert: %s", model.MetricNameLabel, aa.Labels)
-	}
-	sort.Slice(exp, func(i, j int) bool {
-		return labels.Compare(exp[i].Labels, exp[j].Labels) < 0
-	})
+			// Prometheus goes down here. We create new rules and groups.
+			type testInput struct {
+				name            string
+				restoreDuration time.Duration
+				expectedAlerts  []*Alert
 
-	// Prometheus goes down here. We create new rules and groups.
-	type testInput struct {
-		restoreDuration time.Duration
-		alerts          []*Alert
+				num          int
+				noRestore    bool
+				gracePeriod  bool
+				downDuration time.Duration
+				before       func()
+			}
 
-		num          int
-		noRestore    bool
-		gracePeriod  bool
-		downDuration time.Duration
-	}
+			tests := []testInput{
+				{
+					name:            "normal restore (alerts were not firing)",
+					restoreDuration: 15 * time.Minute,
+					expectedAlerts:  rule.ActiveAlerts(),
+					downDuration:    10 * time.Minute,
+				},
+				{
+					name:            "outage tolerance",
+					restoreDuration: 40 * time.Minute,
+					noRestore:       true,
+					num:             2,
+				},
+				{
+					name:            "no active alerts",
+					restoreDuration: 50 * time.Minute,
+					expectedAlerts:  []*Alert{},
+				},
+				{
+					name:            "test the grace period",
+					restoreDuration: 25 * time.Minute,
+					expectedAlerts:  []*Alert{},
+					gracePeriod:     true,
+					before: func() {
+						for _, duration := range []time.Duration{10 * time.Minute, 15 * time.Minute, 20 * time.Minute} {
+							evalTime := baseTime.Add(duration)
+							group.Eval(context.TODO(), evalTime)
+						}
+					},
+					num: 2,
+				},
+			}
 
-	tests := []testInput{
-		{
-			// Normal restore (alerts were not firing).
-			restoreDuration: 15 * time.Minute,
-			alerts:          rule.ActiveAlerts(),
-			downDuration:    10 * time.Minute,
-		},
-		{
-			// Testing Outage Tolerance.
-			restoreDuration: 40 * time.Minute,
-			noRestore:       true,
-			num:             2,
-		},
-		{
-			// No active alerts.
-			restoreDuration: 50 * time.Minute,
-			alerts:          []*Alert{},
-		},
-	}
+			for _, tt := range tests {
+				t.Run(tt.name, func(t *testing.T) {
+					if tt.before != nil {
+						tt.before()
+					}
 
-	testFunc := func(tst testInput) {
-		newRule := NewAlertingRule(
-			"HTTPRequestRateLow",
-			expr,
-			alertForDuration,
-			0,
-			labels.FromStrings("severity", "critical"),
-			labels.EmptyLabels(), labels.EmptyLabels(), "", false, nil,
-		)
-		newGroup := NewGroup(GroupOptions{
-			Name:          "default",
-			Interval:      time.Second,
-			Rules:         []Rule{newRule},
-			ShouldRestore: true,
-			Opts:          opts,
+					newRule := NewAlertingRule(
+						"HTTPRequestRateLow",
+						expr,
+						alertForDuration,
+						0,
+						labels.FromStrings("severity", "critical"),
+						labels.EmptyLabels(), labels.EmptyLabels(), "", false, nil,
+					)
+					newGroup := NewGroup(GroupOptions{
+						Name:          "default",
+						Interval:      time.Second,
+						Rules:         []Rule{newRule},
+						ShouldRestore: true,
+						Opts:          opts,
+						QueryOffset:   &queryOffset,
+					})
+
+					newGroups := make(map[string]*Group)
+					newGroups["default;"] = newGroup
+
+					restoreTime := baseTime.Add(tt.restoreDuration).Add(queryOffset)
+					// First eval before restoration.
+					newGroup.Eval(context.TODO(), restoreTime)
+					// Restore happens here.
+					newGroup.RestoreForState(restoreTime)
+
+					got := newRule.ActiveAlerts()
+					for _, aa := range got {
+						require.Zero(t, aa.Labels.Get(model.MetricNameLabel), "%s label set on active alert: %s", model.MetricNameLabel, aa.Labels)
+					}
+					sort.Slice(got, func(i, j int) bool {
+						return labels.Compare(got[i].Labels, got[j].Labels) < 0
+					})
+
+					// In all cases, we expect the restoration process to have completed.
+					require.Truef(t, newRule.Restored(), "expected the rule restoration process to have completed")
+
+					// Checking if we have restored it correctly.
+					switch {
+					case tt.noRestore:
+						require.Len(t, got, tt.num)
+						for _, e := range got {
+							require.Equal(t, e.ActiveAt, restoreTime)
+						}
+					case tt.gracePeriod:
+
+						require.Len(t, got, tt.num)
+						for _, e := range got {
+							require.Equal(t, opts.ForGracePeriod, e.ActiveAt.Add(alertForDuration).Sub(restoreTime))
+						}
+					default:
+						exp := tt.expectedAlerts
+						require.Equal(t, len(exp), len(got))
+						sortAlerts(exp)
+						sortAlerts(got)
+						for i, e := range exp {
+							require.Equal(t, e.Labels, got[i].Labels)
+
+							// Difference in time should be within 1e6 ns, i.e. 1ms
+							// (due to conversion between ns & ms, float64 & int64).
+							activeAtDiff := queryOffset.Seconds() + float64(e.ActiveAt.Unix()+int64(tt.downDuration/time.Second)-got[i].ActiveAt.Unix())
+							require.Equal(t, 0.0, math.Abs(activeAtDiff), "'for' state restored time is wrong")
+						}
+					}
+				})
+			}
 		})
-
-		newGroups := make(map[string]*Group)
-		newGroups["default;"] = newGroup
-
-		restoreTime := baseTime.Add(tst.restoreDuration)
-		// First eval before restoration.
-		newGroup.Eval(context.TODO(), restoreTime)
-		// Restore happens here.
-		newGroup.RestoreForState(restoreTime)
-
-		got := newRule.ActiveAlerts()
-		for _, aa := range got {
-			require.Zero(t, aa.Labels.Get(model.MetricNameLabel), "%s label set on active alert: %s", model.MetricNameLabel, aa.Labels)
-		}
-		sort.Slice(got, func(i, j int) bool {
-			return labels.Compare(got[i].Labels, got[j].Labels) < 0
-		})
-
-		// Checking if we have restored it correctly.
-		switch {
-		case tst.noRestore:
-			require.Len(t, got, tst.num)
-			for _, e := range got {
-				require.Equal(t, e.ActiveAt, restoreTime)
-			}
-		case tst.gracePeriod:
-			require.Len(t, got, tst.num)
-			for _, e := range got {
-				require.Equal(t, opts.ForGracePeriod, e.ActiveAt.Add(alertForDuration).Sub(restoreTime))
-			}
-		default:
-			exp := tst.alerts
-			require.Equal(t, len(exp), len(got))
-			sortAlerts(exp)
-			sortAlerts(got)
-			for i, e := range exp {
-				require.Equal(t, e.Labels, got[i].Labels)
-
-				// Difference in time should be within 1e6 ns, i.e. 1ms
-				// (due to conversion between ns & ms, float64 & int64).
-				activeAtDiff := float64(e.ActiveAt.Unix() + int64(tst.downDuration/time.Second) - got[i].ActiveAt.Unix())
-				require.Equal(t, 0.0, math.Abs(activeAtDiff), "'for' state restored time is wrong")
-			}
-		}
 	}
-
-	for _, tst := range tests {
-		testFunc(tst)
-	}
-
-	// Testing the grace period.
-	for _, duration := range []time.Duration{10 * time.Minute, 15 * time.Minute, 20 * time.Minute} {
-		evalTime := baseTime.Add(duration)
-		group.Eval(context.TODO(), evalTime)
-	}
-	testFunc(testInput{
-		restoreDuration: 25 * time.Minute,
-		alerts:          []*Alert{},
-		gracePeriod:     true,
-		num:             2,
-	})
 }
 
 func TestStaleness(t *testing.T) {
-	st := teststorage.New(t)
-	defer st.Close()
-	engineOpts := promql.EngineOpts{
-		Logger:     nil,
-		Reg:        nil,
-		MaxSamples: 10,
-		Timeout:    10 * time.Second,
+	for _, queryOffset := range []time.Duration{0, time.Minute} {
+		st := teststorage.New(t)
+		defer st.Close()
+		engineOpts := promql.EngineOpts{
+			Logger:     nil,
+			Reg:        nil,
+			MaxSamples: 10,
+			Timeout:    10 * time.Second,
+		}
+		engine := promql.NewEngine(engineOpts)
+		opts := &ManagerOptions{
+			QueryFunc:  EngineQueryFunc(engine, st),
+			Appendable: st,
+			Queryable:  st,
+			Context:    context.Background(),
+			Logger:     log.NewNopLogger(),
+		}
+
+		expr, err := parser.ParseExpr("a + 1")
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+		rule := NewRecordingRule("a_plus_one", expr, labels.Labels{})
+		group := NewGroup(GroupOptions{
+			Name:          "default",
+			Interval:      time.Second,
+			Rules:         []Rule{rule},
+			ShouldRestore: true,
+			Opts:          opts,
+			QueryOffset:   &queryOffset,
+		})
+
+		// A time series that has two samples and then goes stale.
+		app := st.Appender(context.Background())
+		app.Append(0, labels.FromStrings(model.MetricNameLabel, "a"), 0, 1)
+		app.Append(0, labels.FromStrings(model.MetricNameLabel, "a"), 1000, 2)
+		app.Append(0, labels.FromStrings(model.MetricNameLabel, "a"), 2000, math.Float64frombits(value.StaleNaN))
+
+		err = app.Commit()
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+
+		ctx := context.Background()
+
+		// Execute 3 times, 1 second apart.
+		group.Eval(ctx, time.Unix(0, 0).Add(queryOffset))
+		group.Eval(ctx, time.Unix(1, 0).Add(queryOffset))
+		group.Eval(ctx, time.Unix(2, 0).Add(queryOffset))
+
+		querier, err := st.Querier(0, 2000)
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+		defer querier.Close()
+
+		matcher, err := labels.NewMatcher(labels.MatchEqual, model.MetricNameLabel, "a_plus_one")
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+
+		set := querier.Select(ctx, false, nil, matcher)
+		samples, err := readSeriesSet(set)
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+
+		metric := labels.FromStrings(model.MetricNameLabel, "a_plus_one").String()
+		metricSample, ok := samples[metric]
+
+		require.True(t, ok, "Series %s not returned.", metric)
+		require.True(t, value.IsStaleNaN(metricSample[2].F), "Appended second sample not as expected. Wanted: stale NaN Got: %x", math.Float64bits(metricSample[2].F))
+		metricSample[2].F = 42 // require.Equal cannot handle NaN.
+
+		want := map[string][]promql.FPoint{
+			metric: {{T: 0, F: 2}, {T: 1000, F: 3}, {T: 2000, F: 42}},
+		}
+
+		require.Equal(t, want, samples)
 	}
-	engine := promql.NewEngine(engineOpts)
-	opts := &ManagerOptions{
-		QueryFunc:  EngineQueryFunc(engine, st),
-		Appendable: st,
-		Queryable:  st,
-		Context:    context.Background(),
-		Logger:     log.NewNopLogger(),
-	}
-
-	expr, err := parser.ParseExpr("a + 1")
-	require.NoError(t, err)
-	rule := NewRecordingRule("a_plus_one", expr, labels.Labels{})
-	group := NewGroup(GroupOptions{
-		Name:          "default",
-		Interval:      time.Second,
-		Rules:         []Rule{rule},
-		ShouldRestore: true,
-		Opts:          opts,
-	})
-
-	// A time series that has two samples and then goes stale.
-	app := st.Appender(context.Background())
-	app.Append(0, labels.FromStrings(model.MetricNameLabel, "a"), 0, 1)
-	app.Append(0, labels.FromStrings(model.MetricNameLabel, "a"), 1000, 2)
-	app.Append(0, labels.FromStrings(model.MetricNameLabel, "a"), 2000, math.Float64frombits(value.StaleNaN))
-
-	err = app.Commit()
-	require.NoError(t, err)
-
-	ctx := context.Background()
-
-	// Execute 3 times, 1 second apart.
-	group.Eval(ctx, time.Unix(0, 0))
-	group.Eval(ctx, time.Unix(1, 0))
-	group.Eval(ctx, time.Unix(2, 0))
-
-	querier, err := st.Querier(0, 2000)
-	require.NoError(t, err)
-	defer querier.Close()
-
-	matcher, err := labels.NewMatcher(labels.MatchEqual, model.MetricNameLabel, "a_plus_one")
-	require.NoError(t, err)
-
-	set := querier.Select(ctx, false, nil, matcher)
-	samples, err := readSeriesSet(set)
-	require.NoError(t, err)
-
-	metric := labels.FromStrings(model.MetricNameLabel, "a_plus_one").String()
-	metricSample, ok := samples[metric]
-
-	require.True(t, ok, "Series %s not returned.", metric)
-	require.True(t, value.IsStaleNaN(metricSample[2].F), "Appended second sample not as expected. Wanted: stale NaN Got: %x", math.Float64bits(metricSample[2].F))
-	metricSample[2].F = 42 // require.Equal cannot handle NaN.
-
-	want := map[string][]promql.FPoint{
-		metric: {{T: 0, F: 2}, {T: 1000, F: 3}, {T: 2000, F: 42}},
-	}
-
-	require.Equal(t, want, samples)
 }
 
 // Convert a SeriesSet into a form usable with require.Equal.
@@ -606,6 +623,46 @@ func readSeriesSet(ss storage.SeriesSet) (map[string][]promql.FPoint, error) {
 	return result, ss.Err()
 }
 
+func TestGroup_QueryOffset(t *testing.T) {
+	config := `
+groups:
+  - name: group1
+    query_offset: 2m
+  - name: group2
+    query_offset: 0s
+  - name: group3
+`
+
+	dir := t.TempDir()
+	fname := path.Join(dir, "rules.yaml")
+	err := os.WriteFile(fname, []byte(config), fs.ModePerm)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	m := NewManager(&ManagerOptions{
+		Logger: log.NewNopLogger(),
+		DefaultRuleQueryOffset: func() time.Duration {
+			return time.Minute
+		},
+	})
+	m.start()
+	err = m.Update(time.Second, []string{fname}, labels.EmptyLabels(), "", nil)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	rgs := m.RuleGroups()
+	sort.Slice(rgs, func(i, j int) bool {
+		return rgs[i].Name() < rgs[j].Name()
+	})
+
+	// From config.
+	require.Equal(t, 2*time.Minute, rgs[0].QueryOffset())
+	// Setting 0 in config is detected.
+	require.Equal(t, time.Duration(0), rgs[1].QueryOffset())
+	// Default when nothing is set.
+	require.Equal(t, time.Minute, rgs[2].QueryOffset())
+
+	m.Stop()
+}
+
 func TestCopyState(t *testing.T) {
 	oldGroup := &Group{
 		rules: []Rule{
@@ -1231,7 +1288,7 @@ func TestRuleHealthUpdates(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestRuleGroupEvalIterationFunc(t *testing.T) {
-	storage := promql.LoadedStorage(t, `
+	storage := promqltest.LoadedStorage(t, `
 		load 5m
 		http_requests{instance="0"}	75  85 50 0 0 25 0 0 40 0 120
 	`)
@@ -1359,7 +1416,7 @@ func TestNativeHistogramsInRecordingRules(t *testing.T) {
 	ts := time.Now()
 	app := db.Appender(context.Background())
 	for i, h := range hists {
-		l := labels.FromStrings("__name__", "histogram_metric", "idx", fmt.Sprintf("%d", i))
+		l := labels.FromStrings("__name__", "histogram_metric", "idx", strconv.Itoa(i))
 		_, err := app.AppendHistogram(0, l, ts.UnixMilli(), h.Copy(), nil)
 		require.NoError(t, err)
 	}
@@ -1398,7 +1455,8 @@ func TestNativeHistogramsInRecordingRules(t *testing.T) {
 
 	expHist := hists[0].ToFloat(nil)
 	for _, h := range hists[1:] {
-		expHist = expHist.Add(h.ToFloat(nil))
+		expHist, err = expHist.Add(h.ToFloat(nil))
+		require.NoError(t, err)
 	}
 
 	it := s.Iterator(nil)
@@ -1853,18 +1911,12 @@ func TestDependencyMapUpdatesOnGroupUpdate(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestAsyncRuleEvaluation(t *testing.T) {
-	storage := teststorage.New(t)
-	t.Cleanup(func() { storage.Close() })
-
-	var (
-		inflightQueries atomic.Int32
-		maxInflight     atomic.Int32
-	)
-
 	t.Run("synchronous evaluation with independent rules", func(t *testing.T) {
-		// Reset.
-		inflightQueries.Store(0)
-		maxInflight.Store(0)
+		t.Parallel()
+		storage := teststorage.New(t)
+		t.Cleanup(func() { storage.Close() })
+		inflightQueries := atomic.Int32{}
+		maxInflight := atomic.Int32{}
 
 		ctx, cancel := context.WithCancel(context.Background())
 		t.Cleanup(cancel)
@@ -1892,9 +1944,11 @@ func TestAsyncRuleEvaluation(t *testing.T) {
 	})
 
 	t.Run("asynchronous evaluation with independent and dependent rules", func(t *testing.T) {
-		// Reset.
-		inflightQueries.Store(0)
-		maxInflight.Store(0)
+		t.Parallel()
+		storage := teststorage.New(t)
+		t.Cleanup(func() { storage.Close() })
+		inflightQueries := atomic.Int32{}
+		maxInflight := atomic.Int32{}
 
 		ctx, cancel := context.WithCancel(context.Background())
 		t.Cleanup(cancel)
@@ -1928,9 +1982,11 @@ func TestAsyncRuleEvaluation(t *testing.T) {
 	})
 
 	t.Run("asynchronous evaluation of all independent rules, insufficient concurrency", func(t *testing.T) {
-		// Reset.
-		inflightQueries.Store(0)
-		maxInflight.Store(0)
+		t.Parallel()
+		storage := teststorage.New(t)
+		t.Cleanup(func() { storage.Close() })
+		inflightQueries := atomic.Int32{}
+		maxInflight := atomic.Int32{}
 
 		ctx, cancel := context.WithCancel(context.Background())
 		t.Cleanup(cancel)
@@ -1964,9 +2020,11 @@ func TestAsyncRuleEvaluation(t *testing.T) {
 	})
 
 	t.Run("asynchronous evaluation of all independent rules, sufficient concurrency", func(t *testing.T) {
-		// Reset.
-		inflightQueries.Store(0)
-		maxInflight.Store(0)
+		t.Parallel()
+		storage := teststorage.New(t)
+		t.Cleanup(func() { storage.Close() })
+		inflightQueries := atomic.Int32{}
+		maxInflight := atomic.Int32{}
 
 		ctx, cancel := context.WithCancel(context.Background())
 		t.Cleanup(cancel)
@@ -2041,7 +2099,24 @@ func TestBoundedRuleEvalConcurrency(t *testing.T) {
 	require.EqualValues(t, maxInflight.Load(), int32(maxConcurrency)+int32(groupCount))
 }
 
-const artificialDelay = 10 * time.Millisecond
+func TestUpdateWhenStopped(t *testing.T) {
+	files := []string{"fixtures/rules.yaml"}
+	ruleManager := NewManager(&ManagerOptions{
+		Context: context.Background(),
+		Logger:  log.NewNopLogger(),
+	})
+	ruleManager.start()
+	err := ruleManager.Update(10*time.Second, files, labels.EmptyLabels(), "", nil)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	require.NotEmpty(t, ruleManager.groups)
+
+	ruleManager.Stop()
+	// Updates following a stop are no-op.
+	err = ruleManager.Update(10*time.Second, []string{}, labels.EmptyLabels(), "", nil)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+}
+
+const artificialDelay = 250 * time.Millisecond
 
 func optsFactory(storage storage.Storage, maxInflight, inflightQueries *atomic.Int32, maxConcurrent int64) *ManagerOptions {
 	var inflightMu sync.Mutex
diff --git a/rules/origin_test.go b/rules/origin_test.go
index ca466301dd..75c83f9a4e 100644
--- a/rules/origin_test.go
+++ b/rules/origin_test.go
@@ -31,7 +31,7 @@ type unknownRule struct{}
 
 func (u unknownRule) Name() string          { return "" }
 func (u unknownRule) Labels() labels.Labels { return labels.EmptyLabels() }
-func (u unknownRule) Eval(context.Context, time.Time, QueryFunc, *url.URL, int) (promql.Vector, error) {
+func (u unknownRule) Eval(context.Context, time.Duration, time.Time, QueryFunc, *url.URL, int) (promql.Vector, error) {
 	return nil, nil
 }
 func (u unknownRule) String() string                       { return "" }
diff --git a/rules/recording.go b/rules/recording.go
index e2b0a31a03..17a75fdd1a 100644
--- a/rules/recording.go
+++ b/rules/recording.go
@@ -77,10 +77,9 @@ func (rule *RecordingRule) Labels() labels.Labels {
 }
 
 // Eval evaluates the rule and then overrides the metric names and labels accordingly.
-func (rule *RecordingRule) Eval(ctx context.Context, ts time.Time, query QueryFunc, _ *url.URL, limit int) (promql.Vector, error) {
+func (rule *RecordingRule) Eval(ctx context.Context, queryOffset time.Duration, ts time.Time, query QueryFunc, _ *url.URL, limit int) (promql.Vector, error) {
 	ctx = NewOriginContext(ctx, NewRuleDetail(rule))
-
-	vector, err := query(ctx, rule.vector.String(), ts)
+	vector, err := query(ctx, rule.vector.String(), ts.Add(-queryOffset))
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, err
 	}
diff --git a/rules/recording_test.go b/rules/recording_test.go
index 24b7d65390..fdddd4e02e 100644
--- a/rules/recording_test.go
+++ b/rules/recording_test.go
@@ -24,6 +24,7 @@ import (
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/timestamp"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/promql"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/promql/parser"
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/promql/promqltest"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/util/teststorage"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/util/testutil"
 )
@@ -111,7 +112,7 @@ var ruleEvalTestScenarios = []struct {
 }
 
 func setUpRuleEvalTest(t require.TestingT) *teststorage.TestStorage {
-	return promql.LoadedStorage(t, `
+	return promqltest.LoadedStorage(t, `
 		load 1m
 			metric{label_a="1",label_b="3"} 1
 			metric{label_a="2",label_b="4"} 10
@@ -125,7 +126,7 @@ func TestRuleEval(t *testing.T) {
 	for _, scenario := range ruleEvalTestScenarios {
 		t.Run(scenario.name, func(t *testing.T) {
 			rule := NewRecordingRule("test_rule", scenario.expr, scenario.ruleLabels)
-			result, err := rule.Eval(context.TODO(), ruleEvaluationTime, EngineQueryFunc(testEngine, storage), nil, 0)
+			result, err := rule.Eval(context.TODO(), 0, ruleEvaluationTime, EngineQueryFunc(testEngine, storage), nil, 0)
 			require.NoError(t, err)
 			testutil.RequireEqual(t, scenario.expected, result)
 		})
@@ -143,7 +144,7 @@ func BenchmarkRuleEval(b *testing.B) {
 			b.ResetTimer()
 
 			for i := 0; i < b.N; i++ {
-				_, err := rule.Eval(context.TODO(), ruleEvaluationTime, EngineQueryFunc(testEngine, storage), nil, 0)
+				_, err := rule.Eval(context.TODO(), 0, ruleEvaluationTime, EngineQueryFunc(testEngine, storage), nil, 0)
 				if err != nil {
 					require.NoError(b, err)
 				}
@@ -172,13 +173,13 @@ func TestRuleEvalDuplicate(t *testing.T) {
 
 	expr, _ := parser.ParseExpr(`vector(0) or label_replace(vector(0),"test","x","","")`)
 	rule := NewRecordingRule("foo", expr, labels.FromStrings("test", "test"))
-	_, err := rule.Eval(ctx, now, EngineQueryFunc(engine, storage), nil, 0)
+	_, err := rule.Eval(ctx, 0, now, EngineQueryFunc(engine, storage), nil, 0)
 	require.Error(t, err)
 	require.EqualError(t, err, "vector contains metrics with the same labelset after applying rule labels")
 }
 
 func TestRecordingRuleLimit(t *testing.T) {
-	storage := promql.LoadedStorage(t, `
+	storage := promqltest.LoadedStorage(t, `
 		load 1m
 			metric{label="1"} 1
 			metric{label="2"} 1
@@ -214,7 +215,7 @@ func TestRecordingRuleLimit(t *testing.T) {
 	evalTime := time.Unix(0, 0)
 
 	for _, test := range tests {
-		switch _, err := rule.Eval(context.TODO(), evalTime, EngineQueryFunc(testEngine, storage), nil, test.limit); {
+		switch _, err := rule.Eval(context.TODO(), 0, evalTime, EngineQueryFunc(testEngine, storage), nil, test.limit); {
 		case err != nil:
 			require.EqualError(t, err, test.err)
 		case test.err != "":
@@ -242,7 +243,7 @@ func TestRecordingEvalWithOrigin(t *testing.T) {
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 
 	rule := NewRecordingRule(name, expr, lbs)
-	_, err = rule.Eval(ctx, now, func(ctx context.Context, qs string, _ time.Time) (promql.Vector, error) {
+	_, err = rule.Eval(ctx, 0, now, func(ctx context.Context, qs string, _ time.Time) (promql.Vector, error) {
 		detail = FromOriginContext(ctx)
 		return nil, nil
 	}, nil, 0)
diff --git a/rules/rule.go b/rules/rule.go
index 59af3e0bba..687c03d000 100644
--- a/rules/rule.go
+++ b/rules/rule.go
@@ -40,7 +40,7 @@ type Rule interface {
 	// Labels of the rule.
 	Labels() labels.Labels
 	// Eval evaluates the rule, including any associated recording or alerting actions.
-	Eval(context.Context, time.Time, QueryFunc, *url.URL, int) (promql.Vector, error)
+	Eval(ctx context.Context, queryOffset time.Duration, evaluationTime time.Time, queryFunc QueryFunc, externalURL *url.URL, limit int) (promql.Vector, error)
 	// String returns a human-readable string representation of the rule.
 	String() string
 	// Query returns the rule query expression.
diff --git a/scrape/manager.go b/scrape/manager.go
index a7a8b828e5..156e949f83 100644
--- a/scrape/manager.go
+++ b/scrape/manager.go
@@ -73,14 +73,18 @@ type Options struct {
 	// Option used by downstream scraper users like OpenTelemetry Collector
 	// to help lookup metric metadata. Should be false for Prometheus.
 	PassMetadataInContext bool
-	// Option to enable the experimental in-memory metadata storage and append
-	// metadata to the WAL.
-	EnableMetadataStorage bool
+	// Option to enable appending of scraped Metadata to the TSDB/other appenders. Individual appenders
+	// can decide what to do with metadata, but for practical purposes this flag exists so that metadata
+	// can be written to the WAL and thus read for remote write.
+	// TODO: implement some form of metadata storage
+	AppendMetadata bool
 	// Option to increase the interval used by scrape manager to throttle target groups updates.
 	DiscoveryReloadInterval model.Duration
 	// Option to enable the ingestion of the created timestamp as a synthetic zero sample.
 	// See: https://github.com/prometheus/proposals/blob/main/proposals/2023-06-13_created-timestamp.md
 	EnableCreatedTimestampZeroIngestion bool
+	// Option to enable the ingestion of native histograms.
+	EnableNativeHistogramsIngestion bool
 
 	// Optional HTTP client options to use when scraping.
 	HTTPClientOptions []config_util.HTTPClientOption
diff --git a/scrape/metrics.go b/scrape/metrics.go
index b67d0686b6..e7395c6191 100644
--- a/scrape/metrics.go
+++ b/scrape/metrics.go
@@ -34,6 +34,7 @@ type scrapeMetrics struct {
 	targetScrapePoolExceededTargetLimit prometheus.Counter
 	targetScrapePoolTargetLimit         *prometheus.GaugeVec
 	targetScrapePoolTargetsAdded        *prometheus.GaugeVec
+	targetScrapePoolSymbolTableItems    *prometheus.GaugeVec
 	targetSyncIntervalLength            *prometheus.SummaryVec
 	targetSyncFailed                    *prometheus.CounterVec
 
@@ -129,6 +130,13 @@ func newScrapeMetrics(reg prometheus.Registerer) (*scrapeMetrics, error) {
 		},
 		[]string{"scrape_job"},
 	)
+	sm.targetScrapePoolSymbolTableItems = prometheus.NewGaugeVec(
+		prometheus.GaugeOpts{
+			Name: "prometheus_target_scrape_pool_symboltable_items",
+			Help: "Current number of symbols in table for this scrape pool.",
+		},
+		[]string{"scrape_job"},
+	)
 	sm.targetScrapePoolSyncsCounter = prometheus.NewCounterVec(
 		prometheus.CounterOpts{
 			Name: "prometheus_target_scrape_pool_sync_total",
@@ -234,6 +242,7 @@ func newScrapeMetrics(reg prometheus.Registerer) (*scrapeMetrics, error) {
 		sm.targetScrapePoolExceededTargetLimit,
 		sm.targetScrapePoolTargetLimit,
 		sm.targetScrapePoolTargetsAdded,
+		sm.targetScrapePoolSymbolTableItems,
 		sm.targetSyncFailed,
 		// Used by targetScraper.
 		sm.targetScrapeExceededBodySizeLimit,
@@ -274,6 +283,7 @@ func (sm *scrapeMetrics) Unregister() {
 	sm.reg.Unregister(sm.targetScrapePoolExceededTargetLimit)
 	sm.reg.Unregister(sm.targetScrapePoolTargetLimit)
 	sm.reg.Unregister(sm.targetScrapePoolTargetsAdded)
+	sm.reg.Unregister(sm.targetScrapePoolSymbolTableItems)
 	sm.reg.Unregister(sm.targetSyncFailed)
 	sm.reg.Unregister(sm.targetScrapeExceededBodySizeLimit)
 	sm.reg.Unregister(sm.targetScrapeCacheFlushForced)
diff --git a/scrape/scrape.go b/scrape/scrape.go
index 4bbeab57a7..68411a62e0 100644
--- a/scrape/scrape.go
+++ b/scrape/scrape.go
@@ -178,9 +178,10 @@ func newScrapePool(cfg *config.ScrapeConfig, app storage.Appendable, offsetSeed
 			opts.interval,
 			opts.timeout,
 			opts.scrapeClassicHistograms,
+			options.EnableNativeHistogramsIngestion,
 			options.EnableCreatedTimestampZeroIngestion,
 			options.ExtraMetrics,
-			options.EnableMetadataStorage,
+			options.AppendMetadata,
 			opts.target,
 			options.PassMetadataInContext,
 			metrics,
@@ -245,6 +246,7 @@ func (sp *scrapePool) stop() {
 		sp.metrics.targetScrapePoolSyncsCounter.DeleteLabelValues(sp.config.JobName)
 		sp.metrics.targetScrapePoolTargetLimit.DeleteLabelValues(sp.config.JobName)
 		sp.metrics.targetScrapePoolTargetsAdded.DeleteLabelValues(sp.config.JobName)
+		sp.metrics.targetScrapePoolSymbolTableItems.DeleteLabelValues(sp.config.JobName)
 		sp.metrics.targetSyncIntervalLength.DeleteLabelValues(sp.config.JobName)
 		sp.metrics.targetSyncFailed.DeleteLabelValues(sp.config.JobName)
 	}
@@ -272,6 +274,15 @@ func (sp *scrapePool) reload(cfg *config.ScrapeConfig) error {
 
 	sp.metrics.targetScrapePoolTargetLimit.WithLabelValues(sp.config.JobName).Set(float64(sp.config.TargetLimit))
 
+	sp.restartLoops(reuseCache)
+	oldClient.CloseIdleConnections()
+	sp.metrics.targetReloadIntervalLength.WithLabelValues(time.Duration(sp.config.ScrapeInterval).String()).Observe(
+		time.Since(start).Seconds(),
+	)
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (sp *scrapePool) restartLoops(reuseCache bool) {
 	var (
 		wg            sync.WaitGroup
 		interval      = time.Duration(sp.config.ScrapeInterval)
@@ -312,7 +323,7 @@ func (sp *scrapePool) reload(cfg *config.ScrapeConfig) error {
 				client:               sp.client,
 				timeout:              timeout,
 				bodySizeLimit:        bodySizeLimit,
-				acceptHeader:         acceptHeader(cfg.ScrapeProtocols),
+				acceptHeader:         acceptHeader(sp.config.ScrapeProtocols),
 				acceptEncodingHeader: acceptEncodingHeader(enableCompression),
 			}
 			newLoop = sp.newLoop(scrapeLoopOptions{
@@ -351,11 +362,10 @@ func (sp *scrapePool) reload(cfg *config.ScrapeConfig) error {
 	sp.targetMtx.Unlock()
 
 	wg.Wait()
-	oldClient.CloseIdleConnections()
-	sp.metrics.targetReloadIntervalLength.WithLabelValues(interval.String()).Observe(
-		time.Since(start).Seconds(),
-	)
+}
 
+// Must be called with sp.mtx held.
+func (sp *scrapePool) checkSymbolTable() {
 	// Here we take steps to clear out the symbol table if it has grown a lot.
 	// After waiting some time for things to settle, we take the size of the symbol-table.
 	// If, after some more time, the table has grown to twice that size, we start a new one.
@@ -366,11 +376,10 @@ func (sp *scrapePool) reload(cfg *config.ScrapeConfig) error {
 		} else if sp.symbolTable.Len() > 2*sp.initialSymbolTableLen {
 			sp.symbolTable = labels.NewSymbolTable()
 			sp.initialSymbolTableLen = 0
+			sp.restartLoops(false) // To drop all caches.
 		}
 		sp.lastSymbolTableCheck = time.Now()
 	}
-
-	return nil
 }
 
 // Sync converts target groups into actual scrape targets and synchronizes
@@ -407,8 +416,10 @@ func (sp *scrapePool) Sync(tgs []*targetgroup.Group) {
 			}
 		}
 	}
+	sp.metrics.targetScrapePoolSymbolTableItems.WithLabelValues(sp.config.JobName).Set(float64(sp.symbolTable.Len()))
 	sp.targetMtx.Unlock()
 	sp.sync(all)
+	sp.checkSymbolTable()
 
 	sp.metrics.targetSyncIntervalLength.WithLabelValues(sp.config.JobName).Observe(
 		time.Since(start).Seconds(),
@@ -662,7 +673,7 @@ func appender(app storage.Appender, sampleLimit, bucketLimit int, maxSchema int3
 		}
 	}
 
-	if maxSchema < nativeHistogramMaxSchema {
+	if maxSchema < histogram.ExponentialSchemaMax {
 		app = &maxSchemaAppender{
 			Appender:  app,
 			maxSchema: maxSchema,
@@ -827,7 +838,10 @@ type scrapeLoop struct {
 	interval                 time.Duration
 	timeout                  time.Duration
 	scrapeClassicHistograms  bool
-	enableCTZeroIngestion    bool
+
+	// Feature flagged options.
+	enableNativeHistogramIngestion bool
+	enableCTZeroIngestion          bool
 
 	appender            func(ctx context.Context) storage.Appender
 	symbolTable         *labels.SymbolTable
@@ -1123,6 +1137,7 @@ func newScrapeLoop(ctx context.Context,
 	interval time.Duration,
 	timeout time.Duration,
 	scrapeClassicHistograms bool,
+	enableNativeHistogramIngestion bool,
 	enableCTZeroIngestion bool,
 	reportExtraMetrics bool,
 	appendMetadataToWAL bool,
@@ -1153,33 +1168,34 @@ func newScrapeLoop(ctx context.Context,
 	}
 
 	sl := &scrapeLoop{
-		scraper:                  sc,
-		buffers:                  buffers,
-		cache:                    cache,
-		appender:                 appender,
-		symbolTable:              symbolTable,
-		sampleMutator:            sampleMutator,
-		reportSampleMutator:      reportSampleMutator,
-		stopped:                  make(chan struct{}),
-		offsetSeed:               offsetSeed,
-		l:                        l,
-		parentCtx:                ctx,
-		appenderCtx:              appenderCtx,
-		honorTimestamps:          honorTimestamps,
-		trackTimestampsStaleness: trackTimestampsStaleness,
-		enableCompression:        enableCompression,
-		sampleLimit:              sampleLimit,
-		bucketLimit:              bucketLimit,
-		maxSchema:                maxSchema,
-		labelLimits:              labelLimits,
-		interval:                 interval,
-		timeout:                  timeout,
-		scrapeClassicHistograms:  scrapeClassicHistograms,
-		enableCTZeroIngestion:    enableCTZeroIngestion,
-		reportExtraMetrics:       reportExtraMetrics,
-		appendMetadataToWAL:      appendMetadataToWAL,
-		metrics:                  metrics,
-		skipOffsetting:           skipOffsetting,
+		scraper:                        sc,
+		buffers:                        buffers,
+		cache:                          cache,
+		appender:                       appender,
+		symbolTable:                    symbolTable,
+		sampleMutator:                  sampleMutator,
+		reportSampleMutator:            reportSampleMutator,
+		stopped:                        make(chan struct{}),
+		offsetSeed:                     offsetSeed,
+		l:                              l,
+		parentCtx:                      ctx,
+		appenderCtx:                    appenderCtx,
+		honorTimestamps:                honorTimestamps,
+		trackTimestampsStaleness:       trackTimestampsStaleness,
+		enableCompression:              enableCompression,
+		sampleLimit:                    sampleLimit,
+		bucketLimit:                    bucketLimit,
+		maxSchema:                      maxSchema,
+		labelLimits:                    labelLimits,
+		interval:                       interval,
+		timeout:                        timeout,
+		scrapeClassicHistograms:        scrapeClassicHistograms,
+		enableNativeHistogramIngestion: enableNativeHistogramIngestion,
+		enableCTZeroIngestion:          enableCTZeroIngestion,
+		reportExtraMetrics:             reportExtraMetrics,
+		appendMetadataToWAL:            appendMetadataToWAL,
+		metrics:                        metrics,
+		skipOffsetting:                 skipOffsetting,
 	}
 	sl.ctx, sl.cancel = context.WithCancel(ctx)
 
@@ -1627,7 +1643,7 @@ loop:
 				}
 			}
 
-			if isHistogram {
+			if isHistogram && sl.enableNativeHistogramIngestion {
 				if h != nil {
 					ref, err = app.AppendHistogram(ref, lset, t, h, nil)
 				} else {
@@ -1972,10 +1988,10 @@ func pickSchema(bucketFactor float64) int32 {
 	}
 	floor := math.Floor(-math.Log2(math.Log2(bucketFactor)))
 	switch {
-	case floor >= float64(nativeHistogramMaxSchema):
-		return nativeHistogramMaxSchema
-	case floor <= float64(nativeHistogramMinSchema):
-		return nativeHistogramMinSchema
+	case floor >= float64(histogram.ExponentialSchemaMax):
+		return histogram.ExponentialSchemaMax
+	case floor <= float64(histogram.ExponentialSchemaMin):
+		return histogram.ExponentialSchemaMin
 	default:
 		return int32(floor)
 	}
diff --git a/scrape/scrape_test.go b/scrape/scrape_test.go
index 20b21936b9..a3fe6ac1a5 100644
--- a/scrape/scrape_test.go
+++ b/scrape/scrape_test.go
@@ -511,7 +511,7 @@ func TestScrapePoolAppender(t *testing.T) {
 	appl, ok := loop.(*scrapeLoop)
 	require.True(t, ok, "Expected scrapeLoop but got %T", loop)
 
-	wrapped := appender(appl.appender(context.Background()), 0, 0, nativeHistogramMaxSchema)
+	wrapped := appender(appl.appender(context.Background()), 0, 0, histogram.ExponentialSchemaMax)
 
 	tl, ok := wrapped.(*timeLimitAppender)
 	require.True(t, ok, "Expected timeLimitAppender but got %T", wrapped)
@@ -527,7 +527,7 @@ func TestScrapePoolAppender(t *testing.T) {
 	appl, ok = loop.(*scrapeLoop)
 	require.True(t, ok, "Expected scrapeLoop but got %T", loop)
 
-	wrapped = appender(appl.appender(context.Background()), sampleLimit, 0, nativeHistogramMaxSchema)
+	wrapped = appender(appl.appender(context.Background()), sampleLimit, 0, histogram.ExponentialSchemaMax)
 
 	sl, ok := wrapped.(*limitAppender)
 	require.True(t, ok, "Expected limitAppender but got %T", wrapped)
@@ -538,7 +538,7 @@ func TestScrapePoolAppender(t *testing.T) {
 	_, ok = tl.Appender.(nopAppender)
 	require.True(t, ok, "Expected base appender but got %T", tl.Appender)
 
-	wrapped = appender(appl.appender(context.Background()), sampleLimit, 100, nativeHistogramMaxSchema)
+	wrapped = appender(appl.appender(context.Background()), sampleLimit, 100, histogram.ExponentialSchemaMax)
 
 	bl, ok := wrapped.(*bucketLimitAppender)
 	require.True(t, ok, "Expected bucketLimitAppender but got %T", wrapped)
@@ -670,7 +670,7 @@ func newBasicScrapeLoop(t testing.TB, ctx context.Context, scraper scraper, app
 		true,
 		false,
 		true,
-		0, 0, nativeHistogramMaxSchema,
+		0, 0, histogram.ExponentialSchemaMax,
 		nil,
 		interval,
 		time.Hour,
@@ -678,6 +678,7 @@ func newBasicScrapeLoop(t testing.TB, ctx context.Context, scraper scraper, app
 		false,
 		false,
 		false,
+		false,
 		nil,
 		false,
 		newTestScrapeMetrics(t),
@@ -811,7 +812,7 @@ func TestScrapeLoopRun(t *testing.T) {
 		true,
 		false,
 		true,
-		0, 0, nativeHistogramMaxSchema,
+		0, 0, histogram.ExponentialSchemaMax,
 		nil,
 		time.Second,
 		time.Hour,
@@ -819,6 +820,7 @@ func TestScrapeLoopRun(t *testing.T) {
 		false,
 		false,
 		false,
+		false,
 		nil,
 		false,
 		scrapeMetrics,
@@ -954,7 +956,7 @@ func TestScrapeLoopMetadata(t *testing.T) {
 		true,
 		false,
 		true,
-		0, 0, nativeHistogramMaxSchema,
+		0, 0, histogram.ExponentialSchemaMax,
 		nil,
 		0,
 		0,
@@ -962,6 +964,7 @@ func TestScrapeLoopMetadata(t *testing.T) {
 		false,
 		false,
 		false,
+		false,
 		nil,
 		false,
 		scrapeMetrics,
@@ -1282,7 +1285,7 @@ func TestScrapeLoopCacheMemoryExhaustionProtection(t *testing.T) {
 			for i := 0; i < 500; i++ {
 				s = fmt.Sprintf("%smetric_%d_%d 42\n", s, i, numScrapes)
 			}
-			w.Write([]byte(fmt.Sprintf(s + "&")))
+			w.Write([]byte(s + "&"))
 		} else {
 			cancel()
 		}
@@ -1571,6 +1574,7 @@ func TestScrapeLoop_HistogramBucketLimit(t *testing.T) {
 	app := &bucketLimitAppender{Appender: resApp, limit: 2}
 
 	sl := newBasicScrapeLoop(t, context.Background(), nil, func(ctx context.Context) storage.Appender { return app }, 0)
+	sl.enableNativeHistogramIngestion = true
 	sl.sampleMutator = func(l labels.Labels) labels.Labels {
 		if l.Has("deleteme") {
 			return labels.EmptyLabels()
@@ -1797,14 +1801,15 @@ func TestScrapeLoopAppendStalenessIfTrackTimestampStaleness(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestScrapeLoopAppendExemplar(t *testing.T) {
 	tests := []struct {
-		title                   string
-		scrapeClassicHistograms bool
-		scrapeText              string
-		contentType             string
-		discoveryLabels         []string
-		floats                  []floatSample
-		histograms              []histogramSample
-		exemplars               []exemplar.Exemplar
+		title                           string
+		scrapeClassicHistograms         bool
+		enableNativeHistogramsIngestion bool
+		scrapeText                      string
+		contentType                     string
+		discoveryLabels                 []string
+		floats                          []floatSample
+		histograms                      []histogramSample
+		exemplars                       []exemplar.Exemplar
 	}{
 		{
 			title:           "Metric without exemplars",
@@ -1862,6 +1867,8 @@ metric_total{n="2"} 2 # {t="2"} 2.0 20000
 		},
 		{
 			title: "Native histogram with three exemplars",
+
+			enableNativeHistogramsIngestion: true,
 			scrapeText: `name: "test_histogram"
 help: "Test histogram with many buckets removed to keep it manageable in size."
 type: HISTOGRAM
@@ -1976,6 +1983,8 @@ metric: <
 		},
 		{
 			title: "Native histogram with three exemplars scraped as classic histogram",
+
+			enableNativeHistogramsIngestion: true,
 			scrapeText: `name: "test_histogram"
 help: "Test histogram with many buckets removed to keep it manageable in size."
 type: HISTOGRAM
@@ -2115,6 +2124,7 @@ metric: <
 			}
 
 			sl := newBasicScrapeLoop(t, context.Background(), nil, func(ctx context.Context) storage.Appender { return app }, 0)
+			sl.enableNativeHistogramIngestion = test.enableNativeHistogramsIngestion
 			sl.sampleMutator = func(l labels.Labels) labels.Labels {
 				return mutateSampleLabels(l, discoveryLabels, false, nil)
 			}
@@ -3710,7 +3720,7 @@ scrape_configs:
 	s.DB.EnableNativeHistograms()
 	reg := prometheus.NewRegistry()
 
-	mng, err := NewManager(nil, nil, s, reg)
+	mng, err := NewManager(&Options{EnableNativeHistogramsIngestion: true}, nil, s, reg)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	cfg, err := config.Load(configStr, false, log.NewNopLogger())
 	require.NoError(t, err)
diff --git a/scrape/target.go b/scrape/target.go
index ad4b4f6857..9ef4471fbd 100644
--- a/scrape/target.go
+++ b/scrape/target.go
@@ -365,16 +365,26 @@ type bucketLimitAppender struct {
 
 func (app *bucketLimitAppender) AppendHistogram(ref storage.SeriesRef, lset labels.Labels, t int64, h *histogram.Histogram, fh *histogram.FloatHistogram) (storage.SeriesRef, error) {
 	if h != nil {
+		// Return with an early error if the histogram has too many buckets and the
+		// schema is not exponential, in which case we can't reduce the resolution.
+		if len(h.PositiveBuckets)+len(h.NegativeBuckets) > app.limit && !histogram.IsExponentialSchema(h.Schema) {
+			return 0, errBucketLimit
+		}
 		for len(h.PositiveBuckets)+len(h.NegativeBuckets) > app.limit {
-			if h.Schema == -4 {
+			if h.Schema <= histogram.ExponentialSchemaMin {
 				return 0, errBucketLimit
 			}
 			h = h.ReduceResolution(h.Schema - 1)
 		}
 	}
 	if fh != nil {
+		// Return with an early error if the histogram has too many buckets and the
+		// schema is not exponential, in which case we can't reduce the resolution.
+		if len(fh.PositiveBuckets)+len(fh.NegativeBuckets) > app.limit && !histogram.IsExponentialSchema(fh.Schema) {
+			return 0, errBucketLimit
+		}
 		for len(fh.PositiveBuckets)+len(fh.NegativeBuckets) > app.limit {
-			if fh.Schema == -4 {
+			if fh.Schema <= histogram.ExponentialSchemaMin {
 				return 0, errBucketLimit
 			}
 			fh = fh.ReduceResolution(fh.Schema - 1)
@@ -387,11 +397,6 @@ func (app *bucketLimitAppender) AppendHistogram(ref storage.SeriesRef, lset labe
 	return ref, nil
 }
 
-const (
-	nativeHistogramMaxSchema int32 = 8
-	nativeHistogramMinSchema int32 = -4
-)
-
 type maxSchemaAppender struct {
 	storage.Appender
 
@@ -400,12 +405,12 @@ type maxSchemaAppender struct {
 
 func (app *maxSchemaAppender) AppendHistogram(ref storage.SeriesRef, lset labels.Labels, t int64, h *histogram.Histogram, fh *histogram.FloatHistogram) (storage.SeriesRef, error) {
 	if h != nil {
-		if h.Schema > app.maxSchema {
+		if histogram.IsExponentialSchema(h.Schema) && h.Schema > app.maxSchema {
 			h = h.ReduceResolution(app.maxSchema)
 		}
 	}
 	if fh != nil {
-		if fh.Schema > app.maxSchema {
+		if histogram.IsExponentialSchema(fh.Schema) && fh.Schema > app.maxSchema {
 			fh = fh.ReduceResolution(app.maxSchema)
 		}
 	}
diff --git a/scrape/target_test.go b/scrape/target_test.go
index f91e31050a..84fe078b2b 100644
--- a/scrape/target_test.go
+++ b/scrape/target_test.go
@@ -21,6 +21,7 @@ import (
 	"net/http/httptest"
 	"net/url"
 	"os"
+	"strconv"
 	"strings"
 	"testing"
 	"time"
@@ -67,7 +68,7 @@ func TestTargetOffset(t *testing.T) {
 	// Calculate offsets for 10000 different targets.
 	for i := range offsets {
 		target := newTestTarget("example.com:80", 0, labels.FromStrings(
-			"label", fmt.Sprintf("%d", i),
+			"label", strconv.Itoa(i),
 		))
 		offsets[i] = target.offset(interval, offsetSeed)
 	}
@@ -473,6 +474,17 @@ func TestBucketLimitAppender(t *testing.T) {
 		PositiveBuckets: []int64{1, 0}, // 1, 1
 	}
 
+	customBuckets := histogram.Histogram{
+		Schema: histogram.CustomBucketsSchema,
+		Count:  9,
+		Sum:    33,
+		PositiveSpans: []histogram.Span{
+			{Offset: 0, Length: 3},
+		},
+		PositiveBuckets: []int64{3, 0, 0},
+		CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3},
+	}
+
 	cases := []struct {
 		h                 histogram.Histogram
 		limit             int
@@ -506,6 +518,18 @@ func TestBucketLimitAppender(t *testing.T) {
 			expectBucketCount: 1,
 			expectSchema:      -2,
 		},
+		{
+			h:           customBuckets,
+			limit:       2,
+			expectError: true,
+		},
+		{
+			h:                 customBuckets,
+			limit:             3,
+			expectError:       false,
+			expectBucketCount: 3,
+			expectSchema:      histogram.CustomBucketsSchema,
+		},
 	}
 
 	resApp := &collectResultAppender{}
@@ -561,6 +585,17 @@ func TestMaxSchemaAppender(t *testing.T) {
 		NegativeBuckets: []int64{3, 0, 0},
 	}
 
+	customBuckets := histogram.Histogram{
+		Schema: histogram.CustomBucketsSchema,
+		Count:  9,
+		Sum:    33,
+		PositiveSpans: []histogram.Span{
+			{Offset: 0, Length: 3},
+		},
+		PositiveBuckets: []int64{3, 0, 0},
+		CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3},
+	}
+
 	cases := []struct {
 		h            histogram.Histogram
 		maxSchema    int32
@@ -576,6 +611,11 @@ func TestMaxSchemaAppender(t *testing.T) {
 			maxSchema:    0,
 			expectSchema: 0,
 		},
+		{
+			h:            customBuckets,
+			maxSchema:    -1,
+			expectSchema: histogram.CustomBucketsSchema,
+		},
 	}
 
 	resApp := &collectResultAppender{}
diff --git a/scripts/genproto.sh b/scripts/genproto.sh
index dee51d4aad..4ee337dfa9 100755
--- a/scripts/genproto.sh
+++ b/scripts/genproto.sh
@@ -10,8 +10,9 @@ if ! [[ "$0" =~ "scripts/genproto.sh" ]]; then
 	exit 255
 fi
 
+# TODO(bwplotka): Move to buf, this is not OSS agnostic, likely won't work locally.
 if ! [[ $(protoc --version) =~ "3.15.8" ]]; then
-	echo "could not find protoc 3.15.8, is it installed + in PATH?"
+	echo "could not find protoc 3.15.8, is it installed + in PATH? Consider commenting out this check for local flow"
 	exit 255
 fi
 
@@ -40,6 +41,9 @@ for dir in ${DIRS}; do
             -I="${PROM_PATH}" \
             -I="${GRPC_GATEWAY_ROOT}/third_party/googleapis" \
             ./*.proto
+		protoc --gogofast_out=plugins=grpc:. -I=. \
+            -I="${GOGOPROTO_PATH}" \
+            ./io/prometheus/write/v2/*.proto
 		protoc --gogofast_out=Mgoogle/protobuf/timestamp.proto=github.com/gogo/protobuf/types,paths=source_relative:. -I=. \
             -I="${GOGOPROTO_PATH}" \
             ./io/prometheus/client/*.proto
diff --git a/scripts/golangci-lint.yml b/scripts/golangci-lint.yml
index a7a40c1be5..bb65d7f607 100644
--- a/scripts/golangci-lint.yml
+++ b/scripts/golangci-lint.yml
@@ -24,15 +24,16 @@ jobs:
     runs-on: ubuntu-latest
     steps:
       - name: Checkout repository
-        uses: actions/checkout@9bb56186c3b09b4f86b1c65136769dd318469633 # v4.1.2
-      - name: install Go
-        uses: actions/setup-go@0c52d547c9bc32b1aa3301fd7a9cb496313a4491 # v5.0.0
+        uses: actions/checkout@a5ac7e51b41094c92402da3b24376905380afc29 # v4.1.6
+      - name: Install Go
+        uses: actions/setup-go@cdcb36043654635271a94b9a6d1392de5bb323a7 # v5.0.1
         with:
           go-version: 1.22.x
       - name: Install snmp_exporter/generator dependencies
         run: sudo apt-get update && sudo apt-get -y install libsnmp-dev
         if: github.repository == 'prometheus/snmp_exporter'
       - name: Lint
-        uses: golangci/golangci-lint-action@3cfe3a4abbb849e10058ce4af15d205b6da42804 # v4.0.0
+        uses: golangci/golangci-lint-action@a4f60bb28d35aeee14e6880718e0c85ff1882e64 # v6.0.1
         with:
-          version: v1.56.2
+          args: --verbose
+          version: v1.59.1
diff --git a/storage/errors.go b/storage/errors.go
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..eff70f678d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/storage/errors.go
@@ -0,0 +1,48 @@
+// Copyright 2014 The Prometheus Authors
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+//
+// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+
+package storage
+
+import "fmt"
+
+type errDuplicateSampleForTimestamp struct {
+	timestamp int64
+	existing  float64
+	newValue  float64
+}
+
+func NewDuplicateFloatErr(t int64, existing, newValue float64) error {
+	return errDuplicateSampleForTimestamp{
+		timestamp: t,
+		existing:  existing,
+		newValue:  newValue,
+	}
+}
+
+func (e errDuplicateSampleForTimestamp) Error() string {
+	if e.timestamp == 0 {
+		return "duplicate sample for timestamp"
+	}
+	return fmt.Sprintf("duplicate sample for timestamp %d; overrides not allowed: existing %g, new value %g", e.timestamp, e.existing, e.newValue)
+}
+
+// Every errDuplicateSampleForTimestamp compares equal to the global ErrDuplicateSampleForTimestamp.
+func (e errDuplicateSampleForTimestamp) Is(t error) bool {
+	if t == ErrDuplicateSampleForTimestamp {
+		return true
+	}
+	if v, ok := t.(errDuplicateSampleForTimestamp); ok {
+		return e == v
+	}
+	return false
+}
diff --git a/storage/fanout_test.go b/storage/fanout_test.go
index 913e2fe24e..712f0400f7 100644
--- a/storage/fanout_test.go
+++ b/storage/fanout_test.go
@@ -181,7 +181,8 @@ func TestFanoutErrors(t *testing.T) {
 				require.NotEmpty(t, ss.Warnings(), "warnings expected")
 				w := ss.Warnings()
 				require.Error(t, w.AsErrors()[0])
-				require.Equal(t, tc.warning.Error(), w.AsStrings("", 0)[0])
+				warn, _ := w.AsStrings("", 0, 0)
+				require.Equal(t, tc.warning.Error(), warn[0])
 			}
 		})
 		t.Run("chunks", func(t *testing.T) {
@@ -207,7 +208,8 @@ func TestFanoutErrors(t *testing.T) {
 				require.NotEmpty(t, ss.Warnings(), "warnings expected")
 				w := ss.Warnings()
 				require.Error(t, w.AsErrors()[0])
-				require.Equal(t, tc.warning.Error(), w.AsStrings("", 0)[0])
+				warn, _ := w.AsStrings("", 0, 0)
+				require.Equal(t, tc.warning.Error(), warn[0])
 			}
 		})
 	}
diff --git a/storage/interface.go b/storage/interface.go
index 347e779b56..493c2d6893 100644
--- a/storage/interface.go
+++ b/storage/interface.go
@@ -37,7 +37,7 @@ var (
 	// ErrTooOldSample is when out of order support is enabled but the sample is outside the time window allowed.
 	ErrTooOldSample = errors.New("too old sample")
 	// ErrDuplicateSampleForTimestamp is when the sample has same timestamp but different value.
-	ErrDuplicateSampleForTimestamp = errors.New("duplicate sample for timestamp")
+	ErrDuplicateSampleForTimestamp = errDuplicateSampleForTimestamp{}
 	ErrOutOfOrderExemplar          = errors.New("out of order exemplar")
 	ErrDuplicateExemplar           = errors.New("duplicate exemplar")
 	ErrExemplarLabelLength         = fmt.Errorf("label length for exemplar exceeds maximum of %d UTF-8 characters", exemplar.ExemplarMaxLabelSetLength)
diff --git a/storage/merge.go b/storage/merge.go
index 8855600220..6714af5e83 100644
--- a/storage/merge.go
+++ b/storage/merge.go
@@ -45,9 +45,15 @@ type mergeGenericQuerier struct {
 //
 // In case of overlaps between the data given by primaries' and secondaries' Selects, merge function will be used.
 func NewMergeQuerier(primaries, secondaries []Querier, mergeFn VerticalSeriesMergeFunc) Querier {
-	if len(primaries)+len(secondaries) == 0 {
-		return NoopQuerier()
+	switch {
+	case len(primaries)+len(secondaries) == 0:
+		return noopQuerier{}
+	case len(primaries) == 1 && len(secondaries) == 0:
+		return primaries[0]
+	case len(primaries) == 0 && len(secondaries) == 1:
+		return secondaries[0]
 	}
+
 	queriers := make([]genericQuerier, 0, len(primaries)+len(secondaries))
 	for _, q := range primaries {
 		if _, ok := q.(noopQuerier); !ok && q != nil {
@@ -77,6 +83,15 @@ func NewMergeQuerier(primaries, secondaries []Querier, mergeFn VerticalSeriesMer
 // In case of overlaps between the data given by primaries' and secondaries' Selects, merge function will be used.
 // TODO(bwplotka): Currently merge will compact overlapping chunks with bigger chunk, without limit. Split it: https://github.com/prometheus/tsdb/issues/670
 func NewMergeChunkQuerier(primaries, secondaries []ChunkQuerier, mergeFn VerticalChunkSeriesMergeFunc) ChunkQuerier {
+	switch {
+	case len(primaries) == 0 && len(secondaries) == 0:
+		return noopChunkQuerier{}
+	case len(primaries) == 1 && len(secondaries) == 0:
+		return primaries[0]
+	case len(primaries) == 0 && len(secondaries) == 1:
+		return secondaries[0]
+	}
+
 	queriers := make([]genericQuerier, 0, len(primaries)+len(secondaries))
 	for _, q := range primaries {
 		if _, ok := q.(noopChunkQuerier); !ok && q != nil {
@@ -102,13 +117,6 @@ func NewMergeChunkQuerier(primaries, secondaries []ChunkQuerier, mergeFn Vertica
 
 // Select returns a set of series that matches the given label matchers.
 func (q *mergeGenericQuerier) Select(ctx context.Context, sortSeries bool, hints *SelectHints, matchers ...*labels.Matcher) genericSeriesSet {
-	if len(q.queriers) == 0 {
-		return noopGenericSeriesSet{}
-	}
-	if len(q.queriers) == 1 {
-		return q.queriers[0].Select(ctx, sortSeries, hints, matchers...)
-	}
-
 	seriesSets := make([]genericSeriesSet, 0, len(q.queriers))
 	if !q.concurrentSelect {
 		for _, querier := range q.queriers {
diff --git a/storage/merge_test.go b/storage/merge_test.go
index 0e63affbb9..1203b3e7bb 100644
--- a/storage/merge_test.go
+++ b/storage/merge_test.go
@@ -180,9 +180,9 @@ func TestMergeQuerierWithChainMerger(t *testing.T) {
 		},
 	} {
 		t.Run(tc.name, func(t *testing.T) {
-			var p Querier
+			var p []Querier
 			if tc.primaryQuerierSeries != nil {
-				p = &mockQuerier{toReturn: tc.primaryQuerierSeries}
+				p = append(p, &mockQuerier{toReturn: tc.primaryQuerierSeries})
 			}
 			var qs []Querier
 			for _, in := range tc.querierSeries {
@@ -190,7 +190,7 @@ func TestMergeQuerierWithChainMerger(t *testing.T) {
 			}
 			qs = append(qs, tc.extraQueriers...)
 
-			mergedQuerier := NewMergeQuerier([]Querier{p}, qs, ChainedSeriesMerge).Select(context.Background(), false, nil)
+			mergedQuerier := NewMergeQuerier(p, qs, ChainedSeriesMerge).Select(context.Background(), false, nil)
 
 			// Get all merged series upfront to make sure there are no incorrectly retained shared
 			// buffers causing bugs.
@@ -355,9 +355,9 @@ func TestMergeChunkQuerierWithNoVerticalChunkSeriesMerger(t *testing.T) {
 		},
 	} {
 		t.Run(tc.name, func(t *testing.T) {
-			var p ChunkQuerier
+			var p []ChunkQuerier
 			if tc.primaryChkQuerierSeries != nil {
-				p = &mockChunkQuerier{toReturn: tc.primaryChkQuerierSeries}
+				p = append(p, &mockChunkQuerier{toReturn: tc.primaryChkQuerierSeries})
 			}
 
 			var qs []ChunkQuerier
@@ -366,7 +366,7 @@ func TestMergeChunkQuerierWithNoVerticalChunkSeriesMerger(t *testing.T) {
 			}
 			qs = append(qs, tc.extraQueriers...)
 
-			merged := NewMergeChunkQuerier([]ChunkQuerier{p}, qs, NewCompactingChunkSeriesMerger(nil)).Select(context.Background(), false, nil)
+			merged := NewMergeChunkQuerier(p, qs, NewCompactingChunkSeriesMerger(nil)).Select(context.Background(), false, nil)
 			for merged.Next() {
 				require.True(t, tc.expected.Next(), "Expected Next() to be true")
 				actualSeries := merged.At()
@@ -1443,6 +1443,8 @@ func TestMergeGenericQuerierWithSecondaries_ErrorHandling(t *testing.T) {
 		expectedErrs     [4]error
 	}{
 		{
+			// NewMergeQuerier will not create a mergeGenericQuerier
+			// with just one querier inside, but we can test it anyway.
 			name:     "one successful primary querier",
 			queriers: []genericQuerier{&mockGenericQuerier{resp: []string{"a", "b"}, warnings: nil, err: nil}},
 			expectedSelectsSeries: []labels.Labels{
@@ -1551,12 +1553,8 @@ func TestMergeGenericQuerierWithSecondaries_ErrorHandling(t *testing.T) {
 
 				for _, qr := range q.queriers {
 					m := unwrapMockGenericQuerier(t, qr)
-
-					exp := []bool{true}
-					if len(q.queriers) == 1 {
-						exp[0] = false
-					}
-					require.Equal(t, exp, m.sortedSeriesRequested)
+					// mergeGenericQuerier forces all Selects to be sorted.
+					require.Equal(t, []bool{true}, m.sortedSeriesRequested)
 				}
 			})
 			t.Run("LabelNames", func(t *testing.T) {
diff --git a/storage/remote/azuread/azuread.go b/storage/remote/azuread/azuread.go
index e2058fb54d..58520c6a5d 100644
--- a/storage/remote/azuread/azuread.go
+++ b/storage/remote/azuread/azuread.go
@@ -75,7 +75,7 @@ type AzureADConfig struct { //nolint:revive // exported.
 	// OAuth is the oauth config that is being used to authenticate.
 	OAuth *OAuthConfig `yaml:"oauth,omitempty"`
 
-	// OAuth is the oauth config that is being used to authenticate.
+	// SDK is the SDK config that is being used to authenticate.
 	SDK *SDKConfig `yaml:"sdk,omitempty"`
 
 	// Cloud is the Azure cloud in which the service is running. Example: AzurePublic/AzureGovernment/AzureChina.
diff --git a/storage/remote/client.go b/storage/remote/client.go
index 140194ec71..eff44c6060 100644
--- a/storage/remote/client.go
+++ b/storage/remote/client.go
@@ -35,13 +35,40 @@ import (
 	"go.opentelemetry.io/otel"
 	"go.opentelemetry.io/otel/trace"
 
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/config"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/prompb"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/storage/remote/azuread"
 )
 
 const maxErrMsgLen = 1024
 
-var UserAgent = fmt.Sprintf("Prometheus/%s", version.Version)
+const (
+	RemoteWriteVersionHeader        = "X-Prometheus-Remote-Write-Version"
+	RemoteWriteVersion1HeaderValue  = "0.1.0"
+	RemoteWriteVersion20HeaderValue = "2.0.0"
+	appProtoContentType             = "application/x-protobuf"
+)
+
+// Compression represents the encoding. Currently remote storage supports only
+// one, but we experiment with more, thus leaving the compression scaffolding
+// for now.
+// NOTE(bwplotka): Keeping it public, as a non-stable help for importers to use.
+type Compression string
+
+const (
+	// SnappyBlockCompression represents https://github.com/google/snappy/blob/2c94e11145f0b7b184b831577c93e5a41c4c0346/format_description.txt
+	SnappyBlockCompression Compression = "snappy"
+)
+
+var (
+	// UserAgent represents Prometheus version to use for user agent header.
+	UserAgent = fmt.Sprintf("Prometheus/%s", version.Version)
+
+	remoteWriteContentTypeHeaders = map[config.RemoteWriteProtoMsg]string{
+		config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1: appProtoContentType, // Also application/x-protobuf;proto=prometheus.WriteRequest but simplified for compatibility with 1.x spec.
+		config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV2: appProtoContentType + ";proto=io.prometheus.write.v2.Request",
+	}
+)
 
 var (
 	remoteReadQueriesTotal = prometheus.NewCounterVec(
@@ -93,6 +120,9 @@ type Client struct {
 	readQueries         prometheus.Gauge
 	readQueriesTotal    *prometheus.CounterVec
 	readQueriesDuration prometheus.Observer
+
+	writeProtoMsg    config.RemoteWriteProtoMsg
+	writeCompression Compression // Not exposed by ClientConfig for now.
 }
 
 // ClientConfig configures a client.
@@ -104,6 +134,7 @@ type ClientConfig struct {
 	AzureADConfig    *azuread.AzureADConfig
 	Headers          map[string]string
 	RetryOnRateLimit bool
+	WriteProtoMsg    config.RemoteWriteProtoMsg
 }
 
 // ReadClient uses the SAMPLES method of remote read to read series samples from remote server.
@@ -162,14 +193,20 @@ func NewWriteClient(name string, conf *ClientConfig) (WriteClient, error) {
 		}
 	}
 
-	httpClient.Transport = otelhttp.NewTransport(t)
+	writeProtoMsg := config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1
+	if conf.WriteProtoMsg != "" {
+		writeProtoMsg = conf.WriteProtoMsg
+	}
 
+	httpClient.Transport = otelhttp.NewTransport(t)
 	return &Client{
 		remoteName:       name,
 		urlString:        conf.URL.String(),
 		Client:           httpClient,
 		retryOnRateLimit: conf.RetryOnRateLimit,
 		timeout:          time.Duration(conf.Timeout),
+		writeProtoMsg:    writeProtoMsg,
+		writeCompression: SnappyBlockCompression,
 	}, nil
 }
 
@@ -206,10 +243,16 @@ func (c *Client) Store(ctx context.Context, req []byte, attempt int) error {
 		return err
 	}
 
-	httpReq.Header.Add("Content-Encoding", "snappy")
-	httpReq.Header.Set("Content-Type", "application/x-protobuf")
+	httpReq.Header.Add("Content-Encoding", string(c.writeCompression))
+	httpReq.Header.Set("Content-Type", remoteWriteContentTypeHeaders[c.writeProtoMsg])
 	httpReq.Header.Set("User-Agent", UserAgent)
-	httpReq.Header.Set("X-Prometheus-Remote-Write-Version", "0.1.0")
+	if c.writeProtoMsg == config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1 {
+		// Compatibility mode for 1.0.
+		httpReq.Header.Set(RemoteWriteVersionHeader, RemoteWriteVersion1HeaderValue)
+	} else {
+		httpReq.Header.Set(RemoteWriteVersionHeader, RemoteWriteVersion20HeaderValue)
+	}
+
 	if attempt > 0 {
 		httpReq.Header.Set("Retry-Attempt", strconv.Itoa(attempt))
 	}
@@ -231,6 +274,7 @@ func (c *Client) Store(ctx context.Context, req []byte, attempt int) error {
 		httpResp.Body.Close()
 	}()
 
+	//nolint:usestdlibvars
 	if httpResp.StatusCode/100 != 2 {
 		scanner := bufio.NewScanner(io.LimitReader(httpResp.Body, maxErrMsgLen))
 		line := ""
@@ -239,6 +283,7 @@ func (c *Client) Store(ctx context.Context, req []byte, attempt int) error {
 		}
 		err = fmt.Errorf("server returned HTTP status %s: %s", httpResp.Status, line)
 	}
+	//nolint:usestdlibvars
 	if httpResp.StatusCode/100 == 5 ||
 		(c.retryOnRateLimit && httpResp.StatusCode == http.StatusTooManyRequests) {
 		return RecoverableError{err, retryAfterDuration(httpResp.Header.Get("Retry-After"))}
@@ -263,12 +308,12 @@ func retryAfterDuration(t string) model.Duration {
 }
 
 // Name uniquely identifies the client.
-func (c Client) Name() string {
+func (c *Client) Name() string {
 	return c.remoteName
 }
 
 // Endpoint is the remote read or write endpoint.
-func (c Client) Endpoint() string {
+func (c *Client) Endpoint() string {
 	return c.urlString
 }
 
@@ -323,6 +368,7 @@ func (c *Client) Read(ctx context.Context, query *prompb.Query) (*prompb.QueryRe
 		return nil, fmt.Errorf("error reading response. HTTP status code: %s: %w", httpResp.Status, err)
 	}
 
+	//nolint:usestdlibvars
 	if httpResp.StatusCode/100 != 2 {
 		return nil, fmt.Errorf("remote server %s returned HTTP status %s: %s", c.urlString, httpResp.Status, strings.TrimSpace(string(compressed)))
 	}
diff --git a/storage/remote/codec.go b/storage/remote/codec.go
index 1228b23f5c..c9220ca42d 100644
--- a/storage/remote/codec.go
+++ b/storage/remote/codec.go
@@ -22,7 +22,6 @@ import (
 	"net/http"
 	"slices"
 	"sort"
-	"strings"
 	"sync"
 
 	"github.com/gogo/protobuf/proto"
@@ -30,10 +29,10 @@ import (
 	"github.com/prometheus/common/model"
 	"go.opentelemetry.io/collector/pdata/pmetric/pmetricotlp"
 
-	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/exemplar"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/histogram"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/labels"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/prompb"
+	writev2 "github.com/prometheus/prometheus/prompb/io/prometheus/write/v2"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/storage"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/tsdb/chunkenc"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/tsdb/chunks"
@@ -95,7 +94,7 @@ func EncodeReadResponse(resp *prompb.ReadResponse, w http.ResponseWriter) error
 
 // ToQuery builds a Query proto.
 func ToQuery(from, to int64, matchers []*labels.Matcher, hints *storage.SelectHints) (*prompb.Query, error) {
-	ms, err := toLabelMatchers(matchers)
+	ms, err := ToLabelMatchers(matchers)
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, err
 	}
@@ -153,10 +152,10 @@ func ToQueryResult(ss storage.SeriesSet, sampleLimit int) (*prompb.QueryResult,
 				})
 			case chunkenc.ValHistogram:
 				ts, h := iter.AtHistogram(nil)
-				histograms = append(histograms, HistogramToHistogramProto(ts, h))
+				histograms = append(histograms, prompb.FromIntHistogram(ts, h))
 			case chunkenc.ValFloatHistogram:
 				ts, fh := iter.AtFloatHistogram(nil)
-				histograms = append(histograms, FloatHistogramToHistogramProto(ts, fh))
+				histograms = append(histograms, prompb.FromFloatHistogram(ts, fh))
 			default:
 				return nil, ss.Warnings(), fmt.Errorf("unrecognized value type: %s", valType)
 			}
@@ -166,7 +165,7 @@ func ToQueryResult(ss storage.SeriesSet, sampleLimit int) (*prompb.QueryResult,
 		}
 
 		resp.Timeseries = append(resp.Timeseries, &prompb.TimeSeries{
-			Labels:     labelsToLabelsProto(series.Labels(), nil),
+			Labels:     prompb.FromLabels(series.Labels(), nil),
 			Samples:    samples,
 			Histograms: histograms,
 		})
@@ -182,7 +181,7 @@ func FromQueryResult(sortSeries bool, res *prompb.QueryResult) storage.SeriesSet
 		if err := validateLabelsAndMetricName(ts.Labels); err != nil {
 			return errSeriesSet{err: err}
 		}
-		lbls := labelProtosToLabels(&b, ts.Labels)
+		lbls := ts.ToLabels(&b, nil)
 		series = append(series, &concreteSeries{labels: lbls, floats: ts.Samples, histograms: ts.Histograms})
 	}
 
@@ -235,7 +234,7 @@ func StreamChunkedReadResponses(
 	for ss.Next() {
 		series := ss.At()
 		iter = series.Iterator(iter)
-		lbls = MergeLabels(labelsToLabelsProto(series.Labels(), lbls), sortedExternalLabels)
+		lbls = MergeLabels(prompb.FromLabels(series.Labels(), lbls), sortedExternalLabels)
 
 		maxDataLength := maxBytesInFrame
 		for _, lbl := range lbls {
@@ -481,21 +480,16 @@ func (c *concreteSeriesIterator) AtHistogram(*histogram.Histogram) (int64, *hist
 		panic("iterator is not on an integer histogram sample")
 	}
 	h := c.series.histograms[c.histogramsCur]
-	return h.Timestamp, HistogramProtoToHistogram(h)
+	return h.Timestamp, h.ToIntHistogram()
 }
 
 // AtFloatHistogram implements chunkenc.Iterator.
 func (c *concreteSeriesIterator) AtFloatHistogram(*histogram.FloatHistogram) (int64, *histogram.FloatHistogram) {
-	switch c.curValType {
-	case chunkenc.ValHistogram:
+	if c.curValType == chunkenc.ValHistogram || c.curValType == chunkenc.ValFloatHistogram {
 		fh := c.series.histograms[c.histogramsCur]
-		return fh.Timestamp, HistogramProtoToFloatHistogram(fh)
-	case chunkenc.ValFloatHistogram:
-		fh := c.series.histograms[c.histogramsCur]
-		return fh.Timestamp, FloatHistogramProtoToFloatHistogram(fh)
-	default:
-		panic("iterator is not on a histogram sample")
+		return fh.Timestamp, fh.ToFloatHistogram() // integer will be auto-converted.
 	}
+	panic("iterator is not on a histogram sample")
 }
 
 // AtT implements chunkenc.Iterator.
@@ -566,7 +560,8 @@ func validateLabelsAndMetricName(ls []prompb.Label) error {
 	return nil
 }
 
-func toLabelMatchers(matchers []*labels.Matcher) ([]*prompb.LabelMatcher, error) {
+// ToLabelMatchers converts Prometheus label matchers to protobuf label matchers.
+func ToLabelMatchers(matchers []*labels.Matcher) ([]*prompb.LabelMatcher, error) {
 	pbMatchers := make([]*prompb.LabelMatcher, 0, len(matchers))
 	for _, m := range matchers {
 		var mType prompb.LabelMatcher_Type
@@ -591,7 +586,7 @@ func toLabelMatchers(matchers []*labels.Matcher) ([]*prompb.LabelMatcher, error)
 	return pbMatchers, nil
 }
 
-// FromLabelMatchers parses protobuf label matchers to Prometheus label matchers.
+// FromLabelMatchers converts protobuf label matchers to Prometheus label matchers.
 func FromLabelMatchers(matchers []*prompb.LabelMatcher) ([]*labels.Matcher, error) {
 	result := make([]*labels.Matcher, 0, len(matchers))
 	for _, matcher := range matchers {
@@ -617,141 +612,6 @@ func FromLabelMatchers(matchers []*prompb.LabelMatcher) ([]*labels.Matcher, erro
 	return result, nil
 }
 
-func exemplarProtoToExemplar(b *labels.ScratchBuilder, ep prompb.Exemplar) exemplar.Exemplar {
-	timestamp := ep.Timestamp
-
-	return exemplar.Exemplar{
-		Labels: labelProtosToLabels(b, ep.Labels),
-		Value:  ep.Value,
-		Ts:     timestamp,
-		HasTs:  timestamp != 0,
-	}
-}
-
-// HistogramProtoToHistogram extracts a (normal integer) Histogram from the
-// provided proto message. The caller has to make sure that the proto message
-// represents an integer histogram and not a float histogram, or it panics.
-func HistogramProtoToHistogram(hp prompb.Histogram) *histogram.Histogram {
-	if hp.IsFloatHistogram() {
-		panic("HistogramProtoToHistogram called with a float histogram")
-	}
-	return &histogram.Histogram{
-		CounterResetHint: histogram.CounterResetHint(hp.ResetHint),
-		Schema:           hp.Schema,
-		ZeroThreshold:    hp.ZeroThreshold,
-		ZeroCount:        hp.GetZeroCountInt(),
-		Count:            hp.GetCountInt(),
-		Sum:              hp.Sum,
-		PositiveSpans:    spansProtoToSpans(hp.GetPositiveSpans()),
-		PositiveBuckets:  hp.GetPositiveDeltas(),
-		NegativeSpans:    spansProtoToSpans(hp.GetNegativeSpans()),
-		NegativeBuckets:  hp.GetNegativeDeltas(),
-	}
-}
-
-// FloatHistogramProtoToFloatHistogram extracts a float Histogram from the
-// provided proto message to a Float Histogram. The caller has to make sure that
-// the proto message represents a float histogram and not an integer histogram,
-// or it panics.
-func FloatHistogramProtoToFloatHistogram(hp prompb.Histogram) *histogram.FloatHistogram {
-	if !hp.IsFloatHistogram() {
-		panic("FloatHistogramProtoToFloatHistogram called with an integer histogram")
-	}
-	return &histogram.FloatHistogram{
-		CounterResetHint: histogram.CounterResetHint(hp.ResetHint),
-		Schema:           hp.Schema,
-		ZeroThreshold:    hp.ZeroThreshold,
-		ZeroCount:        hp.GetZeroCountFloat(),
-		Count:            hp.GetCountFloat(),
-		Sum:              hp.Sum,
-		PositiveSpans:    spansProtoToSpans(hp.GetPositiveSpans()),
-		PositiveBuckets:  hp.GetPositiveCounts(),
-		NegativeSpans:    spansProtoToSpans(hp.GetNegativeSpans()),
-		NegativeBuckets:  hp.GetNegativeCounts(),
-	}
-}
-
-// HistogramProtoToFloatHistogram extracts and converts a (normal integer) histogram from the provided proto message
-// to a float histogram. The caller has to make sure that the proto message represents an integer histogram and not a
-// float histogram, or it panics.
-func HistogramProtoToFloatHistogram(hp prompb.Histogram) *histogram.FloatHistogram {
-	if hp.IsFloatHistogram() {
-		panic("HistogramProtoToFloatHistogram called with a float histogram")
-	}
-	return &histogram.FloatHistogram{
-		CounterResetHint: histogram.CounterResetHint(hp.ResetHint),
-		Schema:           hp.Schema,
-		ZeroThreshold:    hp.ZeroThreshold,
-		ZeroCount:        float64(hp.GetZeroCountInt()),
-		Count:            float64(hp.GetCountInt()),
-		Sum:              hp.Sum,
-		PositiveSpans:    spansProtoToSpans(hp.GetPositiveSpans()),
-		PositiveBuckets:  deltasToCounts(hp.GetPositiveDeltas()),
-		NegativeSpans:    spansProtoToSpans(hp.GetNegativeSpans()),
-		NegativeBuckets:  deltasToCounts(hp.GetNegativeDeltas()),
-	}
-}
-
-func spansProtoToSpans(s []prompb.BucketSpan) []histogram.Span {
-	spans := make([]histogram.Span, len(s))
-	for i := 0; i < len(s); i++ {
-		spans[i] = histogram.Span{Offset: s[i].Offset, Length: s[i].Length}
-	}
-
-	return spans
-}
-
-func deltasToCounts(deltas []int64) []float64 {
-	counts := make([]float64, len(deltas))
-	var cur float64
-	for i, d := range deltas {
-		cur += float64(d)
-		counts[i] = cur
-	}
-	return counts
-}
-
-func HistogramToHistogramProto(timestamp int64, h *histogram.Histogram) prompb.Histogram {
-	return prompb.Histogram{
-		Count:          &prompb.Histogram_CountInt{CountInt: h.Count},
-		Sum:            h.Sum,
-		Schema:         h.Schema,
-		ZeroThreshold:  h.ZeroThreshold,
-		ZeroCount:      &prompb.Histogram_ZeroCountInt{ZeroCountInt: h.ZeroCount},
-		NegativeSpans:  spansToSpansProto(h.NegativeSpans),
-		NegativeDeltas: h.NegativeBuckets,
-		PositiveSpans:  spansToSpansProto(h.PositiveSpans),
-		PositiveDeltas: h.PositiveBuckets,
-		ResetHint:      prompb.Histogram_ResetHint(h.CounterResetHint),
-		Timestamp:      timestamp,
-	}
-}
-
-func FloatHistogramToHistogramProto(timestamp int64, fh *histogram.FloatHistogram) prompb.Histogram {
-	return prompb.Histogram{
-		Count:          &prompb.Histogram_CountFloat{CountFloat: fh.Count},
-		Sum:            fh.Sum,
-		Schema:         fh.Schema,
-		ZeroThreshold:  fh.ZeroThreshold,
-		ZeroCount:      &prompb.Histogram_ZeroCountFloat{ZeroCountFloat: fh.ZeroCount},
-		NegativeSpans:  spansToSpansProto(fh.NegativeSpans),
-		NegativeCounts: fh.NegativeBuckets,
-		PositiveSpans:  spansToSpansProto(fh.PositiveSpans),
-		PositiveCounts: fh.PositiveBuckets,
-		ResetHint:      prompb.Histogram_ResetHint(fh.CounterResetHint),
-		Timestamp:      timestamp,
-	}
-}
-
-func spansToSpansProto(s []histogram.Span) []prompb.BucketSpan {
-	spans := make([]prompb.BucketSpan, len(s))
-	for i := 0; i < len(s); i++ {
-		spans[i] = prompb.BucketSpan{Offset: s[i].Offset, Length: s[i].Length}
-	}
-
-	return spans
-}
-
 // LabelProtosToMetric unpack a []*prompb.Label to a model.Metric.
 func LabelProtosToMetric(labelPairs []*prompb.Label) model.Metric {
 	metric := make(model.Metric, len(labelPairs))
@@ -761,41 +621,9 @@ func LabelProtosToMetric(labelPairs []*prompb.Label) model.Metric {
 	return metric
 }
 
-func labelProtosToLabels(b *labels.ScratchBuilder, labelPairs []prompb.Label) labels.Labels {
-	b.Reset()
-	for _, l := range labelPairs {
-		b.Add(l.Name, l.Value)
-	}
-	b.Sort()
-	return b.Labels()
-}
-
-// labelsToLabelsProto transforms labels into prompb labels. The buffer slice
-// will be used to avoid allocations if it is big enough to store the labels.
-func labelsToLabelsProto(lbls labels.Labels, buf []prompb.Label) []prompb.Label {
-	result := buf[:0]
-	lbls.Range(func(l labels.Label) {
-		result = append(result, prompb.Label{
-			Name:  l.Name,
-			Value: l.Value,
-		})
-	})
-	return result
-}
-
-// metricTypeToMetricTypeProto transforms a Prometheus metricType into prompb metricType. Since the former is a string we need to transform it to an enum.
-func metricTypeToMetricTypeProto(t model.MetricType) prompb.MetricMetadata_MetricType {
-	mt := strings.ToUpper(string(t))
-	v, ok := prompb.MetricMetadata_MetricType_value[mt]
-	if !ok {
-		return prompb.MetricMetadata_UNKNOWN
-	}
-
-	return prompb.MetricMetadata_MetricType(v)
-}
-
 // DecodeWriteRequest from an io.Reader into a prompb.WriteRequest, handling
 // snappy decompression.
+// Used also by documentation/examples/remote_storage.
 func DecodeWriteRequest(r io.Reader) (*prompb.WriteRequest, error) {
 	compressed, err := io.ReadAll(r)
 	if err != nil {
@@ -815,6 +643,28 @@ func DecodeWriteRequest(r io.Reader) (*prompb.WriteRequest, error) {
 	return &req, nil
 }
 
+// DecodeWriteV2Request from an io.Reader into a writev2.Request, handling
+// snappy decompression.
+// Used also by documentation/examples/remote_storage.
+func DecodeWriteV2Request(r io.Reader) (*writev2.Request, error) {
+	compressed, err := io.ReadAll(r)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+
+	reqBuf, err := snappy.Decode(nil, compressed)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+
+	var req writev2.Request
+	if err := proto.Unmarshal(reqBuf, &req); err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+
+	return &req, nil
+}
+
 func DecodeOTLPWriteRequest(r *http.Request) (pmetricotlp.ExportRequest, error) {
 	contentType := r.Header.Get("Content-Type")
 	var decoderFunc func(buf []byte) (pmetricotlp.ExportRequest, error)
diff --git a/storage/remote/codec_test.go b/storage/remote/codec_test.go
index 41d4b3656c..15f8fe1320 100644
--- a/storage/remote/codec_test.go
+++ b/storage/remote/codec_test.go
@@ -19,13 +19,16 @@ import (
 	"sync"
 	"testing"
 
+	"github.com/go-kit/log"
 	"github.com/gogo/protobuf/proto"
 	"github.com/prometheus/common/model"
 	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
 
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/histogram"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/labels"
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/metadata"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/prompb"
+	writev2 "github.com/prometheus/prometheus/prompb/io/prometheus/write/v2"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/storage"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/tsdb/chunkenc"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/tsdb/chunks"
@@ -57,7 +60,7 @@ var writeRequestFixture = &prompb.WriteRequest{
 			},
 			Samples:    []prompb.Sample{{Value: 1, Timestamp: 0}},
 			Exemplars:  []prompb.Exemplar{{Labels: []prompb.Label{{Name: "f", Value: "g"}}, Value: 1, Timestamp: 0}},
-			Histograms: []prompb.Histogram{HistogramToHistogramProto(0, &testHistogram), FloatHistogramToHistogramProto(1, testHistogram.ToFloat(nil))},
+			Histograms: []prompb.Histogram{prompb.FromIntHistogram(0, &testHistogram), prompb.FromFloatHistogram(1, testHistogram.ToFloat(nil))},
 		},
 		{
 			Labels: []prompb.Label{
@@ -69,11 +72,59 @@ var writeRequestFixture = &prompb.WriteRequest{
 			},
 			Samples:    []prompb.Sample{{Value: 2, Timestamp: 1}},
 			Exemplars:  []prompb.Exemplar{{Labels: []prompb.Label{{Name: "h", Value: "i"}}, Value: 2, Timestamp: 1}},
-			Histograms: []prompb.Histogram{HistogramToHistogramProto(2, &testHistogram), FloatHistogramToHistogramProto(3, testHistogram.ToFloat(nil))},
+			Histograms: []prompb.Histogram{prompb.FromIntHistogram(2, &testHistogram), prompb.FromFloatHistogram(3, testHistogram.ToFloat(nil))},
 		},
 	},
 }
 
+var (
+	writeV2RequestSeries1Metadata = metadata.Metadata{
+		Type: model.MetricTypeGauge,
+		Help: "Test gauge for test purposes",
+		Unit: "Maybe op/sec who knows (:",
+	}
+	writeV2RequestSeries2Metadata = metadata.Metadata{
+		Type: model.MetricTypeCounter,
+		Help: "Test counter for test purposes",
+	}
+
+	// writeV2RequestFixture represents the same request as writeRequestFixture, but using the v2 representation.
+	writeV2RequestFixture = func() *writev2.Request {
+		st := writev2.NewSymbolTable()
+		b := labels.NewScratchBuilder(0)
+		labelRefs := st.SymbolizeLabels(writeRequestFixture.Timeseries[0].ToLabels(&b, nil), nil)
+		exemplar1LabelRefs := st.SymbolizeLabels(writeRequestFixture.Timeseries[0].Exemplars[0].ToExemplar(&b, nil).Labels, nil)
+		exemplar2LabelRefs := st.SymbolizeLabels(writeRequestFixture.Timeseries[0].Exemplars[0].ToExemplar(&b, nil).Labels, nil)
+		return &writev2.Request{
+			Timeseries: []writev2.TimeSeries{
+				{
+					LabelsRefs: labelRefs,
+					Metadata: writev2.Metadata{
+						Type:    writev2.Metadata_METRIC_TYPE_GAUGE, // Same as writeV2RequestSeries1Metadata.Type, but in writev2.
+						HelpRef: st.Symbolize(writeV2RequestSeries1Metadata.Help),
+						UnitRef: st.Symbolize(writeV2RequestSeries1Metadata.Unit),
+					},
+					Samples:    []writev2.Sample{{Value: 1, Timestamp: 0}},
+					Exemplars:  []writev2.Exemplar{{LabelsRefs: exemplar1LabelRefs, Value: 1, Timestamp: 0}},
+					Histograms: []writev2.Histogram{writev2.FromIntHistogram(0, &testHistogram), writev2.FromFloatHistogram(1, testHistogram.ToFloat(nil))},
+				},
+				{
+					LabelsRefs: labelRefs,
+					Metadata: writev2.Metadata{
+						Type:    writev2.Metadata_METRIC_TYPE_COUNTER, // Same as writeV2RequestSeries2Metadata.Type, but in writev2.
+						HelpRef: st.Symbolize(writeV2RequestSeries2Metadata.Help),
+						// No unit.
+					},
+					Samples:    []writev2.Sample{{Value: 2, Timestamp: 1}},
+					Exemplars:  []writev2.Exemplar{{LabelsRefs: exemplar2LabelRefs, Value: 2, Timestamp: 1}},
+					Histograms: []writev2.Histogram{writev2.FromIntHistogram(2, &testHistogram), writev2.FromFloatHistogram(3, testHistogram.ToFloat(nil))},
+				},
+			},
+			Symbols: st.Symbols(),
+		}
+	}()
+)
+
 func TestValidateLabelsAndMetricName(t *testing.T) {
 	tests := []struct {
 		input       []prompb.Label
@@ -268,7 +319,7 @@ func TestConcreteSeriesIterator_HistogramSamples(t *testing.T) {
 		} else {
 			ts = int64(i)
 		}
-		histProtos[i] = HistogramToHistogramProto(ts, h)
+		histProtos[i] = prompb.FromIntHistogram(ts, h)
 	}
 	series := &concreteSeries{
 		labels:     labels.FromStrings("foo", "bar"),
@@ -319,9 +370,9 @@ func TestConcreteSeriesIterator_FloatAndHistogramSamples(t *testing.T) {
 	histProtos := make([]prompb.Histogram, len(histograms))
 	for i, h := range histograms {
 		if i < 10 {
-			histProtos[i] = HistogramToHistogramProto(int64(i+1), h)
+			histProtos[i] = prompb.FromIntHistogram(int64(i+1), h)
 		} else {
-			histProtos[i] = HistogramToHistogramProto(int64(i+6), h)
+			histProtos[i] = prompb.FromIntHistogram(int64(i+6), h)
 		}
 	}
 	series := &concreteSeries{
@@ -401,7 +452,7 @@ func TestConcreteSeriesIterator_FloatAndHistogramSamples(t *testing.T) {
 	require.Equal(t, chunkenc.ValHistogram, it.Next())
 	ts, fh = it.AtFloatHistogram(nil)
 	require.Equal(t, int64(17), ts)
-	expected := HistogramProtoToFloatHistogram(HistogramToHistogramProto(int64(17), histograms[11]))
+	expected := prompb.FromIntHistogram(int64(17), histograms[11]).ToFloatHistogram()
 	require.Equal(t, expected, fh)
 
 	// Keep calling Next() until the end.
@@ -485,39 +536,8 @@ func TestMergeLabels(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 }
 
-func TestMetricTypeToMetricTypeProto(t *testing.T) {
-	tc := []struct {
-		desc     string
-		input    model.MetricType
-		expected prompb.MetricMetadata_MetricType
-	}{
-		{
-			desc:     "with a single-word metric",
-			input:    model.MetricTypeCounter,
-			expected: prompb.MetricMetadata_COUNTER,
-		},
-		{
-			desc:     "with a two-word metric",
-			input:    model.MetricTypeStateset,
-			expected: prompb.MetricMetadata_STATESET,
-		},
-		{
-			desc:     "with an unknown metric",
-			input:    "not-known",
-			expected: prompb.MetricMetadata_UNKNOWN,
-		},
-	}
-
-	for _, tt := range tc {
-		t.Run(tt.desc, func(t *testing.T) {
-			m := metricTypeToMetricTypeProto(tt.input)
-			require.Equal(t, tt.expected, m)
-		})
-	}
-}
-
 func TestDecodeWriteRequest(t *testing.T) {
-	buf, _, _, err := buildWriteRequest(nil, writeRequestFixture.Timeseries, nil, nil, nil, nil)
+	buf, _, _, err := buildWriteRequest(nil, writeRequestFixture.Timeseries, nil, nil, nil, nil, "snappy")
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 
 	actual, err := DecodeWriteRequest(bytes.NewReader(buf))
@@ -525,212 +545,18 @@ func TestDecodeWriteRequest(t *testing.T) {
 	require.Equal(t, writeRequestFixture, actual)
 }
 
-func TestNilHistogramProto(*testing.T) {
-	// This function will panic if it impromperly handles nil
-	// values, causing the test to fail.
-	HistogramProtoToHistogram(prompb.Histogram{})
-	HistogramProtoToFloatHistogram(prompb.Histogram{})
-}
+func TestDecodeWriteV2Request(t *testing.T) {
+	buf, _, _, err := buildV2WriteRequest(log.NewNopLogger(), writeV2RequestFixture.Timeseries, writeV2RequestFixture.Symbols, nil, nil, nil, "snappy")
+	require.NoError(t, err)
 
-func exampleHistogram() histogram.Histogram {
-	return histogram.Histogram{
-		CounterResetHint: histogram.GaugeType,
-		Schema:           0,
-		Count:            19,
-		Sum:              2.7,
-		PositiveSpans: []histogram.Span{
-			{Offset: 0, Length: 4},
-			{Offset: 0, Length: 0},
-			{Offset: 0, Length: 3},
-		},
-		PositiveBuckets: []int64{1, 2, -2, 1, -1, 0, 0},
-		NegativeSpans: []histogram.Span{
-			{Offset: 0, Length: 5},
-			{Offset: 1, Length: 0},
-			{Offset: 0, Length: 1},
-		},
-		NegativeBuckets: []int64{1, 2, -2, 1, -1, 0},
-	}
-}
-
-func exampleHistogramProto() prompb.Histogram {
-	return prompb.Histogram{
-		Count:         &prompb.Histogram_CountInt{CountInt: 19},
-		Sum:           2.7,
-		Schema:        0,
-		ZeroThreshold: 0,
-		ZeroCount:     &prompb.Histogram_ZeroCountInt{ZeroCountInt: 0},
-		NegativeSpans: []prompb.BucketSpan{
-			{
-				Offset: 0,
-				Length: 5,
-			},
-			{
-				Offset: 1,
-				Length: 0,
-			},
-			{
-				Offset: 0,
-				Length: 1,
-			},
-		},
-		NegativeDeltas: []int64{1, 2, -2, 1, -1, 0},
-		PositiveSpans: []prompb.BucketSpan{
-			{
-				Offset: 0,
-				Length: 4,
-			},
-			{
-				Offset: 0,
-				Length: 0,
-			},
-			{
-				Offset: 0,
-				Length: 3,
-			},
-		},
-		PositiveDeltas: []int64{1, 2, -2, 1, -1, 0, 0},
-		ResetHint:      prompb.Histogram_GAUGE,
-		Timestamp:      1337,
-	}
-}
-
-func TestHistogramToProtoConvert(t *testing.T) {
-	tests := []struct {
-		input    histogram.CounterResetHint
-		expected prompb.Histogram_ResetHint
-	}{
-		{
-			input:    histogram.UnknownCounterReset,
-			expected: prompb.Histogram_UNKNOWN,
-		},
-		{
-			input:    histogram.CounterReset,
-			expected: prompb.Histogram_YES,
-		},
-		{
-			input:    histogram.NotCounterReset,
-			expected: prompb.Histogram_NO,
-		},
-		{
-			input:    histogram.GaugeType,
-			expected: prompb.Histogram_GAUGE,
-		},
-	}
-
-	for _, test := range tests {
-		h := exampleHistogram()
-		h.CounterResetHint = test.input
-		p := exampleHistogramProto()
-		p.ResetHint = test.expected
-
-		require.Equal(t, p, HistogramToHistogramProto(1337, &h))
-
-		require.Equal(t, h, *HistogramProtoToHistogram(p))
-	}
-}
-
-func exampleFloatHistogram() histogram.FloatHistogram {
-	return histogram.FloatHistogram{
-		CounterResetHint: histogram.GaugeType,
-		Schema:           0,
-		Count:            19,
-		Sum:              2.7,
-		PositiveSpans: []histogram.Span{
-			{Offset: 0, Length: 4},
-			{Offset: 0, Length: 0},
-			{Offset: 0, Length: 3},
-		},
-		PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 2, -2, 1, -1, 0, 0},
-		NegativeSpans: []histogram.Span{
-			{Offset: 0, Length: 5},
-			{Offset: 1, Length: 0},
-			{Offset: 0, Length: 1},
-		},
-		NegativeBuckets: []float64{1, 2, -2, 1, -1, 0},
-	}
-}
-
-func exampleFloatHistogramProto() prompb.Histogram {
-	return prompb.Histogram{
-		Count:         &prompb.Histogram_CountFloat{CountFloat: 19},
-		Sum:           2.7,
-		Schema:        0,
-		ZeroThreshold: 0,
-		ZeroCount:     &prompb.Histogram_ZeroCountFloat{ZeroCountFloat: 0},
-		NegativeSpans: []prompb.BucketSpan{
-			{
-				Offset: 0,
-				Length: 5,
-			},
-			{
-				Offset: 1,
-				Length: 0,
-			},
-			{
-				Offset: 0,
-				Length: 1,
-			},
-		},
-		NegativeCounts: []float64{1, 2, -2, 1, -1, 0},
-		PositiveSpans: []prompb.BucketSpan{
-			{
-				Offset: 0,
-				Length: 4,
-			},
-			{
-				Offset: 0,
-				Length: 0,
-			},
-			{
-				Offset: 0,
-				Length: 3,
-			},
-		},
-		PositiveCounts: []float64{1, 2, -2, 1, -1, 0, 0},
-		ResetHint:      prompb.Histogram_GAUGE,
-		Timestamp:      1337,
-	}
-}
-
-func TestFloatHistogramToProtoConvert(t *testing.T) {
-	tests := []struct {
-		input    histogram.CounterResetHint
-		expected prompb.Histogram_ResetHint
-	}{
-		{
-			input:    histogram.UnknownCounterReset,
-			expected: prompb.Histogram_UNKNOWN,
-		},
-		{
-			input:    histogram.CounterReset,
-			expected: prompb.Histogram_YES,
-		},
-		{
-			input:    histogram.NotCounterReset,
-			expected: prompb.Histogram_NO,
-		},
-		{
-			input:    histogram.GaugeType,
-			expected: prompb.Histogram_GAUGE,
-		},
-	}
-
-	for _, test := range tests {
-		h := exampleFloatHistogram()
-		h.CounterResetHint = test.input
-		p := exampleFloatHistogramProto()
-		p.ResetHint = test.expected
-
-		require.Equal(t, p, FloatHistogramToHistogramProto(1337, &h))
-
-		require.Equal(t, h, *FloatHistogramProtoToFloatHistogram(p))
-	}
+	actual, err := DecodeWriteV2Request(bytes.NewReader(buf))
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	require.Equal(t, writeV2RequestFixture, actual)
 }
 
 func TestStreamResponse(t *testing.T) {
-	lbs1 := labelsToLabelsProto(labels.FromStrings("instance", "localhost1", "job", "demo1"), nil)
-	lbs2 := labelsToLabelsProto(labels.FromStrings("instance", "localhost2", "job", "demo2"), nil)
+	lbs1 := prompb.FromLabels(labels.FromStrings("instance", "localhost1", "job", "demo1"), nil)
+	lbs2 := prompb.FromLabels(labels.FromStrings("instance", "localhost2", "job", "demo2"), nil)
 	chunk := prompb.Chunk{
 		Type: prompb.Chunk_XOR,
 		Data: make([]byte, 100),
@@ -802,7 +628,7 @@ func (c *mockChunkSeriesSet) Next() bool {
 
 func (c *mockChunkSeriesSet) At() storage.ChunkSeries {
 	return &storage.ChunkSeriesEntry{
-		Lset: labelProtosToLabels(&c.builder, c.chunkedSeries[c.index].Labels),
+		Lset: c.chunkedSeries[c.index].ToLabels(&c.builder, nil),
 		ChunkIteratorFn: func(chunks.Iterator) chunks.Iterator {
 			return &mockChunkIterator{
 				chunks: c.chunkedSeries[c.index].Chunks,
diff --git a/storage/remote/metadata_watcher.go b/storage/remote/metadata_watcher.go
index abfea3c7b0..fdcd668f56 100644
--- a/storage/remote/metadata_watcher.go
+++ b/storage/remote/metadata_watcher.go
@@ -27,7 +27,7 @@ import (
 
 // MetadataAppender is an interface used by the Metadata Watcher to send metadata, It is read from the scrape manager, on to somewhere else.
 type MetadataAppender interface {
-	AppendMetadata(context.Context, []scrape.MetricMetadata)
+	AppendWatcherMetadata(context.Context, []scrape.MetricMetadata)
 }
 
 // Watchable represents from where we fetch active targets for metadata.
@@ -146,7 +146,7 @@ func (mw *MetadataWatcher) collect() {
 	}
 
 	// Blocks until the metadata is sent to the remote write endpoint or hardShutdownContext is expired.
-	mw.writer.AppendMetadata(mw.hardShutdownCtx, metadata)
+	mw.writer.AppendWatcherMetadata(mw.hardShutdownCtx, metadata)
 }
 
 func (mw *MetadataWatcher) ready() bool {
diff --git a/storage/remote/metadata_watcher_test.go b/storage/remote/metadata_watcher_test.go
index 0cd6027a83..ce9b9d022e 100644
--- a/storage/remote/metadata_watcher_test.go
+++ b/storage/remote/metadata_watcher_test.go
@@ -57,7 +57,7 @@ type writeMetadataToMock struct {
 	metadataAppended int
 }
 
-func (mwtm *writeMetadataToMock) AppendMetadata(_ context.Context, m []scrape.MetricMetadata) {
+func (mwtm *writeMetadataToMock) AppendWatcherMetadata(_ context.Context, m []scrape.MetricMetadata) {
 	mwtm.metadataAppended += len(m)
 }
 
diff --git a/storage/remote/otlptranslator/README.md b/storage/remote/otlptranslator/README.md
deleted file mode 100644
index 774fac5a7f..0000000000
--- a/storage/remote/otlptranslator/README.md
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,22 +0,0 @@
-## Copying from opentelemetry/opentelemetry-collector-contrib
-
-This files in the `prometheus/` and `prometheusremotewrite/` are copied from the OpenTelemetry Project[^1].
-
-This is done instead of adding a go.mod dependency because OpenTelemetry depends on `prometheus/prometheus` and a cyclic dependency will be created. This is just a temporary solution and the long-term solution is to move the required packages from OpenTelemetry into `prometheus/prometheus`. 
-
-To update the dependency is a multi-step process:
-1. Vendor the latest `prometheus/prometheus`@`main` into [`opentelemetry/opentelemetry-collector-contrib`](https://github.com/open-telemetry/opentelemetry-collector-contrib)
-1. Update the VERSION in `update-copy.sh`.
-1. Run `./update-copy.sh`.
-
-### Why copy?
-
-This is because the packages we copy depend on the [`prompb`](https://github.com/prometheus/prometheus/blob/main/prompb) package. While the package is relatively stable, there are still changes. For example, https://github.com/prometheus/prometheus/pull/11935 changed the types.
-This means if we depend on the upstream packages directly, we will never able to make the changes like above. Hence we're copying the code for now.
-
-### I need to manually change these files
-
-When we do want to make changes to the types in `prompb`, we might need to edit the files directly. That is OK, please let @gouthamve or @jesusvazquez know so they can take care of updating the upstream code (by vendoring in `prometheus/prometheus` upstream and resolving conflicts) and then will run the copy
-script again to keep things updated.
-
-[^1]: https://github.com/open-telemetry/opentelemetry-collector-contrib/tree/main/pkg/translator/prometheus and https://github.com/open-telemetry/opentelemetry-collector-contrib/tree/main/pkg/translator/prometheusremotewrite
diff --git a/storage/remote/otlptranslator/prometheus/normalize_label.go b/storage/remote/otlptranslator/prometheus/normalize_label.go
index a6b41d1c37..6360aa9765 100644
--- a/storage/remote/otlptranslator/prometheus/normalize_label.go
+++ b/storage/remote/otlptranslator/prometheus/normalize_label.go
@@ -1,22 +1,24 @@
-// DO NOT EDIT. COPIED AS-IS. SEE ../README.md
+// Copyright 2024 The Prometheus Authors
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+//
+// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+// Provenance-includes-location: https://github.com/open-telemetry/opentelemetry-collector-contrib/blob/95e8f8fdc2a9dc87230406c9a3cf02be4fd68bea/pkg/translator/prometheus/normalize_label.go
+// Provenance-includes-license: Apache-2.0
+// Provenance-includes-copyright: Copyright The OpenTelemetry Authors.
 
-// Copyright The OpenTelemetry Authors
-// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
-
-package prometheus // import "github.com/prometheus/prometheus/storage/remote/otlptranslator/prometheus"
+package prometheus
 
 import (
 	"strings"
 	"unicode"
-
-	"go.opentelemetry.io/collector/featuregate"
-)
-
-var dropSanitizationGate = featuregate.GlobalRegistry().MustRegister(
-	"pkg.translator.prometheus.PermissiveLabelSanitization",
-	featuregate.StageAlpha,
-	featuregate.WithRegisterDescription("Controls whether to change labels starting with '_' to 'key_'."),
-	featuregate.WithRegisterReferenceURL("https://github.com/open-telemetry/opentelemetry-collector-contrib/issues/8950"),
 )
 
 // Normalizes the specified label to follow Prometheus label names standard
@@ -39,7 +41,7 @@ func NormalizeLabel(label string) string {
 	// If label starts with a number, prepend with "key_"
 	if unicode.IsDigit(rune(label[0])) {
 		label = "key_" + label
-	} else if strings.HasPrefix(label, "_") && !strings.HasPrefix(label, "__") && !dropSanitizationGate.IsEnabled() {
+	} else if strings.HasPrefix(label, "_") && !strings.HasPrefix(label, "__") {
 		label = "key" + label
 	}
 
diff --git a/storage/remote/otlptranslator/prometheus/normalize_name.go b/storage/remote/otlptranslator/prometheus/normalize_name.go
index a976dfb485..71bba40e48 100644
--- a/storage/remote/otlptranslator/prometheus/normalize_name.go
+++ b/storage/remote/otlptranslator/prometheus/normalize_name.go
@@ -1,15 +1,25 @@
-// DO NOT EDIT. COPIED AS-IS. SEE ../README.md
+// Copyright 2024 The Prometheus Authors
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+//
+// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+// Provenance-includes-location: https://github.com/open-telemetry/opentelemetry-collector-contrib/blob/95e8f8fdc2a9dc87230406c9a3cf02be4fd68bea/pkg/translator/prometheus/normalize_name.go
+// Provenance-includes-license: Apache-2.0
+// Provenance-includes-copyright: Copyright The OpenTelemetry Authors.
 
-// Copyright The OpenTelemetry Authors
-// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
-
-package prometheus // import "github.com/prometheus/prometheus/storage/remote/otlptranslator/prometheus"
+package prometheus
 
 import (
 	"strings"
 	"unicode"
 
-	"go.opentelemetry.io/collector/featuregate"
 	"go.opentelemetry.io/collector/pdata/pmetric"
 )
 
@@ -19,7 +29,6 @@ import (
 // Prometheus best practices for units: https://prometheus.io/docs/practices/naming/#base-units
 // OpenMetrics specification for units: https://github.com/OpenObservability/OpenMetrics/blob/main/specification/OpenMetrics.md#units-and-base-units
 var unitMap = map[string]string{
-
 	// Time
 	"d":   "days",
 	"h":   "hours",
@@ -67,13 +76,6 @@ var perUnitMap = map[string]string{
 	"y":  "year",
 }
 
-var normalizeNameGate = featuregate.GlobalRegistry().MustRegister(
-	"pkg.translator.prometheus.NormalizeName",
-	featuregate.StageBeta,
-	featuregate.WithRegisterDescription("Controls whether metrics names are automatically normalized to follow Prometheus naming convention"),
-	featuregate.WithRegisterReferenceURL("https://github.com/open-telemetry/opentelemetry-collector-contrib/issues/8950"),
-)
-
 // BuildCompliantName builds a Prometheus-compliant metric name for the specified metric
 //
 // Metric name is prefixed with specified namespace and underscore (if any).
@@ -86,7 +88,7 @@ func BuildCompliantName(metric pmetric.Metric, namespace string, addMetricSuffix
 	var metricName string
 
 	// Full normalization following standard Prometheus naming conventions
-	if addMetricSuffixes && normalizeNameGate.IsEnabled() {
+	if addMetricSuffixes {
 		return normalizeName(metric, namespace)
 	}
 
@@ -108,7 +110,6 @@ func BuildCompliantName(metric pmetric.Metric, namespace string, addMetricSuffix
 
 // Build a normalized name for the specified metric
 func normalizeName(metric pmetric.Metric, namespace string) string {
-
 	// Split metric name in "tokens" (remove all non-alphanumeric)
 	nameTokens := strings.FieldsFunc(
 		metric.Name(),
diff --git a/storage/remote/otlptranslator/prometheus/unit_to_ucum.go b/storage/remote/otlptranslator/prometheus/unit_to_ucum.go
index 718a520675..39a42734d7 100644
--- a/storage/remote/otlptranslator/prometheus/unit_to_ucum.go
+++ b/storage/remote/otlptranslator/prometheus/unit_to_ucum.go
@@ -1,14 +1,24 @@
-// DO NOT EDIT. COPIED AS-IS. SEE ../README.md
+// Copyright 2024 The Prometheus Authors
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+//
+// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+// Provenance-includes-location: https://github.com/open-telemetry/opentelemetry-collector-contrib/blob/95e8f8fdc2a9dc87230406c9a3cf02be4fd68bea/pkg/translator/prometheus/unit_to_ucum.go
+// Provenance-includes-license: Apache-2.0
+// Provenance-includes-copyright: Copyright The OpenTelemetry Authors.
 
-// Copyright The OpenTelemetry Authors
-// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
-
-package prometheus // import "github.com/prometheus/prometheus/storage/remote/otlptranslator/prometheus"
+package prometheus
 
 import "strings"
 
 var wordToUCUM = map[string]string{
-
 	// Time
 	"days":         "d",
 	"hours":        "h",
diff --git a/storage/remote/otlptranslator/prometheusremotewrite/helper.go b/storage/remote/otlptranslator/prometheusremotewrite/helper.go
index 817cbaba7d..2571338532 100644
--- a/storage/remote/otlptranslator/prometheusremotewrite/helper.go
+++ b/storage/remote/otlptranslator/prometheusremotewrite/helper.go
@@ -1,29 +1,42 @@
-// DO NOT EDIT. COPIED AS-IS. SEE ../README.md
+// Copyright 2024 The Prometheus Authors
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+//
+// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+// Provenance-includes-location: https://github.com/open-telemetry/opentelemetry-collector-contrib/blob/95e8f8fdc2a9dc87230406c9a3cf02be4fd68bea/pkg/translator/prometheusremotewrite/helper.go
+// Provenance-includes-license: Apache-2.0
+// Provenance-includes-copyright: Copyright The OpenTelemetry Authors.
 
-// Copyright The OpenTelemetry Authors
-// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
-
-package prometheusremotewrite // import "github.com/prometheus/prometheus/storage/remote/otlptranslator/prometheusremotewrite"
+package prometheusremotewrite
 
 import (
 	"encoding/hex"
 	"fmt"
 	"log"
 	"math"
+	"slices"
 	"sort"
 	"strconv"
-	"strings"
 	"time"
 	"unicode/utf8"
 
+	"github.com/cespare/xxhash/v2"
 	"github.com/prometheus/common/model"
-	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/timestamp"
-	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/value"
-	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/prompb"
 	"go.opentelemetry.io/collector/pdata/pcommon"
 	"go.opentelemetry.io/collector/pdata/pmetric"
 	conventions "go.opentelemetry.io/collector/semconv/v1.6.1"
 
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/timestamp"
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/value"
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/prompb"
+
 	prometheustranslator "github.com/prometheus/prometheus/storage/remote/otlptranslator/prometheus"
 )
 
@@ -48,7 +61,7 @@ const (
 )
 
 type bucketBoundsData struct {
-	sig   string
+	ts    *prompb.TimeSeries
 	bound float64
 }
 
@@ -66,94 +79,47 @@ func (a ByLabelName) Len() int           { return len(a) }
 func (a ByLabelName) Less(i, j int) bool { return a[i].Name < a[j].Name }
 func (a ByLabelName) Swap(i, j int)      { a[i], a[j] = a[j], a[i] }
 
-// addSample finds a TimeSeries in tsMap that corresponds to the label set labels, and add sample to the TimeSeries; it
-// creates a new TimeSeries in the map if not found and returns the time series signature.
-// tsMap will be unmodified if either labels or sample is nil, but can still be modified if the exemplar is nil.
-func addSample(tsMap map[string]*prompb.TimeSeries, sample *prompb.Sample, labels []prompb.Label,
-	datatype string) string {
-	if sample == nil || labels == nil || tsMap == nil {
-		// This shouldn't happen
-		return ""
-	}
-
-	sig := timeSeriesSignature(datatype, labels)
-	ts := tsMap[sig]
-	if ts != nil {
-		ts.Samples = append(ts.Samples, *sample)
-	} else {
-		newTs := &prompb.TimeSeries{
-			Labels:  labels,
-			Samples: []prompb.Sample{*sample},
-		}
-		tsMap[sig] = newTs
-	}
-
-	return sig
-}
-
-// addExemplars finds a bucket bound that corresponds to the exemplars value and add the exemplar to the specific sig;
-// we only add exemplars if samples are presents
-// tsMap is unmodified if either of its parameters is nil and samples are nil.
-func addExemplars(tsMap map[string]*prompb.TimeSeries, exemplars []prompb.Exemplar, bucketBoundsData []bucketBoundsData) {
-	if len(tsMap) == 0 || len(bucketBoundsData) == 0 || len(exemplars) == 0 {
-		return
-	}
-
-	sort.Sort(byBucketBoundsData(bucketBoundsData))
-
-	for _, exemplar := range exemplars {
-		addExemplar(tsMap, bucketBoundsData, exemplar)
-	}
-}
-
-func addExemplar(tsMap map[string]*prompb.TimeSeries, bucketBounds []bucketBoundsData, exemplar prompb.Exemplar) {
-	for _, bucketBound := range bucketBounds {
-		sig := bucketBound.sig
-		bound := bucketBound.bound
-
-		ts := tsMap[sig]
-		if ts != nil && len(ts.Samples) > 0 && exemplar.Value <= bound {
-			ts.Exemplars = append(ts.Exemplars, exemplar)
-			return
-		}
-	}
-}
-
-// timeSeries return a string signature in the form of:
-//
-//	TYPE-label1-value1- ...  -labelN-valueN
-//
-// the label slice should not contain duplicate label names; this method sorts the slice by label name before creating
+// timeSeriesSignature returns a hashed label set signature.
+// The label slice should not contain duplicate label names; this method sorts the slice by label name before creating
 // the signature.
-func timeSeriesSignature(datatype string, labels []prompb.Label) string {
-	length := len(datatype)
-
-	for _, lb := range labels {
-		length += 2 + len(lb.GetName()) + len(lb.GetValue())
-	}
-
-	b := strings.Builder{}
-	b.Grow(length)
-	b.WriteString(datatype)
-
+// The algorithm is the same as in Prometheus' labels.StableHash function.
+func timeSeriesSignature(labels []prompb.Label) uint64 {
 	sort.Sort(ByLabelName(labels))
 
-	for _, lb := range labels {
-		b.WriteString("-")
-		b.WriteString(lb.GetName())
-		b.WriteString("-")
-		b.WriteString(lb.GetValue())
-	}
+	// Use xxhash.Sum64(b) for fast path as it's faster.
+	b := make([]byte, 0, 1024)
+	for i, v := range labels {
+		if len(b)+len(v.Name)+len(v.Value)+2 >= cap(b) {
+			// If labels entry is 1KB+ do not allocate whole entry.
+			h := xxhash.New()
+			_, _ = h.Write(b)
+			for _, v := range labels[i:] {
+				_, _ = h.WriteString(v.Name)
+				_, _ = h.Write(seps)
+				_, _ = h.WriteString(v.Value)
+				_, _ = h.Write(seps)
+			}
+			return h.Sum64()
+		}
 
-	return b.String()
+		b = append(b, v.Name...)
+		b = append(b, seps[0])
+		b = append(b, v.Value...)
+		b = append(b, seps[0])
+	}
+	return xxhash.Sum64(b)
 }
 
+var seps = []byte{'\xff'}
+
 // createAttributes creates a slice of Prometheus Labels with OTLP attributes and pairs of string values.
-// Unpaired string values are ignored. String pairs overwrite OTLP labels if collisions happen, and overwrites are
-// logged. Resulting label names are sanitized.
-func createAttributes(resource pcommon.Resource, attributes pcommon.Map, externalLabels map[string]string, extras ...string) []prompb.Label {
-	serviceName, haveServiceName := resource.Attributes().Get(conventions.AttributeServiceName)
-	instance, haveInstanceID := resource.Attributes().Get(conventions.AttributeServiceInstanceID)
+// Unpaired string values are ignored. String pairs overwrite OTLP labels if collisions happen and
+// if logOnOverwrite is true, the overwrite is logged. Resulting label names are sanitized.
+func createAttributes(resource pcommon.Resource, attributes pcommon.Map, externalLabels map[string]string,
+	ignoreAttrs []string, logOnOverwrite bool, extras ...string) []prompb.Label {
+	resourceAttrs := resource.Attributes()
+	serviceName, haveServiceName := resourceAttrs.Get(conventions.AttributeServiceName)
+	instance, haveInstanceID := resourceAttrs.Get(conventions.AttributeServiceInstanceID)
 
 	// Calculate the maximum possible number of labels we could return so we can preallocate l
 	maxLabelCount := attributes.Len() + len(externalLabels) + len(extras)/2
@@ -171,9 +137,13 @@ func createAttributes(resource pcommon.Resource, attributes pcommon.Map, externa
 
 	// Ensure attributes are sorted by key for consistent merging of keys which
 	// collide when sanitized.
-	labels := make([]prompb.Label, 0, attributes.Len())
+	labels := make([]prompb.Label, 0, maxLabelCount)
+	// XXX: Should we always drop service namespace/service name/service instance ID from the labels
+	// (as they get mapped to other Prometheus labels)?
 	attributes.Range(func(key string, value pcommon.Value) bool {
-		labels = append(labels, prompb.Label{Name: key, Value: value.AsString()})
+		if !slices.Contains(ignoreAttrs, key) {
+			labels = append(labels, prompb.Label{Name: key, Value: value.AsString()})
+		}
 		return true
 	})
 	sort.Stable(ByLabelName(labels))
@@ -190,7 +160,7 @@ func createAttributes(resource pcommon.Resource, attributes pcommon.Map, externa
 	// Map service.name + service.namespace to job
 	if haveServiceName {
 		val := serviceName.AsString()
-		if serviceNamespace, ok := resource.Attributes().Get(conventions.AttributeServiceNamespace); ok {
+		if serviceNamespace, ok := resourceAttrs.Get(conventions.AttributeServiceNamespace); ok {
 			val = fmt.Sprintf("%s/%s", serviceNamespace.AsString(), val)
 		}
 		l[model.JobLabel] = val
@@ -212,24 +182,25 @@ func createAttributes(resource pcommon.Resource, attributes pcommon.Map, externa
 		if i+1 >= len(extras) {
 			break
 		}
-		_, found := l[extras[i]]
-		if found {
-			log.Println("label " + extras[i] + " is overwritten. Check if Prometheus reserved labels are used.")
+
+		name := extras[i]
+		_, found := l[name]
+		if found && logOnOverwrite {
+			log.Println("label " + name + " is overwritten. Check if Prometheus reserved labels are used.")
 		}
 		// internal labels should be maintained
-		name := extras[i]
 		if !(len(name) > 4 && name[:2] == "__" && name[len(name)-2:] == "__") {
 			name = prometheustranslator.NormalizeLabel(name)
 		}
 		l[name] = extras[i+1]
 	}
 
-	s := make([]prompb.Label, 0, len(l))
+	labels = labels[:0]
 	for k, v := range l {
-		s = append(s, prompb.Label{Name: k, Value: v})
+		labels = append(labels, prompb.Label{Name: k, Value: v})
 	}
 
-	return s
+	return labels
 }
 
 // isValidAggregationTemporality checks whether an OTel metric has a valid
@@ -249,100 +220,91 @@ func isValidAggregationTemporality(metric pmetric.Metric) bool {
 	return false
 }
 
-// addSingleHistogramDataPoint converts pt to 2 + min(len(ExplicitBounds), len(BucketCount)) + 1 samples. It
-// ignore extra buckets if len(ExplicitBounds) > len(BucketCounts)
-func addSingleHistogramDataPoint(pt pmetric.HistogramDataPoint, resource pcommon.Resource, metric pmetric.Metric, settings Settings, tsMap map[string]*prompb.TimeSeries, baseName string) {
-	timestamp := convertTimeStamp(pt.Timestamp())
-	baseLabels := createAttributes(resource, pt.Attributes(), settings.ExternalLabels)
+// addHistogramDataPoints adds OTel histogram data points to the corresponding Prometheus time series
+// as classical histogram samples.
+//
+// Note that we can't convert to native histograms, since these have exponential buckets and don't line up
+// with the user defined bucket boundaries of non-exponential OTel histograms.
+// However, work is under way to resolve this shortcoming through a feature called native histograms custom buckets:
+// https://github.com/prometheus/prometheus/issues/13485.
+func (c *PrometheusConverter) addHistogramDataPoints(dataPoints pmetric.HistogramDataPointSlice,
+	resource pcommon.Resource, settings Settings, baseName string) {
+	for x := 0; x < dataPoints.Len(); x++ {
+		pt := dataPoints.At(x)
+		timestamp := convertTimeStamp(pt.Timestamp())
+		baseLabels := createAttributes(resource, pt.Attributes(), settings.ExternalLabels, nil, false)
 
-	createLabels := func(nameSuffix string, extras ...string) []prompb.Label {
-		extraLabelCount := len(extras) / 2
-		labels := make([]prompb.Label, len(baseLabels), len(baseLabels)+extraLabelCount+1) // +1 for name
-		copy(labels, baseLabels)
+		// If the sum is unset, it indicates the _sum metric point should be
+		// omitted
+		if pt.HasSum() {
+			// treat sum as a sample in an individual TimeSeries
+			sum := &prompb.Sample{
+				Value:     pt.Sum(),
+				Timestamp: timestamp,
+			}
+			if pt.Flags().NoRecordedValue() {
+				sum.Value = math.Float64frombits(value.StaleNaN)
+			}
+
+			sumlabels := createLabels(baseName+sumStr, baseLabels)
+			c.addSample(sum, sumlabels)
 
-		for extrasIdx := 0; extrasIdx < extraLabelCount; extrasIdx++ {
-			labels = append(labels, prompb.Label{Name: extras[extrasIdx], Value: extras[extrasIdx+1]})
 		}
 
-		// sum, count, and buckets of the histogram should append suffix to baseName
-		labels = append(labels, prompb.Label{Name: model.MetricNameLabel, Value: baseName + nameSuffix})
-
-		return labels
-	}
-
-	// If the sum is unset, it indicates the _sum metric point should be
-	// omitted
-	if pt.HasSum() {
-		// treat sum as a sample in an individual TimeSeries
-		sum := &prompb.Sample{
-			Value:     pt.Sum(),
+		// treat count as a sample in an individual TimeSeries
+		count := &prompb.Sample{
+			Value:     float64(pt.Count()),
 			Timestamp: timestamp,
 		}
 		if pt.Flags().NoRecordedValue() {
-			sum.Value = math.Float64frombits(value.StaleNaN)
+			count.Value = math.Float64frombits(value.StaleNaN)
 		}
 
-		sumlabels := createLabels(sumStr)
-		addSample(tsMap, sum, sumlabels, metric.Type().String())
+		countlabels := createLabels(baseName+countStr, baseLabels)
+		c.addSample(count, countlabels)
 
-	}
+		// cumulative count for conversion to cumulative histogram
+		var cumulativeCount uint64
 
-	// treat count as a sample in an individual TimeSeries
-	count := &prompb.Sample{
-		Value:     float64(pt.Count()),
-		Timestamp: timestamp,
-	}
-	if pt.Flags().NoRecordedValue() {
-		count.Value = math.Float64frombits(value.StaleNaN)
-	}
+		var bucketBounds []bucketBoundsData
 
-	countlabels := createLabels(countStr)
-	addSample(tsMap, count, countlabels, metric.Type().String())
+		// process each bound, based on histograms proto definition, # of buckets = # of explicit bounds + 1
+		for i := 0; i < pt.ExplicitBounds().Len() && i < pt.BucketCounts().Len(); i++ {
+			bound := pt.ExplicitBounds().At(i)
+			cumulativeCount += pt.BucketCounts().At(i)
+			bucket := &prompb.Sample{
+				Value:     float64(cumulativeCount),
+				Timestamp: timestamp,
+			}
+			if pt.Flags().NoRecordedValue() {
+				bucket.Value = math.Float64frombits(value.StaleNaN)
+			}
+			boundStr := strconv.FormatFloat(bound, 'f', -1, 64)
+			labels := createLabels(baseName+bucketStr, baseLabels, leStr, boundStr)
+			ts := c.addSample(bucket, labels)
 
-	// cumulative count for conversion to cumulative histogram
-	var cumulativeCount uint64
-
-	promExemplars := getPromExemplars[pmetric.HistogramDataPoint](pt)
-
-	var bucketBounds []bucketBoundsData
-
-	// process each bound, based on histograms proto definition, # of buckets = # of explicit bounds + 1
-	for i := 0; i < pt.ExplicitBounds().Len() && i < pt.BucketCounts().Len(); i++ {
-		bound := pt.ExplicitBounds().At(i)
-		cumulativeCount += pt.BucketCounts().At(i)
-		bucket := &prompb.Sample{
-			Value:     float64(cumulativeCount),
+			bucketBounds = append(bucketBounds, bucketBoundsData{ts: ts, bound: bound})
+		}
+		// add le=+Inf bucket
+		infBucket := &prompb.Sample{
 			Timestamp: timestamp,
 		}
 		if pt.Flags().NoRecordedValue() {
-			bucket.Value = math.Float64frombits(value.StaleNaN)
+			infBucket.Value = math.Float64frombits(value.StaleNaN)
+		} else {
+			infBucket.Value = float64(pt.Count())
 		}
-		boundStr := strconv.FormatFloat(bound, 'f', -1, 64)
-		labels := createLabels(bucketStr, leStr, boundStr)
-		sig := addSample(tsMap, bucket, labels, metric.Type().String())
+		infLabels := createLabels(baseName+bucketStr, baseLabels, leStr, pInfStr)
+		ts := c.addSample(infBucket, infLabels)
 
-		bucketBounds = append(bucketBounds, bucketBoundsData{sig: sig, bound: bound})
-	}
-	// add le=+Inf bucket
-	infBucket := &prompb.Sample{
-		Timestamp: timestamp,
-	}
-	if pt.Flags().NoRecordedValue() {
-		infBucket.Value = math.Float64frombits(value.StaleNaN)
-	} else {
-		infBucket.Value = float64(pt.Count())
-	}
-	infLabels := createLabels(bucketStr, leStr, pInfStr)
-	sig := addSample(tsMap, infBucket, infLabels, metric.Type().String())
+		bucketBounds = append(bucketBounds, bucketBoundsData{ts: ts, bound: math.Inf(1)})
+		c.addExemplars(pt, bucketBounds)
 
-	bucketBounds = append(bucketBounds, bucketBoundsData{sig: sig, bound: math.Inf(1)})
-	addExemplars(tsMap, promExemplars, bucketBounds)
-
-	// add _created time series if needed
-	startTimestamp := pt.StartTimestamp()
-	if settings.ExportCreatedMetric && startTimestamp != 0 {
-		labels := createLabels(createdSuffix)
-		addCreatedTimeSeriesIfNeeded(tsMap, labels, startTimestamp, pt.Timestamp(), metric.Type().String())
+		startTimestamp := pt.StartTimestamp()
+		if settings.ExportCreatedMetric && startTimestamp != 0 {
+			labels := createLabels(baseName+createdSuffix, baseLabels)
+			c.addTimeSeriesIfNeeded(labels, startTimestamp, pt.Timestamp())
+		}
 	}
 }
 
@@ -415,162 +377,203 @@ func mostRecentTimestampInMetric(metric pmetric.Metric) pcommon.Timestamp {
 	case pmetric.MetricTypeGauge:
 		dataPoints := metric.Gauge().DataPoints()
 		for x := 0; x < dataPoints.Len(); x++ {
-			ts = maxTimestamp(ts, dataPoints.At(x).Timestamp())
+			ts = max(ts, dataPoints.At(x).Timestamp())
 		}
 	case pmetric.MetricTypeSum:
 		dataPoints := metric.Sum().DataPoints()
 		for x := 0; x < dataPoints.Len(); x++ {
-			ts = maxTimestamp(ts, dataPoints.At(x).Timestamp())
+			ts = max(ts, dataPoints.At(x).Timestamp())
 		}
 	case pmetric.MetricTypeHistogram:
 		dataPoints := metric.Histogram().DataPoints()
 		for x := 0; x < dataPoints.Len(); x++ {
-			ts = maxTimestamp(ts, dataPoints.At(x).Timestamp())
+			ts = max(ts, dataPoints.At(x).Timestamp())
 		}
 	case pmetric.MetricTypeExponentialHistogram:
 		dataPoints := metric.ExponentialHistogram().DataPoints()
 		for x := 0; x < dataPoints.Len(); x++ {
-			ts = maxTimestamp(ts, dataPoints.At(x).Timestamp())
+			ts = max(ts, dataPoints.At(x).Timestamp())
 		}
 	case pmetric.MetricTypeSummary:
 		dataPoints := metric.Summary().DataPoints()
 		for x := 0; x < dataPoints.Len(); x++ {
-			ts = maxTimestamp(ts, dataPoints.At(x).Timestamp())
+			ts = max(ts, dataPoints.At(x).Timestamp())
 		}
 	}
 	return ts
 }
 
-func maxTimestamp(a, b pcommon.Timestamp) pcommon.Timestamp {
-	if a > b {
-		return a
-	}
-	return b
-}
+func (c *PrometheusConverter) addSummaryDataPoints(dataPoints pmetric.SummaryDataPointSlice, resource pcommon.Resource,
+	settings Settings, baseName string) {
+	for x := 0; x < dataPoints.Len(); x++ {
+		pt := dataPoints.At(x)
+		timestamp := convertTimeStamp(pt.Timestamp())
+		baseLabels := createAttributes(resource, pt.Attributes(), settings.ExternalLabels, nil, false)
 
-// addSingleSummaryDataPoint converts pt to len(QuantileValues) + 2 samples.
-func addSingleSummaryDataPoint(pt pmetric.SummaryDataPoint, resource pcommon.Resource, metric pmetric.Metric, settings Settings,
-	tsMap map[string]*prompb.TimeSeries, baseName string) {
-	timestamp := convertTimeStamp(pt.Timestamp())
-	baseLabels := createAttributes(resource, pt.Attributes(), settings.ExternalLabels)
-
-	createLabels := func(name string, extras ...string) []prompb.Label {
-		extraLabelCount := len(extras) / 2
-		labels := make([]prompb.Label, len(baseLabels), len(baseLabels)+extraLabelCount+1) // +1 for name
-		copy(labels, baseLabels)
-
-		for extrasIdx := 0; extrasIdx < extraLabelCount; extrasIdx++ {
-			labels = append(labels, prompb.Label{Name: extras[extrasIdx], Value: extras[extrasIdx+1]})
-		}
-
-		labels = append(labels, prompb.Label{Name: model.MetricNameLabel, Value: name})
-
-		return labels
-	}
-
-	// treat sum as a sample in an individual TimeSeries
-	sum := &prompb.Sample{
-		Value:     pt.Sum(),
-		Timestamp: timestamp,
-	}
-	if pt.Flags().NoRecordedValue() {
-		sum.Value = math.Float64frombits(value.StaleNaN)
-	}
-	// sum and count of the summary should append suffix to baseName
-	sumlabels := createLabels(baseName + sumStr)
-	addSample(tsMap, sum, sumlabels, metric.Type().String())
-
-	// treat count as a sample in an individual TimeSeries
-	count := &prompb.Sample{
-		Value:     float64(pt.Count()),
-		Timestamp: timestamp,
-	}
-	if pt.Flags().NoRecordedValue() {
-		count.Value = math.Float64frombits(value.StaleNaN)
-	}
-	countlabels := createLabels(baseName + countStr)
-	addSample(tsMap, count, countlabels, metric.Type().String())
-
-	// process each percentile/quantile
-	for i := 0; i < pt.QuantileValues().Len(); i++ {
-		qt := pt.QuantileValues().At(i)
-		quantile := &prompb.Sample{
-			Value:     qt.Value(),
+		// treat sum as a sample in an individual TimeSeries
+		sum := &prompb.Sample{
+			Value:     pt.Sum(),
 			Timestamp: timestamp,
 		}
 		if pt.Flags().NoRecordedValue() {
-			quantile.Value = math.Float64frombits(value.StaleNaN)
+			sum.Value = math.Float64frombits(value.StaleNaN)
 		}
-		percentileStr := strconv.FormatFloat(qt.Quantile(), 'f', -1, 64)
-		qtlabels := createLabels(baseName, quantileStr, percentileStr)
-		addSample(tsMap, quantile, qtlabels, metric.Type().String())
-	}
+		// sum and count of the summary should append suffix to baseName
+		sumlabels := createLabels(baseName+sumStr, baseLabels)
+		c.addSample(sum, sumlabels)
 
-	// add _created time series if needed
-	startTimestamp := pt.StartTimestamp()
-	if settings.ExportCreatedMetric && startTimestamp != 0 {
-		createdLabels := createLabels(baseName + createdSuffix)
-		addCreatedTimeSeriesIfNeeded(tsMap, createdLabels, startTimestamp, pt.Timestamp(), metric.Type().String())
+		// treat count as a sample in an individual TimeSeries
+		count := &prompb.Sample{
+			Value:     float64(pt.Count()),
+			Timestamp: timestamp,
+		}
+		if pt.Flags().NoRecordedValue() {
+			count.Value = math.Float64frombits(value.StaleNaN)
+		}
+		countlabels := createLabels(baseName+countStr, baseLabels)
+		c.addSample(count, countlabels)
+
+		// process each percentile/quantile
+		for i := 0; i < pt.QuantileValues().Len(); i++ {
+			qt := pt.QuantileValues().At(i)
+			quantile := &prompb.Sample{
+				Value:     qt.Value(),
+				Timestamp: timestamp,
+			}
+			if pt.Flags().NoRecordedValue() {
+				quantile.Value = math.Float64frombits(value.StaleNaN)
+			}
+			percentileStr := strconv.FormatFloat(qt.Quantile(), 'f', -1, 64)
+			qtlabels := createLabels(baseName, baseLabels, quantileStr, percentileStr)
+			c.addSample(quantile, qtlabels)
+		}
+
+		startTimestamp := pt.StartTimestamp()
+		if settings.ExportCreatedMetric && startTimestamp != 0 {
+			createdLabels := createLabels(baseName+createdSuffix, baseLabels)
+			c.addTimeSeriesIfNeeded(createdLabels, startTimestamp, pt.Timestamp())
+		}
 	}
 }
 
-// addCreatedTimeSeriesIfNeeded adds {name}_created time series with a single
-// sample. If the series exists, then new samples won't be added.
-func addCreatedTimeSeriesIfNeeded(
-	series map[string]*prompb.TimeSeries,
-	labels []prompb.Label,
-	startTimestamp pcommon.Timestamp,
-	timestamp pcommon.Timestamp,
-	metricType string,
-) {
-	sig := timeSeriesSignature(metricType, labels)
-	if _, ok := series[sig]; !ok {
-		series[sig] = &prompb.TimeSeries{
-			Labels: labels,
-			Samples: []prompb.Sample{
-				{ // convert ns to ms
-					Value:     float64(convertTimeStamp(startTimestamp)),
-					Timestamp: convertTimeStamp(timestamp),
-				},
+// createLabels returns a copy of baseLabels, adding to it the pair model.MetricNameLabel=name.
+// If extras are provided, corresponding label pairs are also added to the returned slice.
+// If extras is uneven length, the last (unpaired) extra will be ignored.
+func createLabels(name string, baseLabels []prompb.Label, extras ...string) []prompb.Label {
+	extraLabelCount := len(extras) / 2
+	labels := make([]prompb.Label, len(baseLabels), len(baseLabels)+extraLabelCount+1) // +1 for name
+	copy(labels, baseLabels)
+
+	n := len(extras)
+	n -= n % 2
+	for extrasIdx := 0; extrasIdx < n; extrasIdx += 2 {
+		labels = append(labels, prompb.Label{Name: extras[extrasIdx], Value: extras[extrasIdx+1]})
+	}
+
+	labels = append(labels, prompb.Label{Name: model.MetricNameLabel, Value: name})
+	return labels
+}
+
+// getOrCreateTimeSeries returns the time series corresponding to the label set if existent, and false.
+// Otherwise it creates a new one and returns that, and true.
+func (c *PrometheusConverter) getOrCreateTimeSeries(lbls []prompb.Label) (*prompb.TimeSeries, bool) {
+	h := timeSeriesSignature(lbls)
+	ts := c.unique[h]
+	if ts != nil {
+		if isSameMetric(ts, lbls) {
+			// We already have this metric
+			return ts, false
+		}
+
+		// Look for a matching conflict
+		for _, cTS := range c.conflicts[h] {
+			if isSameMetric(cTS, lbls) {
+				// We already have this metric
+				return cTS, false
+			}
+		}
+
+		// New conflict
+		ts = &prompb.TimeSeries{
+			Labels: lbls,
+		}
+		c.conflicts[h] = append(c.conflicts[h], ts)
+		return ts, true
+	}
+
+	// This metric is new
+	ts = &prompb.TimeSeries{
+		Labels: lbls,
+	}
+	c.unique[h] = ts
+	return ts, true
+}
+
+// addTimeSeriesIfNeeded adds a corresponding time series if it doesn't already exist.
+// If the time series doesn't already exist, it gets added with startTimestamp for its value and timestamp for its timestamp,
+// both converted to milliseconds.
+func (c *PrometheusConverter) addTimeSeriesIfNeeded(lbls []prompb.Label, startTimestamp pcommon.Timestamp, timestamp pcommon.Timestamp) {
+	ts, created := c.getOrCreateTimeSeries(lbls)
+	if created {
+		ts.Samples = []prompb.Sample{
+			{
+				// convert ns to ms
+				Value:     float64(convertTimeStamp(startTimestamp)),
+				Timestamp: convertTimeStamp(timestamp),
 			},
 		}
 	}
 }
 
-// addResourceTargetInfo converts the resource to the target info metric
-func addResourceTargetInfo(resource pcommon.Resource, settings Settings, timestamp pcommon.Timestamp, tsMap map[string]*prompb.TimeSeries) {
-	if settings.DisableTargetInfo {
+// addResourceTargetInfo converts the resource to the target info metric.
+func addResourceTargetInfo(resource pcommon.Resource, settings Settings, timestamp pcommon.Timestamp, converter *PrometheusConverter) {
+	if settings.DisableTargetInfo || timestamp == 0 {
 		return
 	}
-	// Use resource attributes (other than those used for job+instance) as the
-	// metric labels for the target info metric
-	attributes := pcommon.NewMap()
-	resource.Attributes().CopyTo(attributes)
-	attributes.RemoveIf(func(k string, _ pcommon.Value) bool {
-		switch k {
-		case conventions.AttributeServiceName, conventions.AttributeServiceNamespace, conventions.AttributeServiceInstanceID:
-			// Remove resource attributes used for job + instance
-			return true
-		default:
-			return false
+
+	attributes := resource.Attributes()
+	identifyingAttrs := []string{
+		conventions.AttributeServiceNamespace,
+		conventions.AttributeServiceName,
+		conventions.AttributeServiceInstanceID,
+	}
+	nonIdentifyingAttrsCount := attributes.Len()
+	for _, a := range identifyingAttrs {
+		_, haveAttr := attributes.Get(a)
+		if haveAttr {
+			nonIdentifyingAttrsCount--
 		}
-	})
-	if attributes.Len() == 0 {
+	}
+	if nonIdentifyingAttrsCount == 0 {
 		// If we only have job + instance, then target_info isn't useful, so don't add it.
 		return
 	}
-	// create parameters for addSample
+
 	name := targetMetricName
 	if len(settings.Namespace) > 0 {
 		name = settings.Namespace + "_" + name
 	}
-	labels := createAttributes(resource, attributes, settings.ExternalLabels, model.MetricNameLabel, name)
+
+	labels := createAttributes(resource, attributes, settings.ExternalLabels, identifyingAttrs, false, model.MetricNameLabel, name)
+	haveIdentifier := false
+	for _, l := range labels {
+		if l.Name == model.JobLabel || l.Name == model.InstanceLabel {
+			haveIdentifier = true
+			break
+		}
+	}
+
+	if !haveIdentifier {
+		// We need at least one identifying label to generate target_info.
+		return
+	}
+
 	sample := &prompb.Sample{
 		Value: float64(1),
 		// convert ns to ms
 		Timestamp: convertTimeStamp(timestamp),
 	}
-	addSample(tsMap, sample, labels, infoType)
+	converter.addSample(sample, labels)
 }
 
 // convertTimeStamp converts OTLP timestamp in ns to timestamp in ms
diff --git a/storage/remote/otlptranslator/prometheusremotewrite/histograms.go b/storage/remote/otlptranslator/prometheusremotewrite/histograms.go
index 14cea32c37..21b3f5dd9f 100644
--- a/storage/remote/otlptranslator/prometheusremotewrite/histograms.go
+++ b/storage/remote/otlptranslator/prometheusremotewrite/histograms.go
@@ -1,63 +1,67 @@
-// DO NOT EDIT. COPIED AS-IS. SEE ../README.md
+// Copyright 2024 The Prometheus Authors
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+//
+// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+// Provenance-includes-location: https://github.com/open-telemetry/opentelemetry-collector-contrib/blob/95e8f8fdc2a9dc87230406c9a3cf02be4fd68bea/pkg/translator/prometheusremotewrite/histograms.go
+// Provenance-includes-license: Apache-2.0
+// Provenance-includes-copyright: Copyright The OpenTelemetry Authors.
 
-// Copyright The OpenTelemetry Authors
-// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
-
-package prometheusremotewrite // import "github.com/prometheus/prometheus/storage/remote/otlptranslator/prometheusremotewrite"
+package prometheusremotewrite
 
 import (
 	"fmt"
 	"math"
 
 	"github.com/prometheus/common/model"
-	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/value"
-	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/prompb"
 	"go.opentelemetry.io/collector/pdata/pcommon"
 	"go.opentelemetry.io/collector/pdata/pmetric"
+
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/value"
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/prompb"
 )
 
 const defaultZeroThreshold = 1e-128
 
-func addSingleExponentialHistogramDataPoint(
-	metric string,
-	pt pmetric.ExponentialHistogramDataPoint,
-	resource pcommon.Resource,
-	settings Settings,
-	series map[string]*prompb.TimeSeries,
-) error {
-	labels := createAttributes(
-		resource,
-		pt.Attributes(),
-		settings.ExternalLabels,
-		model.MetricNameLabel,
-		metric,
-	)
+// addExponentialHistogramDataPoints adds OTel exponential histogram data points to the corresponding time series
+// as native histogram samples.
+func (c *PrometheusConverter) addExponentialHistogramDataPoints(dataPoints pmetric.ExponentialHistogramDataPointSlice,
+	resource pcommon.Resource, settings Settings, promName string) error {
+	for x := 0; x < dataPoints.Len(); x++ {
+		pt := dataPoints.At(x)
 
-	sig := timeSeriesSignature(
-		pmetric.MetricTypeExponentialHistogram.String(),
-		labels,
-	)
-	ts, ok := series[sig]
-	if !ok {
-		ts = &prompb.TimeSeries{
-			Labels: labels,
+		histogram, err := exponentialToNativeHistogram(pt)
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
 		}
-		series[sig] = ts
-	}
 
-	histogram, err := exponentialToNativeHistogram(pt)
-	if err != nil {
-		return err
-	}
-	ts.Histograms = append(ts.Histograms, histogram)
+		lbls := createAttributes(
+			resource,
+			pt.Attributes(),
+			settings.ExternalLabels,
+			nil,
+			true,
+			model.MetricNameLabel,
+			promName,
+		)
+		ts, _ := c.getOrCreateTimeSeries(lbls)
+		ts.Histograms = append(ts.Histograms, histogram)
 
-	exemplars := getPromExemplars[pmetric.ExponentialHistogramDataPoint](pt)
-	ts.Exemplars = append(ts.Exemplars, exemplars...)
+		exemplars := getPromExemplars[pmetric.ExponentialHistogramDataPoint](pt)
+		ts.Exemplars = append(ts.Exemplars, exemplars...)
+	}
 
 	return nil
 }
 
-// exponentialToNativeHistogram  translates OTel Exponential Histogram data point
+// exponentialToNativeHistogram translates OTel Exponential Histogram data point
 // to Prometheus Native Histogram.
 func exponentialToNativeHistogram(p pmetric.ExponentialHistogramDataPoint) (prompb.Histogram, error) {
 	scale := p.Scale()
diff --git a/storage/remote/otlptranslator/prometheusremotewrite/metrics_to_prw.go b/storage/remote/otlptranslator/prometheusremotewrite/metrics_to_prw.go
index fb141034ad..65dac99c50 100644
--- a/storage/remote/otlptranslator/prometheusremotewrite/metrics_to_prw.go
+++ b/storage/remote/otlptranslator/prometheusremotewrite/metrics_to_prw.go
@@ -1,19 +1,31 @@
-// DO NOT EDIT. COPIED AS-IS. SEE ../README.md
+// Copyright 2024 The Prometheus Authors
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+//
+// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+// Provenance-includes-location: https://github.com/open-telemetry/opentelemetry-collector-contrib/blob/95e8f8fdc2a9dc87230406c9a3cf02be4fd68bea/pkg/translator/prometheusremotewrite/metrics_to_prw.go
+// Provenance-includes-license: Apache-2.0
+// Provenance-includes-copyright: Copyright The OpenTelemetry Authors.
 
-// Copyright The OpenTelemetry Authors
-// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
-
-package prometheusremotewrite // import "github.com/prometheus/prometheus/storage/remote/otlptranslator/prometheusremotewrite"
+package prometheusremotewrite
 
 import (
 	"errors"
 	"fmt"
+	"sort"
 
-	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/prompb"
 	"go.opentelemetry.io/collector/pdata/pcommon"
 	"go.opentelemetry.io/collector/pdata/pmetric"
 	"go.uber.org/multierr"
 
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/prompb"
 	prometheustranslator "github.com/prometheus/prometheus/storage/remote/otlptranslator/prometheus"
 )
 
@@ -26,10 +38,21 @@ type Settings struct {
 	SendMetadata        bool
 }
 
-// FromMetrics converts pmetric.Metrics to Prometheus remote write format.
-func FromMetrics(md pmetric.Metrics, settings Settings) (tsMap map[string]*prompb.TimeSeries, errs error) {
-	tsMap = make(map[string]*prompb.TimeSeries)
+// PrometheusConverter converts from OTel write format to Prometheus remote write format.
+type PrometheusConverter struct {
+	unique    map[uint64]*prompb.TimeSeries
+	conflicts map[uint64][]*prompb.TimeSeries
+}
 
+func NewPrometheusConverter() *PrometheusConverter {
+	return &PrometheusConverter{
+		unique:    map[uint64]*prompb.TimeSeries{},
+		conflicts: map[uint64][]*prompb.TimeSeries{},
+	}
+}
+
+// FromMetrics converts pmetric.Metrics to Prometheus remote write format.
+func (c *PrometheusConverter) FromMetrics(md pmetric.Metrics, settings Settings) (errs error) {
 	resourceMetricsSlice := md.ResourceMetrics()
 	for i := 0; i < resourceMetricsSlice.Len(); i++ {
 		resourceMetrics := resourceMetricsSlice.At(i)
@@ -39,13 +62,12 @@ func FromMetrics(md pmetric.Metrics, settings Settings) (tsMap map[string]*promp
 		// use with the "target" info metric
 		var mostRecentTimestamp pcommon.Timestamp
 		for j := 0; j < scopeMetricsSlice.Len(); j++ {
-			scopeMetrics := scopeMetricsSlice.At(j)
-			metricSlice := scopeMetrics.Metrics()
+			metricSlice := scopeMetricsSlice.At(j).Metrics()
 
 			// TODO: decide if instrumentation library information should be exported as labels
 			for k := 0; k < metricSlice.Len(); k++ {
 				metric := metricSlice.At(k)
-				mostRecentTimestamp = maxTimestamp(mostRecentTimestamp, mostRecentTimestampInMetric(metric))
+				mostRecentTimestamp = max(mostRecentTimestamp, mostRecentTimestampInMetric(metric))
 
 				if !isValidAggregationTemporality(metric) {
 					errs = multierr.Append(errs, fmt.Errorf("invalid temporality and type combination for metric %q", metric.Name()))
@@ -54,65 +76,106 @@ func FromMetrics(md pmetric.Metrics, settings Settings) (tsMap map[string]*promp
 
 				promName := prometheustranslator.BuildCompliantName(metric, settings.Namespace, settings.AddMetricSuffixes)
 
-				// handle individual metric based on type
+				// handle individual metrics based on type
 				//exhaustive:enforce
 				switch metric.Type() {
 				case pmetric.MetricTypeGauge:
 					dataPoints := metric.Gauge().DataPoints()
 					if dataPoints.Len() == 0 {
 						errs = multierr.Append(errs, fmt.Errorf("empty data points. %s is dropped", metric.Name()))
+						break
 					}
-					for x := 0; x < dataPoints.Len(); x++ {
-						addSingleGaugeNumberDataPoint(dataPoints.At(x), resource, metric, settings, tsMap, promName)
-					}
+					c.addGaugeNumberDataPoints(dataPoints, resource, settings, promName)
 				case pmetric.MetricTypeSum:
 					dataPoints := metric.Sum().DataPoints()
 					if dataPoints.Len() == 0 {
 						errs = multierr.Append(errs, fmt.Errorf("empty data points. %s is dropped", metric.Name()))
+						break
 					}
-					for x := 0; x < dataPoints.Len(); x++ {
-						addSingleSumNumberDataPoint(dataPoints.At(x), resource, metric, settings, tsMap, promName)
-					}
+					c.addSumNumberDataPoints(dataPoints, resource, metric, settings, promName)
 				case pmetric.MetricTypeHistogram:
 					dataPoints := metric.Histogram().DataPoints()
 					if dataPoints.Len() == 0 {
 						errs = multierr.Append(errs, fmt.Errorf("empty data points. %s is dropped", metric.Name()))
+						break
 					}
-					for x := 0; x < dataPoints.Len(); x++ {
-						addSingleHistogramDataPoint(dataPoints.At(x), resource, metric, settings, tsMap, promName)
-					}
+					c.addHistogramDataPoints(dataPoints, resource, settings, promName)
 				case pmetric.MetricTypeExponentialHistogram:
 					dataPoints := metric.ExponentialHistogram().DataPoints()
 					if dataPoints.Len() == 0 {
 						errs = multierr.Append(errs, fmt.Errorf("empty data points. %s is dropped", metric.Name()))
+						break
 					}
-					for x := 0; x < dataPoints.Len(); x++ {
-						errs = multierr.Append(
-							errs,
-							addSingleExponentialHistogramDataPoint(
-								promName,
-								dataPoints.At(x),
-								resource,
-								settings,
-								tsMap,
-							),
-						)
-					}
+					errs = multierr.Append(errs, c.addExponentialHistogramDataPoints(
+						dataPoints,
+						resource,
+						settings,
+						promName,
+					))
 				case pmetric.MetricTypeSummary:
 					dataPoints := metric.Summary().DataPoints()
 					if dataPoints.Len() == 0 {
 						errs = multierr.Append(errs, fmt.Errorf("empty data points. %s is dropped", metric.Name()))
+						break
 					}
-					for x := 0; x < dataPoints.Len(); x++ {
-						addSingleSummaryDataPoint(dataPoints.At(x), resource, metric, settings, tsMap, promName)
-					}
+					c.addSummaryDataPoints(dataPoints, resource, settings, promName)
 				default:
 					errs = multierr.Append(errs, errors.New("unsupported metric type"))
 				}
 			}
 		}
-		addResourceTargetInfo(resource, settings, mostRecentTimestamp, tsMap)
+		addResourceTargetInfo(resource, settings, mostRecentTimestamp, c)
 	}
 
 	return
 }
+
+func isSameMetric(ts *prompb.TimeSeries, lbls []prompb.Label) bool {
+	if len(ts.Labels) != len(lbls) {
+		return false
+	}
+	for i, l := range ts.Labels {
+		if l.Name != ts.Labels[i].Name || l.Value != ts.Labels[i].Value {
+			return false
+		}
+	}
+	return true
+}
+
+// addExemplars adds exemplars for the dataPoint. For each exemplar, if it can find a bucket bound corresponding to its value,
+// the exemplar is added to the bucket bound's time series, provided that the time series' has samples.
+func (c *PrometheusConverter) addExemplars(dataPoint pmetric.HistogramDataPoint, bucketBounds []bucketBoundsData) {
+	if len(bucketBounds) == 0 {
+		return
+	}
+
+	exemplars := getPromExemplars(dataPoint)
+	if len(exemplars) == 0 {
+		return
+	}
+
+	sort.Sort(byBucketBoundsData(bucketBounds))
+	for _, exemplar := range exemplars {
+		for _, bound := range bucketBounds {
+			if len(bound.ts.Samples) > 0 && exemplar.Value <= bound.bound {
+				bound.ts.Exemplars = append(bound.ts.Exemplars, exemplar)
+				break
+			}
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+// addSample finds a TimeSeries that corresponds to lbls, and adds sample to it.
+// If there is no corresponding TimeSeries already, it's created.
+// The corresponding TimeSeries is returned.
+// If either lbls is nil/empty or sample is nil, nothing is done.
+func (c *PrometheusConverter) addSample(sample *prompb.Sample, lbls []prompb.Label) *prompb.TimeSeries {
+	if sample == nil || len(lbls) == 0 {
+		// This shouldn't happen
+		return nil
+	}
+
+	ts, _ := c.getOrCreateTimeSeries(lbls)
+	ts.Samples = append(ts.Samples, *sample)
+	return ts
+}
diff --git a/storage/remote/otlptranslator/prometheusremotewrite/metrics_to_prw_test.go b/storage/remote/otlptranslator/prometheusremotewrite/metrics_to_prw_test.go
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..37ac677747
--- /dev/null
+++ b/storage/remote/otlptranslator/prometheusremotewrite/metrics_to_prw_test.go
@@ -0,0 +1,134 @@
+// Copyright 2024 The Prometheus Authors
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+//
+// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+// Provenance-includes-location: https://github.com/open-telemetry/opentelemetry-collector-contrib/blob/95e8f8fdc2a9dc87230406c9a3cf02be4fd68bea/pkg/translator/prometheusremotewrite/metrics_to_prw_test.go
+// Provenance-includes-license: Apache-2.0
+// Provenance-includes-copyright: Copyright The OpenTelemetry Authors.
+
+package prometheusremotewrite
+
+import (
+	"fmt"
+	"testing"
+	"time"
+
+	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
+	"go.opentelemetry.io/collector/pdata/pcommon"
+	"go.opentelemetry.io/collector/pdata/pmetric"
+	"go.opentelemetry.io/collector/pdata/pmetric/pmetricotlp"
+)
+
+func BenchmarkPrometheusConverter_FromMetrics(b *testing.B) {
+	for _, resourceAttributeCount := range []int{0, 5, 50} {
+		b.Run(fmt.Sprintf("resource attribute count: %v", resourceAttributeCount), func(b *testing.B) {
+			for _, histogramCount := range []int{0, 1000} {
+				b.Run(fmt.Sprintf("histogram count: %v", histogramCount), func(b *testing.B) {
+					nonHistogramCounts := []int{0, 1000}
+
+					if resourceAttributeCount == 0 && histogramCount == 0 {
+						// Don't bother running a scenario where we'll generate no series.
+						nonHistogramCounts = []int{1000}
+					}
+
+					for _, nonHistogramCount := range nonHistogramCounts {
+						b.Run(fmt.Sprintf("non-histogram count: %v", nonHistogramCount), func(b *testing.B) {
+							for _, labelsPerMetric := range []int{2, 20} {
+								b.Run(fmt.Sprintf("labels per metric: %v", labelsPerMetric), func(b *testing.B) {
+									for _, exemplarsPerSeries := range []int{0, 5, 10} {
+										b.Run(fmt.Sprintf("exemplars per series: %v", exemplarsPerSeries), func(b *testing.B) {
+											payload := createExportRequest(resourceAttributeCount, histogramCount, nonHistogramCount, labelsPerMetric, exemplarsPerSeries)
+
+											for i := 0; i < b.N; i++ {
+												converter := NewPrometheusConverter()
+												require.NoError(b, converter.FromMetrics(payload.Metrics(), Settings{}))
+												require.NotNil(b, converter.TimeSeries())
+											}
+										})
+									}
+								})
+							}
+						})
+					}
+				})
+			}
+		})
+	}
+}
+
+func createExportRequest(resourceAttributeCount, histogramCount, nonHistogramCount, labelsPerMetric, exemplarsPerSeries int) pmetricotlp.ExportRequest {
+	request := pmetricotlp.NewExportRequest()
+
+	rm := request.Metrics().ResourceMetrics().AppendEmpty()
+	generateAttributes(rm.Resource().Attributes(), "resource", resourceAttributeCount)
+
+	metrics := rm.ScopeMetrics().AppendEmpty().Metrics()
+	ts := pcommon.NewTimestampFromTime(time.Now())
+
+	for i := 1; i <= histogramCount; i++ {
+		m := metrics.AppendEmpty()
+		m.SetEmptyHistogram()
+		m.SetName(fmt.Sprintf("histogram-%v", i))
+		m.Histogram().SetAggregationTemporality(pmetric.AggregationTemporalityCumulative)
+		h := m.Histogram().DataPoints().AppendEmpty()
+		h.SetTimestamp(ts)
+
+		// Set 50 samples, 10 each with values 0.5, 1, 2, 4, and 8
+		h.SetCount(50)
+		h.SetSum(155)
+		h.BucketCounts().FromRaw([]uint64{10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 0})
+		h.ExplicitBounds().FromRaw([]float64{.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, 16}) // Bucket boundaries include the upper limit (ie. each sample is on the upper limit of its bucket)
+
+		generateAttributes(h.Attributes(), "series", labelsPerMetric)
+		generateExemplars(h.Exemplars(), exemplarsPerSeries, ts)
+	}
+
+	for i := 1; i <= nonHistogramCount; i++ {
+		m := metrics.AppendEmpty()
+		m.SetEmptySum()
+		m.SetName(fmt.Sprintf("sum-%v", i))
+		m.Sum().SetAggregationTemporality(pmetric.AggregationTemporalityCumulative)
+		point := m.Sum().DataPoints().AppendEmpty()
+		point.SetTimestamp(ts)
+		point.SetDoubleValue(1.23)
+		generateAttributes(point.Attributes(), "series", labelsPerMetric)
+		generateExemplars(point.Exemplars(), exemplarsPerSeries, ts)
+	}
+
+	for i := 1; i <= nonHistogramCount; i++ {
+		m := metrics.AppendEmpty()
+		m.SetEmptyGauge()
+		m.SetName(fmt.Sprintf("gauge-%v", i))
+		point := m.Gauge().DataPoints().AppendEmpty()
+		point.SetTimestamp(ts)
+		point.SetDoubleValue(1.23)
+		generateAttributes(point.Attributes(), "series", labelsPerMetric)
+		generateExemplars(point.Exemplars(), exemplarsPerSeries, ts)
+	}
+
+	return request
+}
+
+func generateAttributes(m pcommon.Map, prefix string, count int) {
+	for i := 1; i <= count; i++ {
+		m.PutStr(fmt.Sprintf("%v-name-%v", prefix, i), fmt.Sprintf("value-%v", i))
+	}
+}
+
+func generateExemplars(exemplars pmetric.ExemplarSlice, count int, ts pcommon.Timestamp) {
+	for i := 1; i <= count; i++ {
+		e := exemplars.AppendEmpty()
+		e.SetTimestamp(ts)
+		e.SetDoubleValue(2.22)
+		e.SetSpanID(pcommon.SpanID{0x01, 0x02, 0x03, 0x04, 0x05, 0x06, 0x07, 0x08})
+		e.SetTraceID(pcommon.TraceID{0x00, 0x01, 0x02, 0x03, 0x04, 0x05, 0x06, 0x07, 0x08, 0x09, 0x0a, 0x0b, 0x0c, 0x0d, 0x0e, 0x0f})
+	}
+}
diff --git a/storage/remote/otlptranslator/prometheusremotewrite/number_data_points.go b/storage/remote/otlptranslator/prometheusremotewrite/number_data_points.go
index b5bd8765fe..aafebc6c46 100644
--- a/storage/remote/otlptranslator/prometheusremotewrite/number_data_points.go
+++ b/storage/remote/otlptranslator/prometheusremotewrite/number_data_points.go
@@ -1,106 +1,110 @@
-// DO NOT EDIT. COPIED AS-IS. SEE ../README.md
+// Copyright 2024 The Prometheus Authors
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+//
+// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+// Provenance-includes-location: https://github.com/open-telemetry/opentelemetry-collector-contrib/blob/95e8f8fdc2a9dc87230406c9a3cf02be4fd68bea/pkg/translator/prometheusremotewrite/number_data_points.go
+// Provenance-includes-license: Apache-2.0
+// Provenance-includes-copyright: Copyright The OpenTelemetry Authors.
 
-// Copyright The OpenTelemetry Authors
-// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
-
-package prometheusremotewrite // import "github.com/prometheus/prometheus/storage/remote/otlptranslator/prometheusremotewrite"
+package prometheusremotewrite
 
 import (
 	"math"
 
 	"github.com/prometheus/common/model"
-	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/value"
-	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/prompb"
 	"go.opentelemetry.io/collector/pdata/pcommon"
 	"go.opentelemetry.io/collector/pdata/pmetric"
+
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/value"
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/prompb"
 )
 
-// addSingleGaugeNumberDataPoint converts the Gauge metric data point to a
-// Prometheus time series with samples and labels. The result is stored in the
-// series map.
-func addSingleGaugeNumberDataPoint(
-	pt pmetric.NumberDataPoint,
-	resource pcommon.Resource,
-	metric pmetric.Metric,
-	settings Settings,
-	series map[string]*prompb.TimeSeries,
-	name string,
-) {
-	labels := createAttributes(
-		resource,
-		pt.Attributes(),
-		settings.ExternalLabels,
-		model.MetricNameLabel,
-		name,
-	)
-	sample := &prompb.Sample{
-		// convert ns to ms
-		Timestamp: convertTimeStamp(pt.Timestamp()),
+func (c *PrometheusConverter) addGaugeNumberDataPoints(dataPoints pmetric.NumberDataPointSlice,
+	resource pcommon.Resource, settings Settings, name string) {
+	for x := 0; x < dataPoints.Len(); x++ {
+		pt := dataPoints.At(x)
+		labels := createAttributes(
+			resource,
+			pt.Attributes(),
+			settings.ExternalLabels,
+			nil,
+			true,
+			model.MetricNameLabel,
+			name,
+		)
+		sample := &prompb.Sample{
+			// convert ns to ms
+			Timestamp: convertTimeStamp(pt.Timestamp()),
+		}
+		switch pt.ValueType() {
+		case pmetric.NumberDataPointValueTypeInt:
+			sample.Value = float64(pt.IntValue())
+		case pmetric.NumberDataPointValueTypeDouble:
+			sample.Value = pt.DoubleValue()
+		}
+		if pt.Flags().NoRecordedValue() {
+			sample.Value = math.Float64frombits(value.StaleNaN)
+		}
+		c.addSample(sample, labels)
 	}
-	switch pt.ValueType() {
-	case pmetric.NumberDataPointValueTypeInt:
-		sample.Value = float64(pt.IntValue())
-	case pmetric.NumberDataPointValueTypeDouble:
-		sample.Value = pt.DoubleValue()
-	}
-	if pt.Flags().NoRecordedValue() {
-		sample.Value = math.Float64frombits(value.StaleNaN)
-	}
-	addSample(series, sample, labels, metric.Type().String())
 }
 
-// addSingleSumNumberDataPoint converts the Sum metric data point to a Prometheus
-// time series with samples, labels and exemplars. The result is stored in the
-// series map.
-func addSingleSumNumberDataPoint(
-	pt pmetric.NumberDataPoint,
-	resource pcommon.Resource,
-	metric pmetric.Metric,
-	settings Settings,
-	series map[string]*prompb.TimeSeries,
-	name string,
-) {
-	labels := createAttributes(
-		resource,
-		pt.Attributes(),
-		settings.ExternalLabels,
-		model.MetricNameLabel, name,
-	)
-	sample := &prompb.Sample{
-		// convert ns to ms
-		Timestamp: convertTimeStamp(pt.Timestamp()),
-	}
-	switch pt.ValueType() {
-	case pmetric.NumberDataPointValueTypeInt:
-		sample.Value = float64(pt.IntValue())
-	case pmetric.NumberDataPointValueTypeDouble:
-		sample.Value = pt.DoubleValue()
-	}
-	if pt.Flags().NoRecordedValue() {
-		sample.Value = math.Float64frombits(value.StaleNaN)
-	}
-	sig := addSample(series, sample, labels, metric.Type().String())
-
-	if ts := series[sig]; sig != "" && ts != nil {
-		exemplars := getPromExemplars[pmetric.NumberDataPoint](pt)
-		ts.Exemplars = append(ts.Exemplars, exemplars...)
-	}
-
-	// add _created time series if needed
-	if settings.ExportCreatedMetric && metric.Sum().IsMonotonic() {
-		startTimestamp := pt.StartTimestamp()
-		if startTimestamp == 0 {
-			return
+func (c *PrometheusConverter) addSumNumberDataPoints(dataPoints pmetric.NumberDataPointSlice,
+	resource pcommon.Resource, metric pmetric.Metric, settings Settings, name string) {
+	for x := 0; x < dataPoints.Len(); x++ {
+		pt := dataPoints.At(x)
+		lbls := createAttributes(
+			resource,
+			pt.Attributes(),
+			settings.ExternalLabels,
+			nil,
+			true,
+			model.MetricNameLabel,
+			name,
+		)
+		sample := &prompb.Sample{
+			// convert ns to ms
+			Timestamp: convertTimeStamp(pt.Timestamp()),
+		}
+		switch pt.ValueType() {
+		case pmetric.NumberDataPointValueTypeInt:
+			sample.Value = float64(pt.IntValue())
+		case pmetric.NumberDataPointValueTypeDouble:
+			sample.Value = pt.DoubleValue()
+		}
+		if pt.Flags().NoRecordedValue() {
+			sample.Value = math.Float64frombits(value.StaleNaN)
+		}
+		ts := c.addSample(sample, lbls)
+		if ts != nil {
+			exemplars := getPromExemplars[pmetric.NumberDataPoint](pt)
+			ts.Exemplars = append(ts.Exemplars, exemplars...)
 		}
 
-		createdLabels := make([]prompb.Label, len(labels))
-		copy(createdLabels, labels)
-		for i, l := range createdLabels {
-			if l.Name == model.MetricNameLabel {
-				createdLabels[i].Value = name + createdSuffix
-				break
+		// add created time series if needed
+		if settings.ExportCreatedMetric && metric.Sum().IsMonotonic() {
+			startTimestamp := pt.StartTimestamp()
+			if startTimestamp == 0 {
+				return
 			}
+
+			createdLabels := make([]prompb.Label, len(lbls))
+			copy(createdLabels, lbls)
+			for i, l := range createdLabels {
+				if l.Name == model.MetricNameLabel {
+					createdLabels[i].Value = name + createdSuffix
+					break
+				}
+			}
+			c.addTimeSeriesIfNeeded(createdLabels, startTimestamp, pt.Timestamp())
 		}
-		addCreatedTimeSeriesIfNeeded(series, createdLabels, startTimestamp, pt.Timestamp(), metric.Type().String())
 	}
 }
diff --git a/storage/remote/otlptranslator/prometheusremotewrite/otlp_to_openmetrics_metadata.go b/storage/remote/otlptranslator/prometheusremotewrite/otlp_to_openmetrics_metadata.go
index e43797212e..ba48704193 100644
--- a/storage/remote/otlptranslator/prometheusremotewrite/otlp_to_openmetrics_metadata.go
+++ b/storage/remote/otlptranslator/prometheusremotewrite/otlp_to_openmetrics_metadata.go
@@ -1,14 +1,25 @@
-// DO NOT EDIT. COPIED AS-IS. SEE ../README.md
+// Copyright 2024 The Prometheus Authors
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+//
+// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+// Provenance-includes-location: https://github.com/open-telemetry/opentelemetry-collector-contrib/blob/95e8f8fdc2a9dc87230406c9a3cf02be4fd68bea/pkg/translator/prometheusremotewrite/otlp_to_openmetrics_metadata.go
+// Provenance-includes-license: Apache-2.0
+// Provenance-includes-copyright: Copyright The OpenTelemetry Authors.
 
-// Copyright The OpenTelemetry Authors
-// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
-
-package prometheusremotewrite // import "github.com/prometheus/prometheus/storage/remote/otlptranslator/prometheusremotewrite"
+package prometheusremotewrite
 
 import (
-	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/prompb"
 	"go.opentelemetry.io/collector/pdata/pmetric"
 
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/prompb"
 	prometheustranslator "github.com/prometheus/prometheus/storage/remote/otlptranslator/prometheus"
 )
 
diff --git a/storage/remote/otlptranslator/prometheusremotewrite/timeseries.go b/storage/remote/otlptranslator/prometheusremotewrite/timeseries.go
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..fe973761a2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/storage/remote/otlptranslator/prometheusremotewrite/timeseries.go
@@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
+// Copyright 2024 The Prometheus Authors
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+//
+// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+// Provenance-includes-location:
+// https://github.com/open-telemetry/opentelemetry-collector-contrib/blob/95e8f8fdc2a9dc87230406c9a3cf02be4fd68bea/pkg/translator/prometheusremotewrite/metrics_to_prw.go
+// Provenance-includes-license: Apache-2.0
+// Provenance-includes-copyright: Copyright The OpenTelemetry Authors.
+
+package prometheusremotewrite
+
+import (
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/prompb"
+)
+
+// TimeSeries returns a slice of the prompb.TimeSeries that were converted from OTel format.
+func (c *PrometheusConverter) TimeSeries() []prompb.TimeSeries {
+	conflicts := 0
+	for _, ts := range c.conflicts {
+		conflicts += len(ts)
+	}
+	allTS := make([]prompb.TimeSeries, 0, len(c.unique)+conflicts)
+	for _, ts := range c.unique {
+		allTS = append(allTS, *ts)
+	}
+	for _, cTS := range c.conflicts {
+		for _, ts := range cTS {
+			allTS = append(allTS, *ts)
+		}
+	}
+
+	return allTS
+}
diff --git a/storage/remote/otlptranslator/update-copy.sh b/storage/remote/otlptranslator/update-copy.sh
deleted file mode 100755
index 8aa645e0bd..0000000000
--- a/storage/remote/otlptranslator/update-copy.sh
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,27 +0,0 @@
-#!/bin/bash
-set -xe
-
-OTEL_VERSION=v0.95.0
-
-git clone https://github.com/open-telemetry/opentelemetry-collector-contrib ./tmp
-cd ./tmp
-git checkout $OTEL_VERSION
-cd ..
-
-rm -rf ./prometheusremotewrite/*
-cp -r ./tmp/pkg/translator/prometheusremotewrite/*.go ./prometheusremotewrite
-rm -rf ./prometheusremotewrite/*_test.go
-
-rm -rf ./prometheus/*
-cp -r ./tmp/pkg/translator/prometheus/*.go ./prometheus
-rm -rf ./prometheus/*_test.go
-
-rm -rf ./tmp
-
-case $(sed --help 2>&1) in
-  *GNU*) set sed -i;;
-  *)     set sed -i '';;
-esac
-
-"$@" -e 's#github.com/open-telemetry/opentelemetry-collector-contrib/pkg/translator/prometheus#github.com/prometheus/prometheus/storage/remote/otlptranslator/prometheus#g' ./prometheusremotewrite/*.go ./prometheus/*.go
-"$@" -e '1s#^#// DO NOT EDIT. COPIED AS-IS. SEE ../README.md\n\n#g' ./prometheusremotewrite/*.go ./prometheus/*.go
diff --git a/storage/remote/queue_manager.go b/storage/remote/queue_manager.go
index 01d2db06a5..fb13da70da 100644
--- a/storage/remote/queue_manager.go
+++ b/storage/remote/queue_manager.go
@@ -16,6 +16,7 @@ package remote
 import (
 	"context"
 	"errors"
+	"fmt"
 	"math"
 	"strconv"
 	"sync"
@@ -35,9 +36,11 @@ import (
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/config"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/histogram"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/labels"
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/metadata"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/relabel"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/timestamp"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/prompb"
+	writev2 "github.com/prometheus/prometheus/prompb/io/prometheus/write/v2"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/scrape"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/tsdb/chunks"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/tsdb/record"
@@ -388,7 +391,7 @@ func (m *queueManagerMetrics) unregister() {
 // external timeseries database.
 type WriteClient interface {
 	// Store stores the given samples in the remote storage.
-	Store(context.Context, []byte, int) error
+	Store(ctx context.Context, req []byte, retryAttempt int) error
 	// Name uniquely identifies the remote storage.
 	Name() string
 	// Endpoint is the remote read or write endpoint for the storage client.
@@ -417,11 +420,14 @@ type QueueManager struct {
 
 	clientMtx   sync.RWMutex
 	storeClient WriteClient
+	protoMsg    config.RemoteWriteProtoMsg
+	enc         Compression
 
-	seriesMtx     sync.Mutex // Covers seriesLabels, droppedSeries and builder.
-	seriesLabels  map[chunks.HeadSeriesRef]labels.Labels
-	droppedSeries map[chunks.HeadSeriesRef]struct{}
-	builder       *labels.Builder
+	seriesMtx      sync.Mutex // Covers seriesLabels, seriesMetadata, droppedSeries and builder.
+	seriesLabels   map[chunks.HeadSeriesRef]labels.Labels
+	seriesMetadata map[chunks.HeadSeriesRef]*metadata.Metadata
+	droppedSeries  map[chunks.HeadSeriesRef]struct{}
+	builder        *labels.Builder
 
 	seriesSegmentMtx     sync.Mutex // Covers seriesSegmentIndexes - if you also lock seriesMtx, take seriesMtx first.
 	seriesSegmentIndexes map[chunks.HeadSeriesRef]int
@@ -462,6 +468,7 @@ func NewQueueManager(
 	sm ReadyScrapeManager,
 	enableExemplarRemoteWrite bool,
 	enableNativeHistogramRemoteWrite bool,
+	protoMsg config.RemoteWriteProtoMsg,
 ) *QueueManager {
 	if logger == nil {
 		logger = log.NewNopLogger()
@@ -486,6 +493,7 @@ func NewQueueManager(
 		sendNativeHistograms: enableNativeHistogramRemoteWrite,
 
 		seriesLabels:         make(map[chunks.HeadSeriesRef]labels.Labels),
+		seriesMetadata:       make(map[chunks.HeadSeriesRef]*metadata.Metadata),
 		seriesSegmentIndexes: make(map[chunks.HeadSeriesRef]int),
 		droppedSeries:        make(map[chunks.HeadSeriesRef]struct{}),
 		builder:              labels.NewBuilder(labels.EmptyLabels()),
@@ -502,9 +510,26 @@ func NewQueueManager(
 		metrics:              metrics,
 		interner:             interner,
 		highestRecvTimestamp: highestRecvTimestamp,
+
+		protoMsg: protoMsg,
+		enc:      SnappyBlockCompression, // Hardcoded for now, but scaffolding exists for likely future use.
+	}
+
+	walMetadata := false
+	if t.protoMsg != config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1 {
+		walMetadata = true
+	}
+	t.watcher = wlog.NewWatcher(watcherMetrics, readerMetrics, logger, client.Name(), t, dir, enableExemplarRemoteWrite, enableNativeHistogramRemoteWrite, walMetadata)
+
+	// The current MetadataWatcher implementation is mutually exclusive
+	// with the new approach, which stores metadata as WAL records and
+	// ships them alongside series. If both mechanisms are set, the new one
+	// takes precedence by implicitly disabling the older one.
+	if t.mcfg.Send && t.protoMsg != config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1 {
+		level.Warn(logger).Log("msg", "usage of 'metadata_config.send' is redundant when using remote write v2 (or higher) as metadata will always be gathered from the WAL and included for every series within each write request")
+		t.mcfg.Send = false
 	}
 
-	t.watcher = wlog.NewWatcher(watcherMetrics, readerMetrics, logger, client.Name(), t, dir, enableExemplarRemoteWrite, enableNativeHistogramRemoteWrite)
 	if t.mcfg.Send {
 		t.metadataWatcher = NewMetadataWatcher(logger, sm, client.Name(), t, t.mcfg.SendInterval, flushDeadline)
 	}
@@ -513,14 +538,21 @@ func NewQueueManager(
 	return t
 }
 
-// AppendMetadata sends metadata to the remote storage. Metadata is sent in batches, but is not parallelized.
-func (t *QueueManager) AppendMetadata(ctx context.Context, metadata []scrape.MetricMetadata) {
+// AppendWatcherMetadata sends metadata to the remote storage. Metadata is sent in batches, but is not parallelized.
+// This is only used for the metadata_config.send setting and 1.x Remote Write.
+func (t *QueueManager) AppendWatcherMetadata(ctx context.Context, metadata []scrape.MetricMetadata) {
+	// no op for any newer proto format, which will cache metadata sent to it from the WAL watcher.
+	if t.protoMsg != config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1 {
+		return
+	}
+
+	// 1.X will still get metadata in batches.
 	mm := make([]prompb.MetricMetadata, 0, len(metadata))
 	for _, entry := range metadata {
 		mm = append(mm, prompb.MetricMetadata{
 			MetricFamilyName: entry.Metric,
 			Help:             entry.Help,
-			Type:             metricTypeToMetricTypeProto(entry.Type),
+			Type:             prompb.FromMetadataType(entry.Type),
 			Unit:             entry.Unit,
 		})
 	}
@@ -541,8 +573,8 @@ func (t *QueueManager) AppendMetadata(ctx context.Context, metadata []scrape.Met
 }
 
 func (t *QueueManager) sendMetadataWithBackoff(ctx context.Context, metadata []prompb.MetricMetadata, pBuf *proto.Buffer) error {
-	// Build the WriteRequest with no samples.
-	req, _, _, err := buildWriteRequest(t.logger, nil, metadata, pBuf, nil, nil)
+	// Build the WriteRequest with no samples (v1 flow).
+	req, _, _, err := buildWriteRequest(t.logger, nil, metadata, pBuf, nil, nil, t.enc)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
@@ -628,6 +660,36 @@ func isTimeSeriesOldFilter(metrics *queueManagerMetrics, baseTime time.Time, sam
 	}
 }
 
+func isV2TimeSeriesOldFilter(metrics *queueManagerMetrics, baseTime time.Time, sampleAgeLimit time.Duration) func(ts writev2.TimeSeries) bool {
+	return func(ts writev2.TimeSeries) bool {
+		if sampleAgeLimit == 0 {
+			// If sampleAgeLimit is unset, then we never skip samples due to their age.
+			return false
+		}
+		switch {
+		// Only the first element should be set in the series, therefore we only check the first element.
+		case len(ts.Samples) > 0:
+			if isSampleOld(baseTime, sampleAgeLimit, ts.Samples[0].Timestamp) {
+				metrics.droppedSamplesTotal.WithLabelValues(reasonTooOld).Inc()
+				return true
+			}
+		case len(ts.Histograms) > 0:
+			if isSampleOld(baseTime, sampleAgeLimit, ts.Histograms[0].Timestamp) {
+				metrics.droppedHistogramsTotal.WithLabelValues(reasonTooOld).Inc()
+				return true
+			}
+		case len(ts.Exemplars) > 0:
+			if isSampleOld(baseTime, sampleAgeLimit, ts.Exemplars[0].Timestamp) {
+				metrics.droppedExemplarsTotal.WithLabelValues(reasonTooOld).Inc()
+				return true
+			}
+		default:
+			return false
+		}
+		return false
+	}
+}
+
 // Append queues a sample to be sent to the remote storage. Blocks until all samples are
 // enqueued on their shards or a shutdown signal is received.
 func (t *QueueManager) Append(samples []record.RefSample) bool {
@@ -651,6 +713,9 @@ outer:
 			t.seriesMtx.Unlock()
 			continue
 		}
+		// TODO(cstyan): Handle or at least log an error if no metadata is found.
+		// See https://github.com/prometheus/prometheus/issues/14405
+		meta := t.seriesMetadata[s.Ref]
 		t.seriesMtx.Unlock()
 		// Start with a very small backoff. This should not be t.cfg.MinBackoff
 		// as it can happen without errors, and we want to pickup work after
@@ -665,6 +730,7 @@ outer:
 			}
 			if t.shards.enqueue(s.Ref, timeSeries{
 				seriesLabels: lbls,
+				metadata:     meta,
 				timestamp:    s.T,
 				value:        s.V,
 				sType:        tSample,
@@ -710,6 +776,7 @@ outer:
 			t.seriesMtx.Unlock()
 			continue
 		}
+		meta := t.seriesMetadata[e.Ref]
 		t.seriesMtx.Unlock()
 		// This will only loop if the queues are being resharded.
 		backoff := t.cfg.MinBackoff
@@ -721,6 +788,7 @@ outer:
 			}
 			if t.shards.enqueue(e.Ref, timeSeries{
 				seriesLabels:   lbls,
+				metadata:       meta,
 				timestamp:      e.T,
 				value:          e.V,
 				exemplarLabels: e.Labels,
@@ -764,6 +832,7 @@ outer:
 			t.seriesMtx.Unlock()
 			continue
 		}
+		meta := t.seriesMetadata[h.Ref]
 		t.seriesMtx.Unlock()
 
 		backoff := model.Duration(5 * time.Millisecond)
@@ -775,6 +844,7 @@ outer:
 			}
 			if t.shards.enqueue(h.Ref, timeSeries{
 				seriesLabels: lbls,
+				metadata:     meta,
 				timestamp:    h.T,
 				histogram:    h.H,
 				sType:        tHistogram,
@@ -817,6 +887,7 @@ outer:
 			t.seriesMtx.Unlock()
 			continue
 		}
+		meta := t.seriesMetadata[h.Ref]
 		t.seriesMtx.Unlock()
 
 		backoff := model.Duration(5 * time.Millisecond)
@@ -828,6 +899,7 @@ outer:
 			}
 			if t.shards.enqueue(h.Ref, timeSeries{
 				seriesLabels:   lbls,
+				metadata:       meta,
 				timestamp:      h.T,
 				floatHistogram: h.FH,
 				sType:          tFloatHistogram,
@@ -924,6 +996,23 @@ func (t *QueueManager) StoreSeries(series []record.RefSeries, index int) {
 	}
 }
 
+// StoreMetadata keeps track of known series' metadata for lookups when sending samples to remote.
+func (t *QueueManager) StoreMetadata(meta []record.RefMetadata) {
+	if t.protoMsg == config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1 {
+		return
+	}
+
+	t.seriesMtx.Lock()
+	defer t.seriesMtx.Unlock()
+	for _, m := range meta {
+		t.seriesMetadata[m.Ref] = &metadata.Metadata{
+			Type: record.ToMetricType(m.Type),
+			Unit: m.Unit,
+			Help: m.Help,
+		}
+	}
+}
+
 // UpdateSeriesSegment updates the segment number held against the series,
 // so we can trim older ones in SeriesReset.
 func (t *QueueManager) UpdateSeriesSegment(series []record.RefSeries, index int) {
@@ -949,6 +1038,7 @@ func (t *QueueManager) SeriesReset(index int) {
 			delete(t.seriesSegmentIndexes, k)
 			t.releaseLabels(t.seriesLabels[k])
 			delete(t.seriesLabels, k)
+			delete(t.seriesMetadata, k)
 			delete(t.droppedSeries, k)
 		}
 	}
@@ -1164,6 +1254,7 @@ type shards struct {
 	samplesDroppedOnHardShutdown    atomic.Uint32
 	exemplarsDroppedOnHardShutdown  atomic.Uint32
 	histogramsDroppedOnHardShutdown atomic.Uint32
+	metadataDroppedOnHardShutdown   atomic.Uint32
 }
 
 // start the shards; must be called before any call to enqueue.
@@ -1192,6 +1283,7 @@ func (s *shards) start(n int) {
 	s.samplesDroppedOnHardShutdown.Store(0)
 	s.exemplarsDroppedOnHardShutdown.Store(0)
 	s.histogramsDroppedOnHardShutdown.Store(0)
+	s.metadataDroppedOnHardShutdown.Store(0)
 	for i := 0; i < n; i++ {
 		go s.runShard(hardShutdownCtx, i, newQueues[i])
 	}
@@ -1224,12 +1316,16 @@ func (s *shards) stop() {
 	// Force an unclean shutdown.
 	s.hardShutdown()
 	<-s.done
-	if dropped := s.samplesDroppedOnHardShutdown.Load(); dropped > 0 {
-		level.Error(s.qm.logger).Log("msg", "Failed to flush all samples on shutdown", "count", dropped)
-	}
-	if dropped := s.exemplarsDroppedOnHardShutdown.Load(); dropped > 0 {
-		level.Error(s.qm.logger).Log("msg", "Failed to flush all exemplars on shutdown", "count", dropped)
+
+	// Log error for any dropped samples, exemplars, or histograms.
+	logDroppedError := func(t string, counter atomic.Uint32) {
+		if dropped := counter.Load(); dropped > 0 {
+			level.Error(s.qm.logger).Log("msg", fmt.Sprintf("Failed to flush all %s on shutdown", t), "count", dropped)
+		}
 	}
+	logDroppedError("samples", s.samplesDroppedOnHardShutdown)
+	logDroppedError("exemplars", s.exemplarsDroppedOnHardShutdown)
+	logDroppedError("histograms", s.histogramsDroppedOnHardShutdown)
 }
 
 // enqueue data (sample or exemplar). If the shard is full, shutting down, or
@@ -1240,7 +1336,6 @@ func (s *shards) stop() {
 func (s *shards) enqueue(ref chunks.HeadSeriesRef, data timeSeries) bool {
 	s.mtx.RLock()
 	defer s.mtx.RUnlock()
-
 	shard := uint64(ref) % uint64(len(s.queues))
 	select {
 	case <-s.softShutdown:
@@ -1283,6 +1378,7 @@ type timeSeries struct {
 	value          float64
 	histogram      *histogram.Histogram
 	floatHistogram *histogram.FloatHistogram
+	metadata       *metadata.Metadata
 	timestamp      int64
 	exemplarLabels labels.Labels
 	// The type of series: sample, exemplar, or histogram.
@@ -1296,6 +1392,7 @@ const (
 	tExemplar
 	tHistogram
 	tFloatHistogram
+	tMetadata
 )
 
 func newQueue(batchSize, capacity int) *queue {
@@ -1319,6 +1416,10 @@ func newQueue(batchSize, capacity int) *queue {
 func (q *queue) Append(datum timeSeries) bool {
 	q.batchMtx.Lock()
 	defer q.batchMtx.Unlock()
+	// TODO(cstyan): Check if metadata now means we've reduced the total # of samples
+	// we can batch together here, and if so find a way to not include metadata
+	// in the batch size calculation.
+	// See https://github.com/prometheus/prometheus/issues/14405
 	q.batch = append(q.batch, datum)
 	if len(q.batch) == cap(q.batch) {
 		select {
@@ -1342,7 +1443,6 @@ func (q *queue) Chan() <-chan []timeSeries {
 func (q *queue) Batch() []timeSeries {
 	q.batchMtx.Lock()
 	defer q.batchMtx.Unlock()
-
 	select {
 	case batch := <-q.batchQueue:
 		return batch
@@ -1414,19 +1514,23 @@ func (s *shards) runShard(ctx context.Context, shardID int, queue *queue) {
 	}()
 
 	shardNum := strconv.Itoa(shardID)
+	symbolTable := writev2.NewSymbolTable()
 
 	// Send batches of at most MaxSamplesPerSend samples to the remote storage.
 	// If we have fewer samples than that, flush them out after a deadline anyways.
 	var (
 		max = s.qm.cfg.MaxSamplesPerSend
 
-		pBuf = proto.NewBuffer(nil)
-		buf  []byte
+		pBuf    = proto.NewBuffer(nil)
+		pBufRaw []byte
+		buf     []byte
 	)
+	// TODO(@tpaschalis) Should we also raise the max if we have WAL metadata?
 	if s.qm.sendExemplars {
 		max += int(float64(max) * 0.1)
 	}
 
+	// TODO: Dry all of this, we should make an interface/generic for the timeseries type.
 	batchQueue := queue.Chan()
 	pendingData := make([]prompb.TimeSeries, max)
 	for i := range pendingData {
@@ -1435,6 +1539,10 @@ func (s *shards) runShard(ctx context.Context, shardID int, queue *queue) {
 			pendingData[i].Exemplars = []prompb.Exemplar{{}}
 		}
 	}
+	pendingDataV2 := make([]writev2.TimeSeries, max)
+	for i := range pendingDataV2 {
+		pendingDataV2[i].Samples = []writev2.Sample{{}}
+	}
 
 	timer := time.NewTimer(time.Duration(s.qm.cfg.BatchSendDeadline))
 	stop := func() {
@@ -1447,6 +1555,24 @@ func (s *shards) runShard(ctx context.Context, shardID int, queue *queue) {
 	}
 	defer stop()
 
+	sendBatch := func(batch []timeSeries, protoMsg config.RemoteWriteProtoMsg, enc Compression, timer bool) {
+		switch protoMsg {
+		case config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1:
+			nPendingSamples, nPendingExemplars, nPendingHistograms := populateTimeSeries(batch, pendingData, s.qm.sendExemplars, s.qm.sendNativeHistograms)
+			n := nPendingSamples + nPendingExemplars + nPendingHistograms
+			if timer {
+				level.Debug(s.qm.logger).Log("msg", "runShard timer ticked, sending buffered data", "samples", nPendingSamples,
+					"exemplars", nPendingExemplars, "shard", shardNum, "histograms", nPendingHistograms)
+			}
+			_ = s.sendSamples(ctx, pendingData[:n], nPendingSamples, nPendingExemplars, nPendingHistograms, pBuf, &buf, enc)
+		case config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV2:
+			nPendingSamples, nPendingExemplars, nPendingHistograms, nPendingMetadata := populateV2TimeSeries(&symbolTable, batch, pendingDataV2, s.qm.sendExemplars, s.qm.sendNativeHistograms)
+			n := nPendingSamples + nPendingExemplars + nPendingHistograms
+			_ = s.sendV2Samples(ctx, pendingDataV2[:n], symbolTable.Symbols(), nPendingSamples, nPendingExemplars, nPendingHistograms, nPendingMetadata, &pBufRaw, &buf, enc)
+			symbolTable.Reset()
+		}
+	}
+
 	for {
 		select {
 		case <-ctx.Done():
@@ -1470,10 +1596,11 @@ func (s *shards) runShard(ctx context.Context, shardID int, queue *queue) {
 			if !ok {
 				return
 			}
-			nPendingSamples, nPendingExemplars, nPendingHistograms := s.populateTimeSeries(batch, pendingData)
+
+			sendBatch(batch, s.qm.protoMsg, s.qm.enc, false)
+			// TODO(bwplotka): Previously the return was between popular and send.
+			// Consider this when DRY-ing https://github.com/prometheus/prometheus/issues/14409
 			queue.ReturnForReuse(batch)
-			n := nPendingSamples + nPendingExemplars + nPendingHistograms
-			s.sendSamples(ctx, pendingData[:n], nPendingSamples, nPendingExemplars, nPendingHistograms, pBuf, &buf)
 
 			stop()
 			timer.Reset(time.Duration(s.qm.cfg.BatchSendDeadline))
@@ -1481,11 +1608,7 @@ func (s *shards) runShard(ctx context.Context, shardID int, queue *queue) {
 		case <-timer.C:
 			batch := queue.Batch()
 			if len(batch) > 0 {
-				nPendingSamples, nPendingExemplars, nPendingHistograms := s.populateTimeSeries(batch, pendingData)
-				n := nPendingSamples + nPendingExemplars + nPendingHistograms
-				level.Debug(s.qm.logger).Log("msg", "runShard timer ticked, sending buffered data", "samples", nPendingSamples,
-					"exemplars", nPendingExemplars, "shard", shardNum, "histograms", nPendingHistograms)
-				s.sendSamples(ctx, pendingData[:n], nPendingSamples, nPendingExemplars, nPendingHistograms, pBuf, &buf)
+				sendBatch(batch, s.qm.protoMsg, s.qm.enc, true)
 			}
 			queue.ReturnForReuse(batch)
 			timer.Reset(time.Duration(s.qm.cfg.BatchSendDeadline))
@@ -1493,21 +1616,22 @@ func (s *shards) runShard(ctx context.Context, shardID int, queue *queue) {
 	}
 }
 
-func (s *shards) populateTimeSeries(batch []timeSeries, pendingData []prompb.TimeSeries) (int, int, int) {
+func populateTimeSeries(batch []timeSeries, pendingData []prompb.TimeSeries, sendExemplars, sendNativeHistograms bool) (int, int, int) {
 	var nPendingSamples, nPendingExemplars, nPendingHistograms int
 	for nPending, d := range batch {
 		pendingData[nPending].Samples = pendingData[nPending].Samples[:0]
-		if s.qm.sendExemplars {
+		if sendExemplars {
 			pendingData[nPending].Exemplars = pendingData[nPending].Exemplars[:0]
 		}
-		if s.qm.sendNativeHistograms {
+		if sendNativeHistograms {
 			pendingData[nPending].Histograms = pendingData[nPending].Histograms[:0]
 		}
 
 		// Number of pending samples is limited by the fact that sendSamples (via sendSamplesWithBackoff)
 		// retries endlessly, so once we reach max samples, if we can never send to the endpoint we'll
 		// stop reading from the queue. This makes it safe to reference pendingSamples by index.
-		pendingData[nPending].Labels = labelsToLabelsProto(d.seriesLabels, pendingData[nPending].Labels)
+		pendingData[nPending].Labels = prompb.FromLabels(d.seriesLabels, pendingData[nPending].Labels)
+
 		switch d.sType {
 		case tSample:
 			pendingData[nPending].Samples = append(pendingData[nPending].Samples, prompb.Sample{
@@ -1517,27 +1641,41 @@ func (s *shards) populateTimeSeries(batch []timeSeries, pendingData []prompb.Tim
 			nPendingSamples++
 		case tExemplar:
 			pendingData[nPending].Exemplars = append(pendingData[nPending].Exemplars, prompb.Exemplar{
-				Labels:    labelsToLabelsProto(d.exemplarLabels, nil),
+				Labels:    prompb.FromLabels(d.exemplarLabels, nil),
 				Value:     d.value,
 				Timestamp: d.timestamp,
 			})
 			nPendingExemplars++
 		case tHistogram:
-			pendingData[nPending].Histograms = append(pendingData[nPending].Histograms, HistogramToHistogramProto(d.timestamp, d.histogram))
+			pendingData[nPending].Histograms = append(pendingData[nPending].Histograms, prompb.FromIntHistogram(d.timestamp, d.histogram))
 			nPendingHistograms++
 		case tFloatHistogram:
-			pendingData[nPending].Histograms = append(pendingData[nPending].Histograms, FloatHistogramToHistogramProto(d.timestamp, d.floatHistogram))
+			pendingData[nPending].Histograms = append(pendingData[nPending].Histograms, prompb.FromFloatHistogram(d.timestamp, d.floatHistogram))
 			nPendingHistograms++
 		}
 	}
 	return nPendingSamples, nPendingExemplars, nPendingHistograms
 }
 
-func (s *shards) sendSamples(ctx context.Context, samples []prompb.TimeSeries, sampleCount, exemplarCount, histogramCount int, pBuf *proto.Buffer, buf *[]byte) {
+func (s *shards) sendSamples(ctx context.Context, samples []prompb.TimeSeries, sampleCount, exemplarCount, histogramCount int, pBuf *proto.Buffer, buf *[]byte, enc Compression) error {
 	begin := time.Now()
-	err := s.sendSamplesWithBackoff(ctx, samples, sampleCount, exemplarCount, histogramCount, pBuf, buf)
+	err := s.sendSamplesWithBackoff(ctx, samples, sampleCount, exemplarCount, histogramCount, 0, pBuf, buf, enc)
+	s.updateMetrics(ctx, err, sampleCount, exemplarCount, histogramCount, 0, time.Since(begin))
+	return err
+}
+
+// TODO(bwplotka): DRY this (have one logic for both v1 and v2).
+// See https://github.com/prometheus/prometheus/issues/14409
+func (s *shards) sendV2Samples(ctx context.Context, samples []writev2.TimeSeries, labels []string, sampleCount, exemplarCount, histogramCount, metadataCount int, pBuf, buf *[]byte, enc Compression) error {
+	begin := time.Now()
+	err := s.sendV2SamplesWithBackoff(ctx, samples, labels, sampleCount, exemplarCount, histogramCount, metadataCount, pBuf, buf, enc)
+	s.updateMetrics(ctx, err, sampleCount, exemplarCount, histogramCount, metadataCount, time.Since(begin))
+	return err
+}
+
+func (s *shards) updateMetrics(_ context.Context, err error, sampleCount, exemplarCount, histogramCount, metadataCount int, duration time.Duration) {
 	if err != nil {
-		level.Error(s.qm.logger).Log("msg", "non-recoverable error", "count", sampleCount, "exemplarCount", exemplarCount, "err", err)
+		level.Error(s.qm.logger).Log("msg", "non-recoverable error", "count", sampleCount, "exemplarCount", exemplarCount, "histogramCount", histogramCount, "err", err)
 		s.qm.metrics.failedSamplesTotal.Add(float64(sampleCount))
 		s.qm.metrics.failedExemplarsTotal.Add(float64(exemplarCount))
 		s.qm.metrics.failedHistogramsTotal.Add(float64(histogramCount))
@@ -1545,8 +1683,8 @@ func (s *shards) sendSamples(ctx context.Context, samples []prompb.TimeSeries, s
 
 	// These counters are used to calculate the dynamic sharding, and as such
 	// should be maintained irrespective of success or failure.
-	s.qm.dataOut.incr(int64(len(samples)))
-	s.qm.dataOutDuration.incr(int64(time.Since(begin)))
+	s.qm.dataOut.incr(int64(sampleCount + exemplarCount + histogramCount + metadataCount))
+	s.qm.dataOutDuration.incr(int64(duration))
 	s.qm.lastSendTimestamp.Store(time.Now().Unix())
 	// Pending samples/exemplars/histograms also should be subtracted, as an error means
 	// they will not be retried.
@@ -1559,9 +1697,9 @@ func (s *shards) sendSamples(ctx context.Context, samples []prompb.TimeSeries, s
 }
 
 // sendSamples to the remote storage with backoff for recoverable errors.
-func (s *shards) sendSamplesWithBackoff(ctx context.Context, samples []prompb.TimeSeries, sampleCount, exemplarCount, histogramCount int, pBuf *proto.Buffer, buf *[]byte) error {
+func (s *shards) sendSamplesWithBackoff(ctx context.Context, samples []prompb.TimeSeries, sampleCount, exemplarCount, histogramCount, metadataCount int, pBuf *proto.Buffer, buf *[]byte, enc Compression) error {
 	// Build the WriteRequest with no metadata.
-	req, highest, lowest, err := buildWriteRequest(s.qm.logger, samples, nil, pBuf, *buf, nil)
+	req, highest, lowest, err := buildWriteRequest(s.qm.logger, samples, nil, pBuf, buf, nil, enc)
 	s.qm.buildRequestLimitTimestamp.Store(lowest)
 	if err != nil {
 		// Failing to build the write request is non-recoverable, since it will
@@ -1585,8 +1723,9 @@ func (s *shards) sendSamplesWithBackoff(ctx context.Context, samples []prompb.Ti
 				samples,
 				nil,
 				pBuf,
-				*buf,
+				buf,
 				isTimeSeriesOldFilter(s.qm.metrics, currentTime, time.Duration(s.qm.cfg.SampleAgeLimit)),
+				enc,
 			)
 			s.qm.buildRequestLimitTimestamp.Store(lowest)
 			if err != nil {
@@ -1617,6 +1756,7 @@ func (s *shards) sendSamplesWithBackoff(ctx context.Context, samples []prompb.Ti
 		s.qm.metrics.samplesTotal.Add(float64(sampleCount))
 		s.qm.metrics.exemplarsTotal.Add(float64(exemplarCount))
 		s.qm.metrics.histogramsTotal.Add(float64(histogramCount))
+		s.qm.metrics.metadataTotal.Add(float64(metadataCount))
 		err := s.qm.client().Store(ctx, *buf, try)
 		s.qm.metrics.sentBatchDuration.Observe(time.Since(begin).Seconds())
 
@@ -1647,6 +1787,148 @@ func (s *shards) sendSamplesWithBackoff(ctx context.Context, samples []prompb.Ti
 	return err
 }
 
+// sendV2Samples to the remote storage with backoff for recoverable errors.
+func (s *shards) sendV2SamplesWithBackoff(ctx context.Context, samples []writev2.TimeSeries, labels []string, sampleCount, exemplarCount, histogramCount, metadataCount int, pBuf, buf *[]byte, enc Compression) error {
+	// Build the WriteRequest with no metadata.
+	req, highest, lowest, err := buildV2WriteRequest(s.qm.logger, samples, labels, pBuf, buf, nil, enc)
+	s.qm.buildRequestLimitTimestamp.Store(lowest)
+	if err != nil {
+		// Failing to build the write request is non-recoverable, since it will
+		// only error if marshaling the proto to bytes fails.
+		return err
+	}
+
+	reqSize := len(req)
+	*buf = req
+
+	// An anonymous function allows us to defer the completion of our per-try spans
+	// without causing a memory leak, and it has the nice effect of not propagating any
+	// parameters for sendSamplesWithBackoff/3.
+	attemptStore := func(try int) error {
+		currentTime := time.Now()
+		lowest := s.qm.buildRequestLimitTimestamp.Load()
+		if isSampleOld(currentTime, time.Duration(s.qm.cfg.SampleAgeLimit), lowest) {
+			// This will filter out old samples during retries.
+			req, _, lowest, err := buildV2WriteRequest(
+				s.qm.logger,
+				samples,
+				labels,
+				pBuf,
+				buf,
+				isV2TimeSeriesOldFilter(s.qm.metrics, currentTime, time.Duration(s.qm.cfg.SampleAgeLimit)),
+				enc,
+			)
+			s.qm.buildRequestLimitTimestamp.Store(lowest)
+			if err != nil {
+				return err
+			}
+			*buf = req
+		}
+
+		ctx, span := otel.Tracer("").Start(ctx, "Remote Send Batch")
+		defer span.End()
+
+		span.SetAttributes(
+			attribute.Int("request_size", reqSize),
+			attribute.Int("samples", sampleCount),
+			attribute.Int("try", try),
+			attribute.String("remote_name", s.qm.storeClient.Name()),
+			attribute.String("remote_url", s.qm.storeClient.Endpoint()),
+		)
+
+		if exemplarCount > 0 {
+			span.SetAttributes(attribute.Int("exemplars", exemplarCount))
+		}
+		if histogramCount > 0 {
+			span.SetAttributes(attribute.Int("histograms", histogramCount))
+		}
+
+		begin := time.Now()
+		s.qm.metrics.samplesTotal.Add(float64(sampleCount))
+		s.qm.metrics.exemplarsTotal.Add(float64(exemplarCount))
+		s.qm.metrics.histogramsTotal.Add(float64(histogramCount))
+		s.qm.metrics.metadataTotal.Add(float64(metadataCount))
+		err := s.qm.client().Store(ctx, *buf, try)
+		s.qm.metrics.sentBatchDuration.Observe(time.Since(begin).Seconds())
+
+		if err != nil {
+			span.RecordError(err)
+			return err
+		}
+
+		return nil
+	}
+
+	onRetry := func() {
+		s.qm.metrics.retriedSamplesTotal.Add(float64(sampleCount))
+		s.qm.metrics.retriedExemplarsTotal.Add(float64(exemplarCount))
+		s.qm.metrics.retriedHistogramsTotal.Add(float64(histogramCount))
+	}
+
+	err = s.qm.sendWriteRequestWithBackoff(ctx, attemptStore, onRetry)
+	if errors.Is(err, context.Canceled) {
+		// When there is resharding, we cancel the context for this queue, which means the data is not sent.
+		// So we exit early to not update the metrics.
+		return err
+	}
+
+	s.qm.metrics.sentBytesTotal.Add(float64(reqSize))
+	s.qm.metrics.highestSentTimestamp.Set(float64(highest / 1000))
+
+	return err
+}
+
+func populateV2TimeSeries(symbolTable *writev2.SymbolsTable, batch []timeSeries, pendingData []writev2.TimeSeries, sendExemplars, sendNativeHistograms bool) (int, int, int, int) {
+	var nPendingSamples, nPendingExemplars, nPendingHistograms, nPendingMetadata int
+	for nPending, d := range batch {
+		pendingData[nPending].Samples = pendingData[nPending].Samples[:0]
+		// todo: should we also safeguard against empty metadata here?
+		if d.metadata != nil {
+			pendingData[nPending].Metadata.Type = writev2.FromMetadataType(d.metadata.Type)
+			pendingData[nPending].Metadata.HelpRef = symbolTable.Symbolize(d.metadata.Help)
+			pendingData[nPending].Metadata.HelpRef = symbolTable.Symbolize(d.metadata.Unit)
+			nPendingMetadata++
+		}
+
+		if sendExemplars {
+			pendingData[nPending].Exemplars = pendingData[nPending].Exemplars[:0]
+		}
+		if sendNativeHistograms {
+			pendingData[nPending].Histograms = pendingData[nPending].Histograms[:0]
+		}
+
+		// Number of pending samples is limited by the fact that sendSamples (via sendSamplesWithBackoff)
+		// retries endlessly, so once we reach max samples, if we can never send to the endpoint we'll
+		// stop reading from the queue. This makes it safe to reference pendingSamples by index.
+		pendingData[nPending].LabelsRefs = symbolTable.SymbolizeLabels(d.seriesLabels, pendingData[nPending].LabelsRefs)
+		switch d.sType {
+		case tSample:
+			pendingData[nPending].Samples = append(pendingData[nPending].Samples, writev2.Sample{
+				Value:     d.value,
+				Timestamp: d.timestamp,
+			})
+			nPendingSamples++
+		case tExemplar:
+			pendingData[nPending].Exemplars = append(pendingData[nPending].Exemplars, writev2.Exemplar{
+				LabelsRefs: symbolTable.SymbolizeLabels(d.exemplarLabels, nil), // TODO: optimize, reuse slice
+				Value:      d.value,
+				Timestamp:  d.timestamp,
+			})
+			nPendingExemplars++
+		case tHistogram:
+			pendingData[nPending].Histograms = append(pendingData[nPending].Histograms, writev2.FromIntHistogram(d.timestamp, d.histogram))
+			nPendingHistograms++
+		case tFloatHistogram:
+			pendingData[nPending].Histograms = append(pendingData[nPending].Histograms, writev2.FromFloatHistogram(d.timestamp, d.floatHistogram))
+			nPendingHistograms++
+		case tMetadata:
+			// TODO: log or return an error?
+			// we shouldn't receive metadata type data here, it should already be inserted into the timeSeries
+		}
+	}
+	return nPendingSamples, nPendingExemplars, nPendingHistograms, nPendingMetadata
+}
+
 func (t *QueueManager) sendWriteRequestWithBackoff(ctx context.Context, attempt func(int) error, onRetry func()) error {
 	backoff := t.cfg.MinBackoff
 	sleepDuration := model.Duration(0)
@@ -1778,9 +2060,11 @@ func buildTimeSeries(timeSeries []prompb.TimeSeries, filter func(prompb.TimeSeri
 		if len(ts.Histograms) > 0 && ts.Histograms[0].Timestamp < lowest {
 			lowest = ts.Histograms[0].Timestamp
 		}
-
-		// Move the current element to the write position and increment the write pointer
-		timeSeries[keepIdx] = timeSeries[i]
+		if i != keepIdx {
+			// We have to swap the kept timeseries with the one which should be dropped.
+			// Copying any elements within timeSeries could cause data corruptions when reusing the slice in a next batch (shards.populateTimeSeries).
+			timeSeries[keepIdx], timeSeries[i] = timeSeries[i], timeSeries[keepIdx]
+		}
 		keepIdx++
 	}
 
@@ -1788,7 +2072,21 @@ func buildTimeSeries(timeSeries []prompb.TimeSeries, filter func(prompb.TimeSeri
 	return highest, lowest, timeSeries, droppedSamples, droppedExemplars, droppedHistograms
 }
 
-func buildWriteRequest(logger log.Logger, timeSeries []prompb.TimeSeries, metadata []prompb.MetricMetadata, pBuf *proto.Buffer, buf []byte, filter func(prompb.TimeSeries) bool) ([]byte, int64, int64, error) {
+func compressPayload(tmpbuf *[]byte, inp []byte, enc Compression) (compressed []byte, _ error) {
+	switch enc {
+	case SnappyBlockCompression:
+		compressed = snappy.Encode(*tmpbuf, inp)
+		if n := snappy.MaxEncodedLen(len(inp)); n > len(*tmpbuf) {
+			// grow the buffer for the next time
+			*tmpbuf = make([]byte, n)
+		}
+		return compressed, nil
+	default:
+		return compressed, fmt.Errorf("Unknown compression scheme [%v]", enc)
+	}
+}
+
+func buildWriteRequest(logger log.Logger, timeSeries []prompb.TimeSeries, metadata []prompb.MetricMetadata, pBuf *proto.Buffer, buf *[]byte, filter func(prompb.TimeSeries) bool, enc Compression) (compressed []byte, highest, lowest int64, _ error) {
 	highest, lowest, timeSeries,
 		droppedSamples, droppedExemplars, droppedHistograms := buildTimeSeries(timeSeries, filter)
 
@@ -1814,8 +2112,105 @@ func buildWriteRequest(logger log.Logger, timeSeries []prompb.TimeSeries, metada
 	// snappy uses len() to see if it needs to allocate a new slice. Make the
 	// buffer as long as possible.
 	if buf != nil {
-		buf = buf[0:cap(buf)]
+		*buf = (*buf)[0:cap(*buf)]
+	} else {
+		buf = &[]byte{}
+	}
+
+	compressed, err = compressPayload(buf, pBuf.Bytes(), enc)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, highest, lowest, err
 	}
-	compressed := snappy.Encode(buf, pBuf.Bytes())
 	return compressed, highest, lowest, nil
 }
+
+func buildV2WriteRequest(logger log.Logger, samples []writev2.TimeSeries, labels []string, pBuf, buf *[]byte, filter func(writev2.TimeSeries) bool, enc Compression) (compressed []byte, highest, lowest int64, _ error) {
+	highest, lowest, timeSeries, droppedSamples, droppedExemplars, droppedHistograms := buildV2TimeSeries(samples, filter)
+
+	if droppedSamples > 0 || droppedExemplars > 0 || droppedHistograms > 0 {
+		level.Debug(logger).Log("msg", "dropped data due to their age", "droppedSamples", droppedSamples, "droppedExemplars", droppedExemplars, "droppedHistograms", droppedHistograms)
+	}
+
+	req := &writev2.Request{
+		Symbols:    labels,
+		Timeseries: timeSeries,
+	}
+
+	if pBuf == nil {
+		pBuf = &[]byte{} // For convenience in tests. Not efficient.
+	}
+
+	data, err := req.OptimizedMarshal(*pBuf)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, highest, lowest, err
+	}
+	*pBuf = data
+
+	// snappy uses len() to see if it needs to allocate a new slice. Make the
+	// buffer as long as possible.
+	if buf != nil {
+		*buf = (*buf)[0:cap(*buf)]
+	} else {
+		buf = &[]byte{}
+	}
+
+	compressed, err = compressPayload(buf, data, enc)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, highest, lowest, err
+	}
+	return compressed, highest, lowest, nil
+}
+
+func buildV2TimeSeries(timeSeries []writev2.TimeSeries, filter func(writev2.TimeSeries) bool) (int64, int64, []writev2.TimeSeries, int, int, int) {
+	var highest int64
+	var lowest int64
+	var droppedSamples, droppedExemplars, droppedHistograms int
+
+	keepIdx := 0
+	lowest = math.MaxInt64
+	for i, ts := range timeSeries {
+		if filter != nil && filter(ts) {
+			if len(ts.Samples) > 0 {
+				droppedSamples++
+			}
+			if len(ts.Exemplars) > 0 {
+				droppedExemplars++
+			}
+			if len(ts.Histograms) > 0 {
+				droppedHistograms++
+			}
+			continue
+		}
+
+		// At the moment we only ever append a TimeSeries with a single sample or exemplar in it.
+		if len(ts.Samples) > 0 && ts.Samples[0].Timestamp > highest {
+			highest = ts.Samples[0].Timestamp
+		}
+		if len(ts.Exemplars) > 0 && ts.Exemplars[0].Timestamp > highest {
+			highest = ts.Exemplars[0].Timestamp
+		}
+		if len(ts.Histograms) > 0 && ts.Histograms[0].Timestamp > highest {
+			highest = ts.Histograms[0].Timestamp
+		}
+
+		// Get the lowest timestamp.
+		if len(ts.Samples) > 0 && ts.Samples[0].Timestamp < lowest {
+			lowest = ts.Samples[0].Timestamp
+		}
+		if len(ts.Exemplars) > 0 && ts.Exemplars[0].Timestamp < lowest {
+			lowest = ts.Exemplars[0].Timestamp
+		}
+		if len(ts.Histograms) > 0 && ts.Histograms[0].Timestamp < lowest {
+			lowest = ts.Histograms[0].Timestamp
+		}
+		if i != keepIdx {
+			// We have to swap the kept timeseries with the one which should be dropped.
+			// Copying any elements within timeSeries could cause data corruptions when reusing the slice in a next batch (shards.populateTimeSeries).
+			timeSeries[keepIdx], timeSeries[i] = timeSeries[i], timeSeries[keepIdx]
+		}
+		keepIdx++
+	}
+
+	timeSeries = timeSeries[:keepIdx]
+	return highest, lowest, timeSeries, droppedSamples, droppedExemplars, droppedHistograms
+}
diff --git a/storage/remote/queue_manager_test.go b/storage/remote/queue_manager_test.go
index e32a3ace05..9ab563edab 100644
--- a/storage/remote/queue_manager_test.go
+++ b/storage/remote/queue_manager_test.go
@@ -15,8 +15,10 @@ package remote
 
 import (
 	"context"
+	"errors"
 	"fmt"
 	"math"
+	"math/rand"
 	"os"
 	"runtime/pprof"
 	"sort"
@@ -29,6 +31,7 @@ import (
 	"github.com/go-kit/log"
 	"github.com/gogo/protobuf/proto"
 	"github.com/golang/snappy"
+	"github.com/google/go-cmp/cmp"
 	"github.com/prometheus/client_golang/prometheus"
 	client_testutil "github.com/prometheus/client_golang/prometheus/testutil"
 	"github.com/prometheus/common/model"
@@ -41,9 +44,11 @@ import (
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/relabel"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/timestamp"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/prompb"
+	writev2 "github.com/prometheus/prometheus/prompb/io/prometheus/write/v2"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/scrape"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/tsdb/chunks"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/tsdb/record"
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/util/runutil"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/util/testutil"
 )
 
@@ -60,30 +65,150 @@ func newHighestTimestampMetric() *maxTimestamp {
 	}
 }
 
-func TestSampleDelivery(t *testing.T) {
-	testcases := []struct {
-		name            string
-		samples         bool
-		exemplars       bool
-		histograms      bool
-		floatHistograms bool
-	}{
-		{samples: true, exemplars: false, histograms: false, floatHistograms: false, name: "samples only"},
-		{samples: true, exemplars: true, histograms: true, floatHistograms: true, name: "samples, exemplars, and histograms"},
-		{samples: false, exemplars: true, histograms: false, floatHistograms: false, name: "exemplars only"},
-		{samples: false, exemplars: false, histograms: true, floatHistograms: false, name: "histograms only"},
-		{samples: false, exemplars: false, histograms: false, floatHistograms: true, name: "float histograms only"},
+func TestBasicContentNegotiation(t *testing.T) {
+	queueConfig := config.DefaultQueueConfig
+	queueConfig.BatchSendDeadline = model.Duration(100 * time.Millisecond)
+	queueConfig.MaxShards = 1
+
+	// We need to set URL's so that metric creation doesn't panic.
+	writeConfig := baseRemoteWriteConfig("http://test-storage.com")
+	writeConfig.QueueConfig = queueConfig
+
+	conf := &config.Config{
+		GlobalConfig: config.DefaultGlobalConfig,
+		RemoteWriteConfigs: []*config.RemoteWriteConfig{
+			writeConfig,
+		},
 	}
 
-	// Let's create an even number of send batches so we don't run into the
+	for _, tc := range []struct {
+		name             string
+		senderProtoMsg   config.RemoteWriteProtoMsg
+		receiverProtoMsg config.RemoteWriteProtoMsg
+		injectErrs       []error
+		expectFail       bool
+	}{
+		{
+			name:           "v2 happy path",
+			senderProtoMsg: config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV2, receiverProtoMsg: config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV2,
+			injectErrs: []error{nil},
+		},
+		{
+			name:           "v1 happy path",
+			senderProtoMsg: config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1, receiverProtoMsg: config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1,
+			injectErrs: []error{nil},
+		},
+		// Test a case where the v1 request has a temporary delay but goes through on retry.
+		{
+			name:           "v1 happy path with one 5xx retry",
+			senderProtoMsg: config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1, receiverProtoMsg: config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1,
+			injectErrs: []error{RecoverableError{errors.New("pretend 500"), 1}, nil},
+		},
+		// Repeat the above test but with v2. The request has a temporary delay but goes through on retry.
+		{
+			name:           "v2 happy path with one 5xx retry",
+			senderProtoMsg: config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV2, receiverProtoMsg: config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV2,
+			injectErrs: []error{RecoverableError{errors.New("pretend 500"), 1}, nil},
+		},
+		// A few error cases of v2 talking to v1.
+		{
+			name:           "v2 talks to v1 that gives 400 or 415",
+			senderProtoMsg: config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV2, receiverProtoMsg: config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1,
+			injectErrs: []error{errors.New("pretend unrecoverable err")},
+			expectFail: true,
+		},
+		{
+			name:           "v2 talks to v1 that tries to unmarshal v2 payload with v1 proto",
+			senderProtoMsg: config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV2, receiverProtoMsg: config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1,
+			injectErrs: []error{nil},
+			expectFail: true, // invalid request, no timeseries
+		},
+		// Opposite, v1 talking to v2 only server.
+		{
+			name:           "v1 talks to v2 that gives 400 or 415",
+			senderProtoMsg: config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1, receiverProtoMsg: config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV2,
+			injectErrs: []error{errors.New("pretend unrecoverable err")},
+			expectFail: true,
+		},
+		{
+			name:           "v1 talks to (broken) v2 that tries to unmarshal v1 payload with v2 proto",
+			senderProtoMsg: config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1, receiverProtoMsg: config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV2,
+			injectErrs: []error{nil},
+			expectFail: true, // invalid request, no timeseries
+		},
+	} {
+		t.Run(tc.name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			dir := t.TempDir()
+			s := NewStorage(nil, nil, nil, dir, defaultFlushDeadline, nil, true)
+			defer s.Close()
+
+			var (
+				series   []record.RefSeries
+				metadata []record.RefMetadata
+				samples  []record.RefSample
+			)
+
+			// Generates same series in both cases.
+			samples, series = createTimeseries(1, 1)
+			metadata = createSeriesMetadata(series)
+
+			// Apply new config.
+			queueConfig.Capacity = len(samples)
+			queueConfig.MaxSamplesPerSend = len(samples)
+			// For now we only ever have a single rw config in this test.
+			conf.RemoteWriteConfigs[0].ProtobufMessage = tc.senderProtoMsg
+			require.NoError(t, s.ApplyConfig(conf))
+			hash, err := toHash(writeConfig)
+			require.NoError(t, err)
+			qm := s.rws.queues[hash]
+
+			c := NewTestWriteClient(tc.receiverProtoMsg)
+			c.injectErrors(tc.injectErrs)
+			qm.SetClient(c)
+
+			qm.StoreSeries(series, 0)
+			qm.StoreMetadata(metadata)
+
+			// Do we expect some data back?
+			if !tc.expectFail {
+				c.expectSamples(samples, series)
+			} else {
+				c.expectSamples(nil, nil)
+			}
+
+			// Schedule send.
+			qm.Append(samples)
+
+			if !tc.expectFail {
+				// No error expected, so wait for data.
+				c.waitForExpectedData(t, 5*time.Second)
+				require.Equal(t, 1, c.writesReceived)
+				require.Equal(t, 0.0, client_testutil.ToFloat64(qm.metrics.failedSamplesTotal))
+			} else {
+				// Wait for failure to be recorded in metrics.
+				ctx, cancel := context.WithTimeout(context.Background(), 5*time.Second)
+				defer cancel()
+				require.NoError(t, runutil.Retry(500*time.Millisecond, ctx.Done(), func() error {
+					if client_testutil.ToFloat64(qm.metrics.failedSamplesTotal) != 1.0 {
+						return errors.New("expected one sample failed in qm metrics")
+					}
+					return nil
+				}))
+				require.Equal(t, 0, c.writesReceived)
+			}
+
+			// samplesTotal means attempts.
+			require.Equal(t, float64(len(tc.injectErrs)), client_testutil.ToFloat64(qm.metrics.samplesTotal))
+			require.Equal(t, float64(len(tc.injectErrs)-1), client_testutil.ToFloat64(qm.metrics.retriedSamplesTotal))
+		})
+	}
+}
+
+func TestSampleDelivery(t *testing.T) {
+	// Let's create an even number of send batches, so we don't run into the
 	// batch timeout case.
 	n := 3
 
-	dir := t.TempDir()
-
-	s := NewStorage(nil, nil, nil, dir, defaultFlushDeadline, nil)
-	defer s.Close()
-
 	queueConfig := config.DefaultQueueConfig
 	queueConfig.BatchSendDeadline = model.Duration(100 * time.Millisecond)
 	queueConfig.MaxShards = 1
@@ -100,11 +225,36 @@ func TestSampleDelivery(t *testing.T) {
 			writeConfig,
 		},
 	}
+	for _, tc := range []struct {
+		protoMsg config.RemoteWriteProtoMsg
+
+		name            string
+		samples         bool
+		exemplars       bool
+		histograms      bool
+		floatHistograms bool
+	}{
+		{protoMsg: config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1, samples: true, exemplars: false, histograms: false, floatHistograms: false, name: "samples only"},
+		{protoMsg: config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1, samples: true, exemplars: true, histograms: true, floatHistograms: true, name: "samples, exemplars, and histograms"},
+		{protoMsg: config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1, samples: false, exemplars: true, histograms: false, floatHistograms: false, name: "exemplars only"},
+		{protoMsg: config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1, samples: false, exemplars: false, histograms: true, floatHistograms: false, name: "histograms only"},
+		{protoMsg: config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1, samples: false, exemplars: false, histograms: false, floatHistograms: true, name: "float histograms only"},
+
+		// TODO(alexg): update some portion of this test to check for the 2.0 metadata
+		{protoMsg: config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV2, samples: true, exemplars: false, histograms: false, floatHistograms: false, name: "samples only"},
+		{protoMsg: config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV2, samples: true, exemplars: true, histograms: true, floatHistograms: true, name: "samples, exemplars, and histograms"},
+		{protoMsg: config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV2, samples: false, exemplars: true, histograms: false, floatHistograms: false, name: "exemplars only"},
+		{protoMsg: config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV2, samples: false, exemplars: false, histograms: true, floatHistograms: false, name: "histograms only"},
+		{protoMsg: config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV2, samples: false, exemplars: false, histograms: false, floatHistograms: true, name: "float histograms only"},
+	} {
+		t.Run(fmt.Sprintf("%s-%s", tc.protoMsg, tc.name), func(t *testing.T) {
+			dir := t.TempDir()
+			s := NewStorage(nil, nil, nil, dir, defaultFlushDeadline, nil, true)
+			defer s.Close()
 
-	for _, tc := range testcases {
-		t.Run(tc.name, func(t *testing.T) {
 			var (
 				series          []record.RefSeries
+				metadata        []record.RefMetadata
 				samples         []record.RefSample
 				exemplars       []record.RefExemplar
 				histograms      []record.RefHistogramSample
@@ -124,19 +274,23 @@ func TestSampleDelivery(t *testing.T) {
 			if tc.floatHistograms {
 				_, floatHistograms, series = createHistograms(n, n, true)
 			}
+			metadata = createSeriesMetadata(series)
 
 			// Apply new config.
 			queueConfig.Capacity = len(samples)
 			queueConfig.MaxSamplesPerSend = len(samples) / 2
+			// For now we only ever have a single rw config in this test.
+			conf.RemoteWriteConfigs[0].ProtobufMessage = tc.protoMsg
 			require.NoError(t, s.ApplyConfig(conf))
 			hash, err := toHash(writeConfig)
 			require.NoError(t, err)
 			qm := s.rws.queues[hash]
 
-			c := NewTestWriteClient()
+			c := NewTestWriteClient(tc.protoMsg)
 			qm.SetClient(c)
 
 			qm.StoreSeries(series, 0)
+			qm.StoreMetadata(metadata)
 
 			// Send first half of data.
 			c.expectSamples(samples[:len(samples)/2], series)
@@ -147,7 +301,7 @@ func TestSampleDelivery(t *testing.T) {
 			qm.AppendExemplars(exemplars[:len(exemplars)/2])
 			qm.AppendHistograms(histograms[:len(histograms)/2])
 			qm.AppendFloatHistograms(floatHistograms[:len(floatHistograms)/2])
-			c.waitForExpectedData(t)
+			c.waitForExpectedData(t, 30*time.Second)
 
 			// Send second half of data.
 			c.expectSamples(samples[len(samples)/2:], series)
@@ -158,28 +312,35 @@ func TestSampleDelivery(t *testing.T) {
 			qm.AppendExemplars(exemplars[len(exemplars)/2:])
 			qm.AppendHistograms(histograms[len(histograms)/2:])
 			qm.AppendFloatHistograms(floatHistograms[len(floatHistograms)/2:])
-			c.waitForExpectedData(t)
+			c.waitForExpectedData(t, 30*time.Second)
 		})
 	}
 }
 
-func newTestClientAndQueueManager(t testing.TB, flushDeadline time.Duration) (*TestWriteClient, *QueueManager) {
-	c := NewTestWriteClient()
+func newTestClientAndQueueManager(t testing.TB, flushDeadline time.Duration, protoMsg config.RemoteWriteProtoMsg) (*TestWriteClient, *QueueManager) {
+	c := NewTestWriteClient(protoMsg)
 	cfg := config.DefaultQueueConfig
 	mcfg := config.DefaultMetadataConfig
-	return c, newTestQueueManager(t, cfg, mcfg, flushDeadline, c)
+	return c, newTestQueueManager(t, cfg, mcfg, flushDeadline, c, protoMsg)
 }
 
-func newTestQueueManager(t testing.TB, cfg config.QueueConfig, mcfg config.MetadataConfig, deadline time.Duration, c WriteClient) *QueueManager {
+func newTestQueueManager(t testing.TB, cfg config.QueueConfig, mcfg config.MetadataConfig, deadline time.Duration, c WriteClient, protoMsg config.RemoteWriteProtoMsg) *QueueManager {
 	dir := t.TempDir()
 	metrics := newQueueManagerMetrics(nil, "", "")
-	m := NewQueueManager(metrics, nil, nil, nil, dir, newEWMARate(ewmaWeight, shardUpdateDuration), cfg, mcfg, labels.EmptyLabels(), nil, c, deadline, newPool(), newHighestTimestampMetric(), nil, false, false)
+	m := NewQueueManager(metrics, nil, nil, nil, dir, newEWMARate(ewmaWeight, shardUpdateDuration), cfg, mcfg, labels.EmptyLabels(), nil, c, deadline, newPool(), newHighestTimestampMetric(), nil, false, false, protoMsg)
 
 	return m
 }
 
+func testDefaultQueueConfig() config.QueueConfig {
+	cfg := config.DefaultQueueConfig
+	// For faster unit tests we don't wait default 5 seconds.
+	cfg.BatchSendDeadline = model.Duration(100 * time.Millisecond)
+	return cfg
+}
+
 func TestMetadataDelivery(t *testing.T) {
-	c, m := newTestClientAndQueueManager(t, defaultFlushDeadline)
+	c, m := newTestClientAndQueueManager(t, defaultFlushDeadline, config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1)
 	m.Start()
 	defer m.Stop()
 
@@ -194,8 +355,9 @@ func TestMetadataDelivery(t *testing.T) {
 		})
 	}
 
-	m.AppendMetadata(context.Background(), metadata)
+	m.AppendWatcherMetadata(context.Background(), metadata)
 
+	require.Equal(t, 0.0, client_testutil.ToFloat64(m.metrics.failedMetadataTotal))
 	require.Len(t, c.receivedMetadata, numMetadata)
 	// One more write than the rounded qoutient should be performed in order to get samples that didn't
 	// fit into MaxSamplesPerSend.
@@ -204,58 +366,106 @@ func TestMetadataDelivery(t *testing.T) {
 	require.Equal(t, c.receivedMetadata[metadata[len(metadata)-1].Metric][0].MetricFamilyName, metadata[len(metadata)-1].Metric)
 }
 
-func TestSampleDeliveryTimeout(t *testing.T) {
-	// Let's send one less sample than batch size, and wait the timeout duration
-	n := 9
-	samples, series := createTimeseries(n, n)
+func TestWALMetadataDelivery(t *testing.T) {
+	dir := t.TempDir()
+	s := NewStorage(nil, nil, nil, dir, defaultFlushDeadline, nil, true)
+	defer s.Close()
 
 	cfg := config.DefaultQueueConfig
-	cfg.MaxShards = 1
 	cfg.BatchSendDeadline = model.Duration(100 * time.Millisecond)
+	cfg.MaxShards = 1
 
-	c := NewTestWriteClient()
-	m := newTestQueueManager(t, cfg, config.DefaultMetadataConfig, defaultFlushDeadline, c)
-	m.StoreSeries(series, 0)
-	m.Start()
-	defer m.Stop()
+	writeConfig := baseRemoteWriteConfig("http://test-storage.com")
+	writeConfig.QueueConfig = cfg
+	writeConfig.ProtobufMessage = config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV2
 
-	// Send the samples twice, waiting for the samples in the meantime.
-	c.expectSamples(samples, series)
-	m.Append(samples)
-	c.waitForExpectedData(t)
+	conf := &config.Config{
+		GlobalConfig: config.DefaultGlobalConfig,
+		RemoteWriteConfigs: []*config.RemoteWriteConfig{
+			writeConfig,
+		},
+	}
 
-	c.expectSamples(samples, series)
-	m.Append(samples)
-	c.waitForExpectedData(t)
+	num := 3
+	_, series := createTimeseries(0, num)
+	metadata := createSeriesMetadata(series)
+
+	require.NoError(t, s.ApplyConfig(conf))
+	hash, err := toHash(writeConfig)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	qm := s.rws.queues[hash]
+
+	c := NewTestWriteClient(config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1)
+	qm.SetClient(c)
+
+	qm.StoreSeries(series, 0)
+	qm.StoreMetadata(metadata)
+
+	require.Len(t, qm.seriesLabels, num)
+	require.Len(t, qm.seriesMetadata, num)
+
+	c.waitForExpectedData(t, 30*time.Second)
+}
+
+func TestSampleDeliveryTimeout(t *testing.T) {
+	for _, protoMsg := range []config.RemoteWriteProtoMsg{config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1, config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV2} {
+		t.Run(fmt.Sprint(protoMsg), func(t *testing.T) {
+			// Let's send one less sample than batch size, and wait the timeout duration
+			n := 9
+			samples, series := createTimeseries(n, n)
+			cfg := testDefaultQueueConfig()
+			mcfg := config.DefaultMetadataConfig
+			cfg.MaxShards = 1
+
+			c := NewTestWriteClient(protoMsg)
+			m := newTestQueueManager(t, cfg, mcfg, defaultFlushDeadline, c, protoMsg)
+			m.StoreSeries(series, 0)
+			m.Start()
+			defer m.Stop()
+
+			// Send the samples twice, waiting for the samples in the meantime.
+			c.expectSamples(samples, series)
+			m.Append(samples)
+			c.waitForExpectedData(t, 30*time.Second)
+
+			c.expectSamples(samples, series)
+			m.Append(samples)
+			c.waitForExpectedData(t, 30*time.Second)
+		})
+	}
 }
 
 func TestSampleDeliveryOrder(t *testing.T) {
-	ts := 10
-	n := config.DefaultQueueConfig.MaxSamplesPerSend * ts
-	samples := make([]record.RefSample, 0, n)
-	series := make([]record.RefSeries, 0, n)
-	for i := 0; i < n; i++ {
-		name := fmt.Sprintf("test_metric_%d", i%ts)
-		samples = append(samples, record.RefSample{
-			Ref: chunks.HeadSeriesRef(i),
-			T:   int64(i),
-			V:   float64(i),
-		})
-		series = append(series, record.RefSeries{
-			Ref:    chunks.HeadSeriesRef(i),
-			Labels: labels.FromStrings("__name__", name),
+	for _, protoMsg := range []config.RemoteWriteProtoMsg{config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1, config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV2} {
+		t.Run(fmt.Sprint(protoMsg), func(t *testing.T) {
+			ts := 10
+			n := config.DefaultQueueConfig.MaxSamplesPerSend * ts
+			samples := make([]record.RefSample, 0, n)
+			series := make([]record.RefSeries, 0, n)
+			for i := 0; i < n; i++ {
+				name := fmt.Sprintf("test_metric_%d", i%ts)
+				samples = append(samples, record.RefSample{
+					Ref: chunks.HeadSeriesRef(i),
+					T:   int64(i),
+					V:   float64(i),
+				})
+				series = append(series, record.RefSeries{
+					Ref:    chunks.HeadSeriesRef(i),
+					Labels: labels.FromStrings("__name__", name),
+				})
+			}
+
+			c, m := newTestClientAndQueueManager(t, defaultFlushDeadline, protoMsg)
+			c.expectSamples(samples, series)
+			m.StoreSeries(series, 0)
+
+			m.Start()
+			defer m.Stop()
+			// These should be received by the client.
+			m.Append(samples)
+			c.waitForExpectedData(t, 30*time.Second)
 		})
 	}
-
-	c, m := newTestClientAndQueueManager(t, defaultFlushDeadline)
-	c.expectSamples(samples, series)
-	m.StoreSeries(series, 0)
-
-	m.Start()
-	defer m.Stop()
-	// These should be received by the client.
-	m.Append(samples)
-	c.waitForExpectedData(t)
 }
 
 func TestShutdown(t *testing.T) {
@@ -265,7 +475,7 @@ func TestShutdown(t *testing.T) {
 	cfg := config.DefaultQueueConfig
 	mcfg := config.DefaultMetadataConfig
 
-	m := newTestQueueManager(t, cfg, mcfg, deadline, c)
+	m := newTestQueueManager(t, cfg, mcfg, deadline, c, config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1)
 	n := 2 * config.DefaultQueueConfig.MaxSamplesPerSend
 	samples, series := createTimeseries(n, n)
 	m.StoreSeries(series, 0)
@@ -300,8 +510,7 @@ func TestSeriesReset(t *testing.T) {
 
 	cfg := config.DefaultQueueConfig
 	mcfg := config.DefaultMetadataConfig
-	m := newTestQueueManager(t, cfg, mcfg, deadline, c)
-
+	m := newTestQueueManager(t, cfg, mcfg, deadline, c, config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1)
 	for i := 0; i < numSegments; i++ {
 		series := []record.RefSeries{}
 		for j := 0; j < numSeries; j++ {
@@ -315,167 +524,186 @@ func TestSeriesReset(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestReshard(t *testing.T) {
-	size := 10 // Make bigger to find more races.
-	nSeries := 6
-	nSamples := config.DefaultQueueConfig.Capacity * size
-	samples, series := createTimeseries(nSamples, nSeries)
+	for _, protoMsg := range []config.RemoteWriteProtoMsg{config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1, config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV2} {
+		t.Run(fmt.Sprint(protoMsg), func(t *testing.T) {
+			size := 10 // Make bigger to find more races.
+			nSeries := 6
+			nSamples := config.DefaultQueueConfig.Capacity * size
+			samples, series := createTimeseries(nSamples, nSeries)
 
-	cfg := config.DefaultQueueConfig
-	cfg.MaxShards = 1
+			cfg := config.DefaultQueueConfig
+			cfg.MaxShards = 1
 
-	c := NewTestWriteClient()
-	m := newTestQueueManager(t, cfg, config.DefaultMetadataConfig, defaultFlushDeadline, c)
-	c.expectSamples(samples, series)
-	m.StoreSeries(series, 0)
+			c := NewTestWriteClient(protoMsg)
+			m := newTestQueueManager(t, cfg, config.DefaultMetadataConfig, defaultFlushDeadline, c, protoMsg)
+			c.expectSamples(samples, series)
+			m.StoreSeries(series, 0)
 
-	m.Start()
-	defer m.Stop()
+			m.Start()
+			defer m.Stop()
 
-	go func() {
-		for i := 0; i < len(samples); i += config.DefaultQueueConfig.Capacity {
-			sent := m.Append(samples[i : i+config.DefaultQueueConfig.Capacity])
-			require.True(t, sent, "samples not sent")
-			time.Sleep(100 * time.Millisecond)
-		}
-	}()
+			go func() {
+				for i := 0; i < len(samples); i += config.DefaultQueueConfig.Capacity {
+					sent := m.Append(samples[i : i+config.DefaultQueueConfig.Capacity])
+					require.True(t, sent, "samples not sent")
+					time.Sleep(100 * time.Millisecond)
+				}
+			}()
 
-	for i := 1; i < len(samples)/config.DefaultQueueConfig.Capacity; i++ {
-		m.shards.stop()
-		m.shards.start(i)
-		time.Sleep(100 * time.Millisecond)
+			for i := 1; i < len(samples)/config.DefaultQueueConfig.Capacity; i++ {
+				m.shards.stop()
+				m.shards.start(i)
+				time.Sleep(100 * time.Millisecond)
+			}
+
+			c.waitForExpectedData(t, 30*time.Second)
+		})
 	}
-
-	c.waitForExpectedData(t)
 }
 
 func TestReshardRaceWithStop(t *testing.T) {
-	c := NewTestWriteClient()
-	var m *QueueManager
-	h := sync.Mutex{}
-
-	h.Lock()
-
-	cfg := config.DefaultQueueConfig
-	mcfg := config.DefaultMetadataConfig
-	exitCh := make(chan struct{})
-	go func() {
-		for {
-			m = newTestQueueManager(t, cfg, mcfg, defaultFlushDeadline, c)
-			m.Start()
-			h.Unlock()
+	for _, protoMsg := range []config.RemoteWriteProtoMsg{config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1, config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV2} {
+		t.Run(fmt.Sprint(protoMsg), func(t *testing.T) {
+			c := NewTestWriteClient(protoMsg)
+			var m *QueueManager
+			h := sync.Mutex{}
 			h.Lock()
-			m.Stop()
 
-			select {
-			case exitCh <- struct{}{}:
-				return
-			default:
+			cfg := testDefaultQueueConfig()
+			mcfg := config.DefaultMetadataConfig
+			exitCh := make(chan struct{})
+			go func() {
+				for {
+					m = newTestQueueManager(t, cfg, mcfg, defaultFlushDeadline, c, protoMsg)
+
+					m.Start()
+					h.Unlock()
+					h.Lock()
+					m.Stop()
+
+					select {
+					case exitCh <- struct{}{}:
+						return
+					default:
+					}
+				}
+			}()
+
+			for i := 1; i < 100; i++ {
+				h.Lock()
+				m.reshardChan <- i
+				h.Unlock()
 			}
-		}
-	}()
-
-	for i := 1; i < 100; i++ {
-		h.Lock()
-		m.reshardChan <- i
-		h.Unlock()
+			<-exitCh
+		})
 	}
-	<-exitCh
 }
 
 func TestReshardPartialBatch(t *testing.T) {
-	samples, series := createTimeseries(1, 10)
+	for _, protoMsg := range []config.RemoteWriteProtoMsg{config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1, config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV2} {
+		t.Run(fmt.Sprint(protoMsg), func(t *testing.T) {
+			samples, series := createTimeseries(1, 10)
 
-	c := NewTestBlockedWriteClient()
+			c := NewTestBlockedWriteClient()
 
-	cfg := config.DefaultQueueConfig
-	mcfg := config.DefaultMetadataConfig
-	cfg.MaxShards = 1
-	batchSendDeadline := time.Millisecond
-	flushDeadline := 10 * time.Millisecond
-	cfg.BatchSendDeadline = model.Duration(batchSendDeadline)
+			cfg := testDefaultQueueConfig()
+			mcfg := config.DefaultMetadataConfig
+			cfg.MaxShards = 1
+			batchSendDeadline := time.Millisecond
+			flushDeadline := 10 * time.Millisecond
+			cfg.BatchSendDeadline = model.Duration(batchSendDeadline)
 
-	m := newTestQueueManager(t, cfg, mcfg, flushDeadline, c)
-	m.StoreSeries(series, 0)
+			m := newTestQueueManager(t, cfg, mcfg, flushDeadline, c, protoMsg)
+			m.StoreSeries(series, 0)
 
-	m.Start()
+			m.Start()
 
-	for i := 0; i < 100; i++ {
-		done := make(chan struct{})
-		go func() {
-			m.Append(samples)
-			time.Sleep(batchSendDeadline)
-			m.shards.stop()
-			m.shards.start(1)
-			done <- struct{}{}
-		}()
-		select {
-		case <-done:
-		case <-time.After(2 * time.Second):
-			t.Error("Deadlock between sending and stopping detected")
-			pprof.Lookup("goroutine").WriteTo(os.Stdout, 1)
-			t.FailNow()
-		}
+			for i := 0; i < 100; i++ {
+				done := make(chan struct{})
+				go func() {
+					m.Append(samples)
+					time.Sleep(batchSendDeadline)
+					m.shards.stop()
+					m.shards.start(1)
+					done <- struct{}{}
+				}()
+				select {
+				case <-done:
+				case <-time.After(2 * time.Second):
+					t.Error("Deadlock between sending and stopping detected")
+					pprof.Lookup("goroutine").WriteTo(os.Stdout, 1)
+					t.FailNow()
+				}
+			}
+			// We can only call stop if there was not a deadlock.
+			m.Stop()
+		})
 	}
-	// We can only call stop if there was not a deadlock.
-	m.Stop()
 }
 
 // TestQueueFilledDeadlock makes sure the code does not deadlock in the case
 // where a large scrape (> capacity + max samples per send) is appended at the
 // same time as a batch times out according to the batch send deadline.
 func TestQueueFilledDeadlock(t *testing.T) {
-	samples, series := createTimeseries(50, 1)
+	for _, protoMsg := range []config.RemoteWriteProtoMsg{config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1, config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV2} {
+		t.Run(fmt.Sprint(protoMsg), func(t *testing.T) {
+			samples, series := createTimeseries(50, 1)
 
-	c := NewNopWriteClient()
+			c := NewNopWriteClient()
 
-	cfg := config.DefaultQueueConfig
-	mcfg := config.DefaultMetadataConfig
-	cfg.MaxShards = 1
-	cfg.MaxSamplesPerSend = 10
-	cfg.Capacity = 20
-	flushDeadline := time.Second
-	batchSendDeadline := time.Millisecond
-	cfg.BatchSendDeadline = model.Duration(batchSendDeadline)
+			cfg := testDefaultQueueConfig()
+			mcfg := config.DefaultMetadataConfig
+			cfg.MaxShards = 1
+			cfg.MaxSamplesPerSend = 10
+			cfg.Capacity = 20
+			flushDeadline := time.Second
+			batchSendDeadline := time.Millisecond
+			cfg.BatchSendDeadline = model.Duration(batchSendDeadline)
 
-	m := newTestQueueManager(t, cfg, mcfg, flushDeadline, c)
-	m.StoreSeries(series, 0)
-	m.Start()
-	defer m.Stop()
+			m := newTestQueueManager(t, cfg, mcfg, flushDeadline, c, protoMsg)
+			m.StoreSeries(series, 0)
+			m.Start()
+			defer m.Stop()
 
-	for i := 0; i < 100; i++ {
-		done := make(chan struct{})
-		go func() {
-			time.Sleep(batchSendDeadline)
-			m.Append(samples)
-			done <- struct{}{}
-		}()
-		select {
-		case <-done:
-		case <-time.After(2 * time.Second):
-			t.Error("Deadlock between sending and appending detected")
-			pprof.Lookup("goroutine").WriteTo(os.Stdout, 1)
-			t.FailNow()
-		}
+			for i := 0; i < 100; i++ {
+				done := make(chan struct{})
+				go func() {
+					time.Sleep(batchSendDeadline)
+					m.Append(samples)
+					done <- struct{}{}
+				}()
+				select {
+				case <-done:
+				case <-time.After(2 * time.Second):
+					t.Error("Deadlock between sending and appending detected")
+					pprof.Lookup("goroutine").WriteTo(os.Stdout, 1)
+					t.FailNow()
+				}
+			}
+		})
 	}
 }
 
 func TestReleaseNoninternedString(t *testing.T) {
-	_, m := newTestClientAndQueueManager(t, defaultFlushDeadline)
-	m.Start()
-	defer m.Stop()
+	for _, protoMsg := range []config.RemoteWriteProtoMsg{config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1, config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV2} {
+		t.Run(fmt.Sprint(protoMsg), func(t *testing.T) {
+			_, m := newTestClientAndQueueManager(t, defaultFlushDeadline, protoMsg)
+			m.Start()
+			defer m.Stop()
+			for i := 1; i < 1000; i++ {
+				m.StoreSeries([]record.RefSeries{
+					{
+						Ref:    chunks.HeadSeriesRef(i),
+						Labels: labels.FromStrings("asdf", strconv.Itoa(i)),
+					},
+				}, 0)
+				m.SeriesReset(1)
+			}
 
-	for i := 1; i < 1000; i++ {
-		m.StoreSeries([]record.RefSeries{
-			{
-				Ref:    chunks.HeadSeriesRef(i),
-				Labels: labels.FromStrings("asdf", fmt.Sprintf("%d", i)),
-			},
-		}, 0)
-		m.SeriesReset(1)
+			metric := client_testutil.ToFloat64(noReferenceReleases)
+			require.Equal(t, 0.0, metric, "expected there to be no calls to release for strings that were not already interned: %d", int(metric))
+		})
 	}
-
-	metric := client_testutil.ToFloat64(noReferenceReleases)
-	require.Equal(t, 0.0, metric, "expected there to be no calls to release for strings that were not already interned: %d", int(metric))
 }
 
 func TestShouldReshard(t *testing.T) {
@@ -503,7 +731,7 @@ func TestShouldReshard(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 
 	for _, c := range cases {
-		_, m := newTestClientAndQueueManager(t, defaultFlushDeadline)
+		_, m := newTestClientAndQueueManager(t, defaultFlushDeadline, config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1)
 		m.numShards = c.startingShards
 		m.dataIn.incr(c.samplesIn)
 		m.dataOut.incr(c.samplesOut)
@@ -549,7 +777,7 @@ func TestDisableReshardOnRetry(t *testing.T) {
 		}
 	)
 
-	m := NewQueueManager(metrics, nil, nil, nil, "", newEWMARate(ewmaWeight, shardUpdateDuration), cfg, mcfg, labels.EmptyLabels(), nil, client, 0, newPool(), newHighestTimestampMetric(), nil, false, false)
+	m := NewQueueManager(metrics, nil, nil, nil, "", newEWMARate(ewmaWeight, shardUpdateDuration), cfg, mcfg, labels.EmptyLabels(), nil, client, 0, newPool(), newHighestTimestampMetric(), nil, false, false, config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1)
 	m.StoreSeries(fakeSeries, 0)
 
 	// Attempt to samples while the manager is running. We immediately stop the
@@ -599,6 +827,9 @@ func createTimeseries(numSamples, numSeries int, extraLabels ...labels.Label) ([
 		// Create Labels that is name of series plus any extra labels supplied.
 		lb.Reset()
 		lb.Add(labels.MetricName, name)
+		rand.Shuffle(len(extraLabels), func(i, j int) {
+			extraLabels[i], extraLabels[j] = extraLabels[j], extraLabels[i]
+		})
 		for _, l := range extraLabels {
 			lb.Add(l.Name, l.Value)
 		}
@@ -611,6 +842,30 @@ func createTimeseries(numSamples, numSeries int, extraLabels ...labels.Label) ([
 	return samples, series
 }
 
+func createProtoTimeseriesWithOld(numSamples, baseTs int64, extraLabels ...labels.Label) []prompb.TimeSeries {
+	samples := make([]prompb.TimeSeries, numSamples)
+	// use a fixed rand source so tests are consistent
+	r := rand.New(rand.NewSource(99))
+	for j := int64(0); j < numSamples; j++ {
+		name := fmt.Sprintf("test_metric_%d", j)
+
+		samples[j] = prompb.TimeSeries{
+			Labels: []prompb.Label{{Name: "__name__", Value: name}},
+			Samples: []prompb.Sample{
+				{
+					Timestamp: baseTs + j,
+					Value:     float64(j),
+				},
+			},
+		}
+		// 10% of the time use a ts that is too old
+		if r.Intn(10) == 0 {
+			samples[j].Samples[0].Timestamp = baseTs - 5
+		}
+	}
+	return samples
+}
+
 func createExemplars(numExemplars, numSeries int) ([]record.RefExemplar, []record.RefSeries) {
 	exemplars := make([]record.RefExemplar, 0, numExemplars)
 	series := make([]record.RefSeries, 0, numSeries)
@@ -679,10 +934,26 @@ func createHistograms(numSamples, numSeries int, floatHistogram bool) ([]record.
 	return histograms, nil, series
 }
 
-func getSeriesNameFromRef(r record.RefSeries) string {
-	return r.Labels.Get("__name__")
+func createSeriesMetadata(series []record.RefSeries) []record.RefMetadata {
+	metas := make([]record.RefMetadata, len(series))
+
+	for _, s := range series {
+		metas = append(metas, record.RefMetadata{
+			Ref:  s.Ref,
+			Type: uint8(record.Counter),
+			Unit: "unit text",
+			Help: "help text",
+		})
+	}
+	return metas
 }
 
+func getSeriesIDFromRef(r record.RefSeries) string {
+	return r.Labels.String()
+}
+
+// TestWriteClient represents write client which does not call remote storage,
+// but instead re-implements fake WriteHandler for test purposes.
 type TestWriteClient struct {
 	receivedSamples         map[string][]prompb.Sample
 	expectedSamples         map[string][]prompb.Sample
@@ -694,25 +965,37 @@ type TestWriteClient struct {
 	expectedFloatHistograms map[string][]prompb.Histogram
 	receivedMetadata        map[string][]prompb.MetricMetadata
 	writesReceived          int
-	withWaitGroup           bool
-	wg                      sync.WaitGroup
 	mtx                     sync.Mutex
 	buf                     []byte
+	protoMsg                config.RemoteWriteProtoMsg
+	injectedErrs            []error
+	currErr                 int
+	retry                   bool
+
+	storeWait time.Duration
+	// TODO(npazosmendez): maybe replaceable with injectedErrs?
+	returnError error
 }
 
-func NewTestWriteClient() *TestWriteClient {
+// NewTestWriteClient creates a new testing write client.
+func NewTestWriteClient(protoMsg config.RemoteWriteProtoMsg) *TestWriteClient {
 	return &TestWriteClient{
-		withWaitGroup:    true,
 		receivedSamples:  map[string][]prompb.Sample{},
 		expectedSamples:  map[string][]prompb.Sample{},
 		receivedMetadata: map[string][]prompb.MetricMetadata{},
+		protoMsg:         protoMsg,
+		storeWait:        0,
+		returnError:      nil,
 	}
 }
 
+func (c *TestWriteClient) injectErrors(injectedErrs []error) {
+	c.injectedErrs = injectedErrs
+	c.currErr = -1
+	c.retry = false
+}
+
 func (c *TestWriteClient) expectSamples(ss []record.RefSample, series []record.RefSeries) {
-	if !c.withWaitGroup {
-		return
-	}
 	c.mtx.Lock()
 	defer c.mtx.Unlock()
 
@@ -720,19 +1003,15 @@ func (c *TestWriteClient) expectSamples(ss []record.RefSample, series []record.R
 	c.receivedSamples = map[string][]prompb.Sample{}
 
 	for _, s := range ss {
-		seriesName := getSeriesNameFromRef(series[s.Ref])
-		c.expectedSamples[seriesName] = append(c.expectedSamples[seriesName], prompb.Sample{
+		tsID := getSeriesIDFromRef(series[s.Ref])
+		c.expectedSamples[tsID] = append(c.expectedSamples[tsID], prompb.Sample{
 			Timestamp: s.T,
 			Value:     s.V,
 		})
 	}
-	c.wg.Add(len(ss))
 }
 
 func (c *TestWriteClient) expectExemplars(ss []record.RefExemplar, series []record.RefSeries) {
-	if !c.withWaitGroup {
-		return
-	}
 	c.mtx.Lock()
 	defer c.mtx.Unlock()
 
@@ -740,21 +1019,17 @@ func (c *TestWriteClient) expectExemplars(ss []record.RefExemplar, series []reco
 	c.receivedExemplars = map[string][]prompb.Exemplar{}
 
 	for _, s := range ss {
-		seriesName := getSeriesNameFromRef(series[s.Ref])
+		tsID := getSeriesIDFromRef(series[s.Ref])
 		e := prompb.Exemplar{
-			Labels:    labelsToLabelsProto(s.Labels, nil),
+			Labels:    prompb.FromLabels(s.Labels, nil),
 			Timestamp: s.T,
 			Value:     s.V,
 		}
-		c.expectedExemplars[seriesName] = append(c.expectedExemplars[seriesName], e)
+		c.expectedExemplars[tsID] = append(c.expectedExemplars[tsID], e)
 	}
-	c.wg.Add(len(ss))
 }
 
 func (c *TestWriteClient) expectHistograms(hh []record.RefHistogramSample, series []record.RefSeries) {
-	if !c.withWaitGroup {
-		return
-	}
 	c.mtx.Lock()
 	defer c.mtx.Unlock()
 
@@ -762,16 +1037,12 @@ func (c *TestWriteClient) expectHistograms(hh []record.RefHistogramSample, serie
 	c.receivedHistograms = map[string][]prompb.Histogram{}
 
 	for _, h := range hh {
-		seriesName := getSeriesNameFromRef(series[h.Ref])
-		c.expectedHistograms[seriesName] = append(c.expectedHistograms[seriesName], HistogramToHistogramProto(h.T, h.H))
+		tsID := getSeriesIDFromRef(series[h.Ref])
+		c.expectedHistograms[tsID] = append(c.expectedHistograms[tsID], prompb.FromIntHistogram(h.T, h.H))
 	}
-	c.wg.Add(len(hh))
 }
 
 func (c *TestWriteClient) expectFloatHistograms(fhs []record.RefFloatHistogramSample, series []record.RefSeries) {
-	if !c.withWaitGroup {
-		return
-	}
 	c.mtx.Lock()
 	defer c.mtx.Unlock()
 
@@ -779,19 +1050,43 @@ func (c *TestWriteClient) expectFloatHistograms(fhs []record.RefFloatHistogramSa
 	c.receivedFloatHistograms = map[string][]prompb.Histogram{}
 
 	for _, fh := range fhs {
-		seriesName := getSeriesNameFromRef(series[fh.Ref])
-		c.expectedFloatHistograms[seriesName] = append(c.expectedFloatHistograms[seriesName], FloatHistogramToHistogramProto(fh.T, fh.FH))
+		tsID := getSeriesIDFromRef(series[fh.Ref])
+		c.expectedFloatHistograms[tsID] = append(c.expectedFloatHistograms[tsID], prompb.FromFloatHistogram(fh.T, fh.FH))
 	}
-	c.wg.Add(len(fhs))
 }
 
-func (c *TestWriteClient) waitForExpectedData(tb testing.TB) {
-	if !c.withWaitGroup {
-		return
+func deepLen[M any](ms ...map[string][]M) int {
+	l := 0
+	for _, m := range ms {
+		for _, v := range m {
+			l += len(v)
+		}
 	}
-	c.wg.Wait()
+	return l
+}
+
+func (c *TestWriteClient) waitForExpectedData(tb testing.TB, timeout time.Duration) {
+	tb.Helper()
+
+	ctx, cancel := context.WithTimeout(context.Background(), timeout)
+	defer cancel()
+	if err := runutil.Retry(500*time.Millisecond, ctx.Done(), func() error {
+		c.mtx.Lock()
+		exp := deepLen(c.expectedSamples) + deepLen(c.expectedExemplars) + deepLen(c.expectedHistograms, c.expectedFloatHistograms)
+		got := deepLen(c.receivedSamples) + deepLen(c.receivedExemplars) + deepLen(c.receivedHistograms, c.receivedFloatHistograms)
+		c.mtx.Unlock()
+
+		if got < exp {
+			return fmt.Errorf("expected %v samples/exemplars/histograms/floathistograms, got %v", exp, got)
+		}
+		return nil
+	}); err != nil {
+		tb.Error(err)
+	}
+
 	c.mtx.Lock()
 	defer c.mtx.Unlock()
+
 	for ts, expectedSamples := range c.expectedSamples {
 		require.Equal(tb, expectedSamples, c.receivedSamples[ts], ts)
 	}
@@ -806,57 +1101,93 @@ func (c *TestWriteClient) waitForExpectedData(tb testing.TB) {
 	}
 }
 
+func (c *TestWriteClient) SetStoreWait(w time.Duration) {
+	c.mtx.Lock()
+	defer c.mtx.Unlock()
+	c.storeWait = w
+}
+
+func (c *TestWriteClient) SetReturnError(err error) {
+	c.mtx.Lock()
+	defer c.mtx.Unlock()
+	c.returnError = err
+}
+
 func (c *TestWriteClient) Store(_ context.Context, req []byte, _ int) error {
 	c.mtx.Lock()
 	defer c.mtx.Unlock()
+	if c.storeWait > 0 {
+		time.Sleep(c.storeWait)
+	}
+	if c.returnError != nil {
+		return c.returnError
+	}
 	// nil buffers are ok for snappy, ignore cast error.
 	if c.buf != nil {
 		c.buf = c.buf[:cap(c.buf)]
 	}
+
 	reqBuf, err := snappy.Decode(c.buf, req)
 	c.buf = reqBuf
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
 
-	var reqProto prompb.WriteRequest
-	if err := proto.Unmarshal(reqBuf, &reqProto); err != nil {
+	// Check if we've been told to inject err for this call.
+	if len(c.injectedErrs) > 0 {
+		c.currErr++
+		if err = c.injectedErrs[c.currErr]; err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+	}
+
+	var reqProto *prompb.WriteRequest
+	switch c.protoMsg {
+	case config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1:
+		reqProto = &prompb.WriteRequest{}
+		err = proto.Unmarshal(reqBuf, reqProto)
+	case config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV2:
+		// NOTE(bwplotka): v1 msg can be unmarshaled to v2 sometimes, without
+		// errors.
+		var reqProtoV2 writev2.Request
+		err = proto.Unmarshal(reqBuf, &reqProtoV2)
+		if err == nil {
+			reqProto, err = v2RequestToWriteRequest(&reqProtoV2)
+		}
+	}
+	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
-	builder := labels.NewScratchBuilder(0)
-	count := 0
+
+	if len(reqProto.Timeseries) == 0 && len(reqProto.Metadata) == 0 {
+		return errors.New("invalid request, no timeseries")
+	}
+
+	b := labels.NewScratchBuilder(0)
 	for _, ts := range reqProto.Timeseries {
-		labels := labelProtosToLabels(&builder, ts.Labels)
-		seriesName := labels.Get("__name__")
-		for _, sample := range ts.Samples {
-			count++
-			c.receivedSamples[seriesName] = append(c.receivedSamples[seriesName], sample)
+		labels := ts.ToLabels(&b, nil)
+		tsID := labels.String()
+		if len(ts.Samples) > 0 {
+			c.receivedSamples[tsID] = append(c.receivedSamples[tsID], ts.Samples...)
 		}
 
-		for _, ex := range ts.Exemplars {
-			count++
-			c.receivedExemplars[seriesName] = append(c.receivedExemplars[seriesName], ex)
+		if len(ts.Exemplars) > 0 {
+			c.receivedExemplars[tsID] = append(c.receivedExemplars[tsID], ts.Exemplars...)
 		}
 
-		for _, histogram := range ts.Histograms {
-			count++
-			if histogram.IsFloatHistogram() {
-				c.receivedFloatHistograms[seriesName] = append(c.receivedFloatHistograms[seriesName], histogram)
+		for _, h := range ts.Histograms {
+			if h.IsFloatHistogram() {
+				c.receivedFloatHistograms[tsID] = append(c.receivedFloatHistograms[tsID], h)
 			} else {
-				c.receivedHistograms[seriesName] = append(c.receivedHistograms[seriesName], histogram)
+				c.receivedHistograms[tsID] = append(c.receivedHistograms[tsID], h)
 			}
 		}
 	}
-	if c.withWaitGroup {
-		c.wg.Add(-count)
-	}
-
 	for _, m := range reqProto.Metadata {
 		c.receivedMetadata[m.MetricFamilyName] = append(c.receivedMetadata[m.MetricFamilyName], m)
 	}
 
 	c.writesReceived++
-
 	return nil
 }
 
@@ -868,6 +1199,51 @@ func (c *TestWriteClient) Endpoint() string {
 	return "http://test-remote.com/1234"
 }
 
+func v2RequestToWriteRequest(v2Req *writev2.Request) (*prompb.WriteRequest, error) {
+	req := &prompb.WriteRequest{
+		Timeseries: make([]prompb.TimeSeries, len(v2Req.Timeseries)),
+		// TODO handle metadata?
+	}
+	b := labels.NewScratchBuilder(0)
+	for i, rts := range v2Req.Timeseries {
+		rts.ToLabels(&b, v2Req.Symbols).Range(func(l labels.Label) {
+			req.Timeseries[i].Labels = append(req.Timeseries[i].Labels, prompb.Label{
+				Name:  l.Name,
+				Value: l.Value,
+			})
+		})
+
+		exemplars := make([]prompb.Exemplar, len(rts.Exemplars))
+		for j, e := range rts.Exemplars {
+			exemplars[j].Value = e.Value
+			exemplars[j].Timestamp = e.Timestamp
+			e.ToExemplar(&b, v2Req.Symbols).Labels.Range(func(l labels.Label) {
+				exemplars[j].Labels = append(exemplars[j].Labels, prompb.Label{
+					Name:  l.Name,
+					Value: l.Value,
+				})
+			})
+		}
+		req.Timeseries[i].Exemplars = exemplars
+
+		req.Timeseries[i].Samples = make([]prompb.Sample, len(rts.Samples))
+		for j, s := range rts.Samples {
+			req.Timeseries[i].Samples[j].Timestamp = s.Timestamp
+			req.Timeseries[i].Samples[j].Value = s.Value
+		}
+
+		req.Timeseries[i].Histograms = make([]prompb.Histogram, len(rts.Histograms))
+		for j, h := range rts.Histograms {
+			if h.IsFloatHistogram() {
+				req.Timeseries[i].Histograms[j] = prompb.FromFloatHistogram(h.Timestamp, h.ToFloatHistogram())
+				continue
+			}
+			req.Timeseries[i].Histograms[j] = prompb.FromIntHistogram(h.Timestamp, h.ToIntHistogram())
+		}
+	}
+	return req, nil
+}
+
 // TestBlockingWriteClient is a queue_manager WriteClient which will block
 // on any calls to Store(), until the request's Context is cancelled, at which
 // point the `numCalls` property will contain a count of how many times Store()
@@ -901,10 +1277,12 @@ func (c *TestBlockingWriteClient) Endpoint() string {
 // For benchmarking the send and not the receive side.
 type NopWriteClient struct{}
 
-func NewNopWriteClient() *NopWriteClient                           { return &NopWriteClient{} }
-func (c *NopWriteClient) Store(context.Context, []byte, int) error { return nil }
-func (c *NopWriteClient) Name() string                             { return "nopwriteclient" }
-func (c *NopWriteClient) Endpoint() string                         { return "http://test-remote.com/1234" }
+func NewNopWriteClient() *NopWriteClient { return &NopWriteClient{} }
+func (c *NopWriteClient) Store(context.Context, []byte, int) error {
+	return nil
+}
+func (c *NopWriteClient) Name() string     { return "nopwriteclient" }
+func (c *NopWriteClient) Endpoint() string { return "http://test-remote.com/1234" }
 
 type MockWriteClient struct {
 	StoreFunc    func(context.Context, []byte, int) error
@@ -946,13 +1324,14 @@ func BenchmarkSampleSend(b *testing.B) {
 
 	c := NewNopWriteClient()
 
-	cfg := config.DefaultQueueConfig
+	cfg := testDefaultQueueConfig()
 	mcfg := config.DefaultMetadataConfig
 	cfg.BatchSendDeadline = model.Duration(100 * time.Millisecond)
 	cfg.MinShards = 20
 	cfg.MaxShards = 20
 
-	m := newTestQueueManager(b, cfg, mcfg, defaultFlushDeadline, c)
+	// todo: test with new proto type(s)
+	m := newTestQueueManager(b, cfg, mcfg, defaultFlushDeadline, c, config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1)
 	m.StoreSeries(series, 0)
 
 	// These should be received by the client.
@@ -1006,12 +1385,12 @@ func BenchmarkStoreSeries(b *testing.B) {
 	for _, tc := range testCases {
 		b.Run(tc.name, func(b *testing.B) {
 			for i := 0; i < b.N; i++ {
-				c := NewTestWriteClient()
+				c := NewTestWriteClient(config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1)
 				dir := b.TempDir()
 				cfg := config.DefaultQueueConfig
 				mcfg := config.DefaultMetadataConfig
 				metrics := newQueueManagerMetrics(nil, "", "")
-				m := NewQueueManager(metrics, nil, nil, nil, dir, newEWMARate(ewmaWeight, shardUpdateDuration), cfg, mcfg, labels.EmptyLabels(), nil, c, defaultFlushDeadline, newPool(), newHighestTimestampMetric(), nil, false, false)
+				m := NewQueueManager(metrics, nil, nil, nil, dir, newEWMARate(ewmaWeight, shardUpdateDuration), cfg, mcfg, labels.EmptyLabels(), nil, c, defaultFlushDeadline, newPool(), newHighestTimestampMetric(), nil, false, false, config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1)
 				m.externalLabels = tc.externalLabels
 				m.relabelConfigs = tc.relabelConfigs
 
@@ -1043,14 +1422,15 @@ func BenchmarkStartup(b *testing.B) {
 	logger := log.NewLogfmtLogger(log.NewSyncWriter(os.Stdout))
 	logger = log.With(logger, "caller", log.DefaultCaller)
 
-	cfg := config.DefaultQueueConfig
+	cfg := testDefaultQueueConfig()
 	mcfg := config.DefaultMetadataConfig
 	for n := 0; n < b.N; n++ {
 		metrics := newQueueManagerMetrics(nil, "", "")
 		c := NewTestBlockedWriteClient()
+		// todo: test with new proto type(s)
 		m := NewQueueManager(metrics, nil, nil, logger, dir,
 			newEWMARate(ewmaWeight, shardUpdateDuration),
-			cfg, mcfg, labels.EmptyLabels(), nil, c, 1*time.Minute, newPool(), newHighestTimestampMetric(), nil, false, false)
+			cfg, mcfg, labels.EmptyLabels(), nil, c, 1*time.Minute, newPool(), newHighestTimestampMetric(), nil, false, false, config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1)
 		m.watcher.SetStartTime(timestamp.Time(math.MaxInt64))
 		m.watcher.MaxSegment = segments[len(segments)-2]
 		err := m.watcher.Run()
@@ -1129,7 +1509,7 @@ func TestProcessExternalLabels(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestCalculateDesiredShards(t *testing.T) {
 	cfg := config.DefaultQueueConfig
-	_, m := newTestClientAndQueueManager(t, defaultFlushDeadline)
+	_, m := newTestClientAndQueueManager(t, defaultFlushDeadline, config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1)
 	samplesIn := m.dataIn
 
 	// Need to start the queue manager so the proper metrics are initialized.
@@ -1199,7 +1579,7 @@ func TestCalculateDesiredShards(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestCalculateDesiredShardsDetail(t *testing.T) {
-	_, m := newTestClientAndQueueManager(t, defaultFlushDeadline)
+	_, m := newTestClientAndQueueManager(t, defaultFlushDeadline, config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1)
 	samplesIn := m.dataIn
 
 	for _, tc := range []struct {
@@ -1412,27 +1792,179 @@ func TestQueue_FlushAndShutdownDoesNotDeadlock(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 }
 
+func createDummyTimeSeries(instances int) []timeSeries {
+	metrics := []labels.Labels{
+		labels.FromStrings("__name__", "go_gc_duration_seconds", "quantile", "0"),
+		labels.FromStrings("__name__", "go_gc_duration_seconds", "quantile", "0.25"),
+		labels.FromStrings("__name__", "go_gc_duration_seconds", "quantile", "0.5"),
+		labels.FromStrings("__name__", "go_gc_duration_seconds", "quantile", "0.75"),
+		labels.FromStrings("__name__", "go_gc_duration_seconds", "quantile", "1"),
+		labels.FromStrings("__name__", "go_gc_duration_seconds_sum"),
+		labels.FromStrings("__name__", "go_gc_duration_seconds_count"),
+		labels.FromStrings("__name__", "go_memstats_alloc_bytes_total"),
+		labels.FromStrings("__name__", "go_memstats_frees_total"),
+		labels.FromStrings("__name__", "go_memstats_lookups_total"),
+		labels.FromStrings("__name__", "go_memstats_mallocs_total"),
+		labels.FromStrings("__name__", "go_goroutines"),
+		labels.FromStrings("__name__", "go_info", "version", "go1.19.3"),
+		labels.FromStrings("__name__", "go_memstats_alloc_bytes"),
+		labels.FromStrings("__name__", "go_memstats_buck_hash_sys_bytes"),
+		labels.FromStrings("__name__", "go_memstats_gc_sys_bytes"),
+		labels.FromStrings("__name__", "go_memstats_heap_alloc_bytes"),
+		labels.FromStrings("__name__", "go_memstats_heap_idle_bytes"),
+		labels.FromStrings("__name__", "go_memstats_heap_inuse_bytes"),
+		labels.FromStrings("__name__", "go_memstats_heap_objects"),
+		labels.FromStrings("__name__", "go_memstats_heap_released_bytes"),
+		labels.FromStrings("__name__", "go_memstats_heap_sys_bytes"),
+		labels.FromStrings("__name__", "go_memstats_last_gc_time_seconds"),
+		labels.FromStrings("__name__", "go_memstats_mcache_inuse_bytes"),
+		labels.FromStrings("__name__", "go_memstats_mcache_sys_bytes"),
+		labels.FromStrings("__name__", "go_memstats_mspan_inuse_bytes"),
+		labels.FromStrings("__name__", "go_memstats_mspan_sys_bytes"),
+		labels.FromStrings("__name__", "go_memstats_next_gc_bytes"),
+		labels.FromStrings("__name__", "go_memstats_other_sys_bytes"),
+		labels.FromStrings("__name__", "go_memstats_stack_inuse_bytes"),
+		labels.FromStrings("__name__", "go_memstats_stack_sys_bytes"),
+		labels.FromStrings("__name__", "go_memstats_sys_bytes"),
+		labels.FromStrings("__name__", "go_threads"),
+	}
+
+	commonLabels := labels.FromStrings(
+		"cluster", "some-cluster-0",
+		"container", "prometheus",
+		"job", "some-namespace/prometheus",
+		"namespace", "some-namespace")
+
+	var result []timeSeries
+	r := rand.New(rand.NewSource(0))
+	for i := 0; i < instances; i++ {
+		b := labels.NewBuilder(commonLabels)
+		b.Set("pod", "prometheus-"+strconv.Itoa(i))
+		for _, lbls := range metrics {
+			lbls.Range(func(l labels.Label) {
+				b.Set(l.Name, l.Value)
+			})
+			result = append(result, timeSeries{
+				seriesLabels: b.Labels(),
+				value:        r.Float64(),
+			})
+		}
+	}
+	return result
+}
+
+func BenchmarkBuildWriteRequest(b *testing.B) {
+	noopLogger := log.NewNopLogger()
+	bench := func(b *testing.B, batch []timeSeries) {
+		buff := make([]byte, 0)
+		seriesBuff := make([]prompb.TimeSeries, len(batch))
+		for i := range seriesBuff {
+			seriesBuff[i].Samples = []prompb.Sample{{}}
+			seriesBuff[i].Exemplars = []prompb.Exemplar{{}}
+		}
+		pBuf := proto.NewBuffer(nil)
+
+		// Warmup buffers
+		for i := 0; i < 10; i++ {
+			populateTimeSeries(batch, seriesBuff, true, true)
+			buildWriteRequest(noopLogger, seriesBuff, nil, pBuf, &buff, nil, "snappy")
+		}
+
+		b.ResetTimer()
+		totalSize := 0
+		for i := 0; i < b.N; i++ {
+			populateTimeSeries(batch, seriesBuff, true, true)
+			req, _, _, err := buildWriteRequest(noopLogger, seriesBuff, nil, pBuf, &buff, nil, "snappy")
+			if err != nil {
+				b.Fatal(err)
+			}
+			totalSize += len(req)
+			b.ReportMetric(float64(totalSize)/float64(b.N), "compressedSize/op")
+		}
+	}
+
+	twoBatch := createDummyTimeSeries(2)
+	tenBatch := createDummyTimeSeries(10)
+	hundredBatch := createDummyTimeSeries(100)
+
+	b.Run("2 instances", func(b *testing.B) {
+		bench(b, twoBatch)
+	})
+
+	b.Run("10 instances", func(b *testing.B) {
+		bench(b, tenBatch)
+	})
+
+	b.Run("1k instances", func(b *testing.B) {
+		bench(b, hundredBatch)
+	})
+}
+
+func BenchmarkBuildV2WriteRequest(b *testing.B) {
+	noopLogger := log.NewNopLogger()
+	type testcase struct {
+		batch []timeSeries
+	}
+	testCases := []testcase{
+		{createDummyTimeSeries(2)},
+		{createDummyTimeSeries(10)},
+		{createDummyTimeSeries(100)},
+	}
+	for _, tc := range testCases {
+		symbolTable := writev2.NewSymbolTable()
+		buff := make([]byte, 0)
+		seriesBuff := make([]writev2.TimeSeries, len(tc.batch))
+		for i := range seriesBuff {
+			seriesBuff[i].Samples = []writev2.Sample{{}}
+			seriesBuff[i].Exemplars = []writev2.Exemplar{{}}
+		}
+		pBuf := []byte{}
+
+		// Warmup buffers
+		for i := 0; i < 10; i++ {
+			populateV2TimeSeries(&symbolTable, tc.batch, seriesBuff, true, true)
+			buildV2WriteRequest(noopLogger, seriesBuff, symbolTable.Symbols(), &pBuf, &buff, nil, "snappy")
+		}
+
+		b.Run(fmt.Sprintf("%d-instances", len(tc.batch)), func(b *testing.B) {
+			totalSize := 0
+			for j := 0; j < b.N; j++ {
+				populateV2TimeSeries(&symbolTable, tc.batch, seriesBuff, true, true)
+				b.ResetTimer()
+				req, _, _, err := buildV2WriteRequest(noopLogger, seriesBuff, symbolTable.Symbols(), &pBuf, &buff, nil, "snappy")
+				if err != nil {
+					b.Fatal(err)
+				}
+				symbolTable.Reset()
+				totalSize += len(req)
+				b.ReportMetric(float64(totalSize)/float64(b.N), "compressedSize/op")
+			}
+		})
+	}
+}
+
 func TestDropOldTimeSeries(t *testing.T) {
 	size := 10
 	nSeries := 6
 	nSamples := config.DefaultQueueConfig.Capacity * size
 	samples, newSamples, series := createTimeseriesWithOldSamples(nSamples, nSeries)
 
-	c := NewTestWriteClient()
+	// TODO(alexg): test with new version
+	c := NewTestWriteClient(config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1)
 	c.expectSamples(newSamples, series)
 
 	cfg := config.DefaultQueueConfig
 	mcfg := config.DefaultMetadataConfig
 	cfg.MaxShards = 1
 	cfg.SampleAgeLimit = model.Duration(60 * time.Second)
-	m := newTestQueueManager(t, cfg, mcfg, defaultFlushDeadline, c)
+	m := newTestQueueManager(t, cfg, mcfg, defaultFlushDeadline, c, config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1)
 	m.StoreSeries(series, 0)
 
 	m.Start()
 	defer m.Stop()
 
 	m.Append(samples)
-	c.waitForExpectedData(t)
+	c.waitForExpectedData(t, 30*time.Second)
 }
 
 func TestIsSampleOld(t *testing.T) {
@@ -1441,6 +1973,98 @@ func TestIsSampleOld(t *testing.T) {
 	require.False(t, isSampleOld(currentTime, 60*time.Second, timestamp.FromTime(currentTime.Add(-59*time.Second))))
 }
 
+// Simulates scenario in which remote write endpoint is down and a subset of samples is dropped due to age limit while backoffing.
+func TestSendSamplesWithBackoffWithSampleAgeLimit(t *testing.T) {
+	maxSamplesPerSend := 10
+	sampleAgeLimit := time.Second
+
+	cfg := config.DefaultQueueConfig
+	cfg.MaxShards = 1
+	cfg.SampleAgeLimit = model.Duration(sampleAgeLimit)
+	// Set the batch send deadline to 5 minutes to effectively disable it.
+	cfg.BatchSendDeadline = model.Duration(time.Minute * 5)
+	cfg.Capacity = 10 * maxSamplesPerSend // more than the amount of data we append in the test
+	cfg.MaxBackoff = model.Duration(time.Millisecond * 100)
+	cfg.MinBackoff = model.Duration(time.Millisecond * 100)
+	cfg.MaxSamplesPerSend = maxSamplesPerSend
+	metadataCfg := config.DefaultMetadataConfig
+	metadataCfg.Send = true
+	metadataCfg.SendInterval = model.Duration(time.Second * 60)
+	metadataCfg.MaxSamplesPerSend = maxSamplesPerSend
+	c := NewTestWriteClient(config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1)
+	m := newTestQueueManager(t, cfg, metadataCfg, time.Second, c, config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1)
+
+	m.Start()
+
+	batchID := 0
+	expectedSamples := map[string][]prompb.Sample{}
+
+	appendData := func(numberOfSeries int, timeAdd time.Duration, shouldBeDropped bool) {
+		t.Log(">>>>  Appending series ", numberOfSeries, " as batch ID ", batchID, " with timeAdd ", timeAdd, " and should be dropped ", shouldBeDropped)
+		samples, series := createTimeseriesWithRandomLabelCount(strconv.Itoa(batchID), numberOfSeries, timeAdd, 9)
+		m.StoreSeries(series, batchID)
+		sent := m.Append(samples)
+		require.True(t, sent, "samples not sent")
+		if !shouldBeDropped {
+			for _, s := range samples {
+				tsID := getSeriesIDFromRef(series[s.Ref])
+				expectedSamples[tsID] = append(c.expectedSamples[tsID], prompb.Sample{
+					Timestamp: s.T,
+					Value:     s.V,
+				})
+			}
+		}
+		batchID++
+	}
+	timeShift := -time.Millisecond * 5
+
+	c.SetReturnError(RecoverableError{context.DeadlineExceeded, defaultBackoff})
+
+	appendData(maxSamplesPerSend/2, timeShift, true)
+	time.Sleep(sampleAgeLimit)
+	appendData(maxSamplesPerSend/2, timeShift, true)
+	time.Sleep(sampleAgeLimit / 10)
+	appendData(maxSamplesPerSend/2, timeShift, true)
+	time.Sleep(2 * sampleAgeLimit)
+	appendData(2*maxSamplesPerSend, timeShift, false)
+	time.Sleep(sampleAgeLimit / 2)
+	c.SetReturnError(nil)
+	appendData(5, timeShift, false)
+	m.Stop()
+
+	if diff := cmp.Diff(expectedSamples, c.receivedSamples); diff != "" {
+		t.Errorf("mismatch (-want +got):\n%s", diff)
+	}
+}
+
+func createTimeseriesWithRandomLabelCount(id string, seriesCount int, timeAdd time.Duration, maxLabels int) ([]record.RefSample, []record.RefSeries) {
+	samples := []record.RefSample{}
+	series := []record.RefSeries{}
+	// use a fixed rand source so tests are consistent
+	r := rand.New(rand.NewSource(99))
+	for i := 0; i < seriesCount; i++ {
+		s := record.RefSample{
+			Ref: chunks.HeadSeriesRef(i),
+			T:   time.Now().Add(timeAdd).UnixMilli(),
+			V:   r.Float64(),
+		}
+		samples = append(samples, s)
+		labelsCount := r.Intn(maxLabels)
+		lb := labels.NewScratchBuilder(1 + labelsCount)
+		lb.Add("__name__", "batch_"+id+"_id_"+strconv.Itoa(i))
+		for j := 1; j < labelsCount+1; j++ {
+			// same for both name and value
+			label := "batch_" + id + "_label_" + strconv.Itoa(j)
+			lb.Add(label, label)
+		}
+		series = append(series, record.RefSeries{
+			Ref:    chunks.HeadSeriesRef(i),
+			Labels: lb.Labels(),
+		})
+	}
+	return samples, series
+}
+
 func createTimeseriesWithOldSamples(numSamples, numSeries int, extraLabels ...labels.Label) ([]record.RefSample, []record.RefSample, []record.RefSeries) {
 	newSamples := make([]record.RefSample, 0, numSamples)
 	samples := make([]record.RefSample, 0, numSamples)
@@ -1668,3 +2292,14 @@ func TestBuildTimeSeries(t *testing.T) {
 		})
 	}
 }
+
+func BenchmarkBuildTimeSeries(b *testing.B) {
+	// Send one sample per series, which is the typical remote_write case
+	const numSamples = 10000
+	filter := func(ts prompb.TimeSeries) bool { return filterTsLimit(99, ts) }
+	for i := 0; i < b.N; i++ {
+		samples := createProtoTimeseriesWithOld(numSamples, 100, extraLabels...)
+		_, _, result, _, _, _ := buildTimeSeries(samples, filter)
+		require.NotNil(b, result)
+	}
+}
diff --git a/storage/remote/read_handler_test.go b/storage/remote/read_handler_test.go
index e8e0ecb8df..a681872687 100644
--- a/storage/remote/read_handler_test.go
+++ b/storage/remote/read_handler_test.go
@@ -30,14 +30,14 @@ import (
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/config"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/labels"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/prompb"
-	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/promql"
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/promql/promqltest"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/storage"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/tsdb/tsdbutil"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/util/teststorage"
 )
 
 func TestSampledReadEndpoint(t *testing.T) {
-	store := promql.LoadedStorage(t, `
+	store := promqltest.LoadedStorage(t, `
 		load 1m
 			test_metric1{foo="bar",baz="qux"} 1
 	`)
@@ -124,7 +124,7 @@ func TestSampledReadEndpoint(t *testing.T) {
 					{Name: "d", Value: "e"},
 				},
 				Histograms: []prompb.Histogram{
-					FloatHistogramToHistogramProto(0, tsdbutil.GenerateTestFloatHistogram(0)),
+					prompb.FromFloatHistogram(0, tsdbutil.GenerateTestFloatHistogram(0)),
 				},
 			},
 		},
@@ -132,7 +132,7 @@ func TestSampledReadEndpoint(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func BenchmarkStreamReadEndpoint(b *testing.B) {
-	store := promql.LoadedStorage(b, `
+	store := promqltest.LoadedStorage(b, `
 	load 1m
 		test_metric1{foo="bar1",baz="qux"} 0+100x119
 		test_metric1{foo="bar2",baz="qux"} 0+100x120
@@ -200,7 +200,7 @@ func TestStreamReadEndpoint(t *testing.T) {
 	// Second with 121 float samples, We expect 1 frame with 2 chunks.
 	// Third with 241 float samples. We expect 1 frame with 2 chunks, and 1 frame with 1 chunk for the same series due to bytes limit.
 	// Fourth with 25 histogram samples. We expect 1 frame with 1 chunk.
-	store := promql.LoadedStorage(t, `
+	store := promqltest.LoadedStorage(t, `
 		load 1m
 			test_metric1{foo="bar1",baz="qux"} 0+100x119
 			test_metric1{foo="bar2",baz="qux"} 0+100x120
diff --git a/storage/remote/read_test.go b/storage/remote/read_test.go
index 87408dfb4f..357bdba1f5 100644
--- a/storage/remote/read_test.go
+++ b/storage/remote/read_test.go
@@ -92,7 +92,7 @@ func TestNoDuplicateReadConfigs(t *testing.T) {
 
 	for _, tc := range cases {
 		t.Run("", func(t *testing.T) {
-			s := NewStorage(nil, nil, nil, dir, defaultFlushDeadline, nil)
+			s := NewStorage(nil, nil, nil, dir, defaultFlushDeadline, nil, false)
 			conf := &config.Config{
 				GlobalConfig:      config.DefaultGlobalConfig,
 				RemoteReadConfigs: tc.cfgs,
@@ -172,12 +172,12 @@ func TestSeriesSetFilter(t *testing.T) {
 			toRemove: []string{"foo"},
 			in: &prompb.QueryResult{
 				Timeseries: []*prompb.TimeSeries{
-					{Labels: labelsToLabelsProto(labels.FromStrings("foo", "bar", "a", "b"), nil)},
+					{Labels: prompb.FromLabels(labels.FromStrings("foo", "bar", "a", "b"), nil)},
 				},
 			},
 			expected: &prompb.QueryResult{
 				Timeseries: []*prompb.TimeSeries{
-					{Labels: labelsToLabelsProto(labels.FromStrings("a", "b"), nil)},
+					{Labels: prompb.FromLabels(labels.FromStrings("a", "b"), nil)},
 				},
 			},
 		},
@@ -211,7 +211,7 @@ func (c *mockedRemoteClient) Read(_ context.Context, query *prompb.Query) (*prom
 
 	q := &prompb.QueryResult{}
 	for _, s := range c.store {
-		l := labelProtosToLabels(&c.b, s.Labels)
+		l := s.ToLabels(&c.b, nil)
 		var notMatch bool
 
 		for _, m := range matchers {
diff --git a/storage/remote/storage.go b/storage/remote/storage.go
index 758ba3cc91..afa2d411a9 100644
--- a/storage/remote/storage.go
+++ b/storage/remote/storage.go
@@ -62,7 +62,7 @@ type Storage struct {
 }
 
 // NewStorage returns a remote.Storage.
-func NewStorage(l log.Logger, reg prometheus.Registerer, stCallback startTimeCallback, walDir string, flushDeadline time.Duration, sm ReadyScrapeManager) *Storage {
+func NewStorage(l log.Logger, reg prometheus.Registerer, stCallback startTimeCallback, walDir string, flushDeadline time.Duration, sm ReadyScrapeManager, metadataInWAL bool) *Storage {
 	if l == nil {
 		l = log.NewNopLogger()
 	}
@@ -72,7 +72,7 @@ func NewStorage(l log.Logger, reg prometheus.Registerer, stCallback startTimeCal
 		logger:                 logger,
 		localStartTimeCallback: stCallback,
 	}
-	s.rws = NewWriteStorage(s.logger, reg, walDir, flushDeadline, sm)
+	s.rws = NewWriteStorage(s.logger, reg, walDir, flushDeadline, sm, metadataInWAL)
 	return s
 }
 
diff --git a/storage/remote/storage_test.go b/storage/remote/storage_test.go
index a62cd2da39..8c97d870e9 100644
--- a/storage/remote/storage_test.go
+++ b/storage/remote/storage_test.go
@@ -29,7 +29,7 @@ import (
 func TestStorageLifecycle(t *testing.T) {
 	dir := t.TempDir()
 
-	s := NewStorage(nil, nil, nil, dir, defaultFlushDeadline, nil)
+	s := NewStorage(nil, nil, nil, dir, defaultFlushDeadline, nil, false)
 	conf := &config.Config{
 		GlobalConfig: config.DefaultGlobalConfig,
 		RemoteWriteConfigs: []*config.RemoteWriteConfig{
@@ -56,7 +56,7 @@ func TestStorageLifecycle(t *testing.T) {
 func TestUpdateRemoteReadConfigs(t *testing.T) {
 	dir := t.TempDir()
 
-	s := NewStorage(nil, nil, nil, dir, defaultFlushDeadline, nil)
+	s := NewStorage(nil, nil, nil, dir, defaultFlushDeadline, nil, false)
 
 	conf := &config.Config{
 		GlobalConfig: config.GlobalConfig{},
@@ -77,7 +77,7 @@ func TestUpdateRemoteReadConfigs(t *testing.T) {
 func TestFilterExternalLabels(t *testing.T) {
 	dir := t.TempDir()
 
-	s := NewStorage(nil, nil, nil, dir, defaultFlushDeadline, nil)
+	s := NewStorage(nil, nil, nil, dir, defaultFlushDeadline, nil, false)
 
 	conf := &config.Config{
 		GlobalConfig: config.GlobalConfig{
@@ -102,7 +102,7 @@ func TestFilterExternalLabels(t *testing.T) {
 func TestIgnoreExternalLabels(t *testing.T) {
 	dir := t.TempDir()
 
-	s := NewStorage(nil, nil, nil, dir, defaultFlushDeadline, nil)
+	s := NewStorage(nil, nil, nil, dir, defaultFlushDeadline, nil, false)
 
 	conf := &config.Config{
 		GlobalConfig: config.GlobalConfig{
@@ -154,7 +154,7 @@ func baseRemoteReadConfig(host string) *config.RemoteReadConfig {
 // ApplyConfig runs concurrently with Notify
 // See https://github.com/prometheus/prometheus/issues/12747
 func TestWriteStorageApplyConfigsDuringCommit(t *testing.T) {
-	s := NewStorage(nil, nil, nil, t.TempDir(), defaultFlushDeadline, nil)
+	s := NewStorage(nil, nil, nil, t.TempDir(), defaultFlushDeadline, nil, false)
 
 	var wg sync.WaitGroup
 	wg.Add(2000)
diff --git a/storage/remote/write.go b/storage/remote/write.go
index 66455cb4dd..cd8cd588ca 100644
--- a/storage/remote/write.go
+++ b/storage/remote/write.go
@@ -15,6 +15,7 @@ package remote
 
 import (
 	"context"
+	"errors"
 	"fmt"
 	"math"
 	"sync"
@@ -65,6 +66,7 @@ type WriteStorage struct {
 	externalLabels    labels.Labels
 	dir               string
 	queues            map[string]*QueueManager
+	metadataInWAL     bool
 	samplesIn         *ewmaRate
 	flushDeadline     time.Duration
 	interner          *pool
@@ -76,7 +78,7 @@ type WriteStorage struct {
 }
 
 // NewWriteStorage creates and runs a WriteStorage.
-func NewWriteStorage(logger log.Logger, reg prometheus.Registerer, dir string, flushDeadline time.Duration, sm ReadyScrapeManager) *WriteStorage {
+func NewWriteStorage(logger log.Logger, reg prometheus.Registerer, dir string, flushDeadline time.Duration, sm ReadyScrapeManager, metadataInWal bool) *WriteStorage {
 	if logger == nil {
 		logger = log.NewNopLogger()
 	}
@@ -92,6 +94,7 @@ func NewWriteStorage(logger log.Logger, reg prometheus.Registerer, dir string, f
 		interner:          newPool(),
 		scraper:           sm,
 		quit:              make(chan struct{}),
+		metadataInWAL:     metadataInWal,
 		highestTimestamp: &maxTimestamp{
 			Gauge: prometheus.NewGauge(prometheus.GaugeOpts{
 				Namespace: namespace,
@@ -145,6 +148,9 @@ func (rws *WriteStorage) ApplyConfig(conf *config.Config) error {
 	newQueues := make(map[string]*QueueManager)
 	newHashes := []string{}
 	for _, rwConf := range conf.RemoteWriteConfigs {
+		if rwConf.ProtobufMessage == config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV2 && !rws.metadataInWAL {
+			return errors.New("invalid remote write configuration, if you are using remote write version 2.0 the `--enable-feature=metadata-wal-records` feature flag must be enabled")
+		}
 		hash, err := toHash(rwConf)
 		if err != nil {
 			return err
@@ -165,6 +171,7 @@ func (rws *WriteStorage) ApplyConfig(conf *config.Config) error {
 
 		c, err := NewWriteClient(name, &ClientConfig{
 			URL:              rwConf.URL,
+			WriteProtoMsg:    rwConf.ProtobufMessage,
 			Timeout:          rwConf.RemoteTimeout,
 			HTTPClientConfig: rwConf.HTTPClientConfig,
 			SigV4Config:      rwConf.SigV4Config,
@@ -207,6 +214,7 @@ func (rws *WriteStorage) ApplyConfig(conf *config.Config) error {
 			rws.scraper,
 			rwConf.SendExemplars,
 			rwConf.SendNativeHistograms,
+			rwConf.ProtobufMessage,
 		)
 		// Keep track of which queues are new so we know which to start.
 		newHashes = append(newHashes, hash)
diff --git a/storage/remote/write_handler.go b/storage/remote/write_handler.go
index bb6b8423a2..9997811ab0 100644
--- a/storage/remote/write_handler.go
+++ b/storage/remote/write_handler.go
@@ -17,16 +17,24 @@ import (
 	"context"
 	"errors"
 	"fmt"
+	"io"
 	"net/http"
+	"strings"
+	"time"
 
 	"github.com/go-kit/log"
 	"github.com/go-kit/log/level"
-
+	"github.com/gogo/protobuf/proto"
+	"github.com/golang/snappy"
 	"github.com/prometheus/client_golang/prometheus"
 
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/config"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/exemplar"
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/histogram"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/labels"
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/timestamp"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/prompb"
+	writev2 "github.com/prometheus/prometheus/prompb/io/prometheus/write/v2"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/storage"
 	otlptranslator "github.com/prometheus/prometheus/storage/remote/otlptranslator/prometheusremotewrite"
 )
@@ -36,15 +44,23 @@ type writeHandler struct {
 	appendable storage.Appendable
 
 	samplesWithInvalidLabelsTotal prometheus.Counter
+
+	acceptedProtoMsgs map[config.RemoteWriteProtoMsg]struct{}
 }
 
-// NewWriteHandler creates a http.Handler that accepts remote write requests and
-// writes them to the provided appendable.
-func NewWriteHandler(logger log.Logger, reg prometheus.Registerer, appendable storage.Appendable) http.Handler {
-	h := &writeHandler{
-		logger:     logger,
-		appendable: appendable,
+const maxAheadTime = 10 * time.Minute
 
+// NewWriteHandler creates a http.Handler that accepts remote write requests with
+// the given message in acceptedProtoMsgs and writes them to the provided appendable.
+func NewWriteHandler(logger log.Logger, reg prometheus.Registerer, appendable storage.Appendable, acceptedProtoMsgs []config.RemoteWriteProtoMsg) http.Handler {
+	protoMsgs := map[config.RemoteWriteProtoMsg]struct{}{}
+	for _, acc := range acceptedProtoMsgs {
+		protoMsgs[acc] = struct{}{}
+	}
+	h := &writeHandler{
+		logger:            logger,
+		appendable:        appendable,
+		acceptedProtoMsgs: protoMsgs,
 		samplesWithInvalidLabelsTotal: prometheus.NewCounter(prometheus.CounterOpts{
 			Namespace: "prometheus",
 			Subsystem: "api",
@@ -58,15 +74,107 @@ func NewWriteHandler(logger log.Logger, reg prometheus.Registerer, appendable st
 	return h
 }
 
+func (h *writeHandler) parseProtoMsg(contentType string) (config.RemoteWriteProtoMsg, error) {
+	contentType = strings.TrimSpace(contentType)
+
+	parts := strings.Split(contentType, ";")
+	if parts[0] != appProtoContentType {
+		return "", fmt.Errorf("expected %v as the first (media) part, got %v content-type", appProtoContentType, contentType)
+	}
+	// Parse potential https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc9110#parameter
+	for _, p := range parts[1:] {
+		pair := strings.Split(p, "=")
+		if len(pair) != 2 {
+			return "", fmt.Errorf("as per https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc9110#parameter expected parameters to be key-values, got %v in %v content-type", p, contentType)
+		}
+		if pair[0] == "proto" {
+			ret := config.RemoteWriteProtoMsg(pair[1])
+			if err := ret.Validate(); err != nil {
+				return "", fmt.Errorf("got %v content type; %w", contentType, err)
+			}
+			return ret, nil
+		}
+	}
+	// No "proto=" parameter, assuming v1.
+	return config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1, nil
+}
+
 func (h *writeHandler) ServeHTTP(w http.ResponseWriter, r *http.Request) {
-	req, err := DecodeWriteRequest(r.Body)
+	contentType := r.Header.Get("Content-Type")
+	if contentType == "" {
+		// Don't break yolo 1.0 clients if not needed. This is similar to what we did
+		// before 2.0: https://github.com/prometheus/prometheus/blob/d78253319daa62c8f28ed47e40bafcad2dd8b586/storage/remote/write_handler.go#L62
+		// We could give http.StatusUnsupportedMediaType, but let's assume 1.0 message by default.
+		contentType = appProtoContentType
+	}
+
+	msg, err := h.parseProtoMsg(contentType)
+	if err != nil {
+		level.Error(h.logger).Log("msg", "Error decoding remote write request", "err", err)
+		http.Error(w, err.Error(), http.StatusUnsupportedMediaType)
+		return
+	}
+
+	if _, ok := h.acceptedProtoMsgs[msg]; !ok {
+		err := fmt.Errorf("%v protobuf message is not accepted by this server; accepted %v", msg, func() (ret []string) {
+			for k := range h.acceptedProtoMsgs {
+				ret = append(ret, string(k))
+			}
+			return ret
+		}())
+		level.Error(h.logger).Log("msg", "Error decoding remote write request", "err", err)
+		http.Error(w, err.Error(), http.StatusUnsupportedMediaType)
+	}
+
+	enc := r.Header.Get("Content-Encoding")
+	if enc == "" {
+		// Don't break yolo 1.0 clients if not needed. This is similar to what we did
+		// before 2.0: https://github.com/prometheus/prometheus/blob/d78253319daa62c8f28ed47e40bafcad2dd8b586/storage/remote/write_handler.go#L62
+		// We could give http.StatusUnsupportedMediaType, but let's assume snappy by default.
+	} else if enc != string(SnappyBlockCompression) {
+		err := fmt.Errorf("%v encoding (compression) is not accepted by this server; only %v is acceptable", enc, SnappyBlockCompression)
+		level.Error(h.logger).Log("msg", "Error decoding remote write request", "err", err)
+		http.Error(w, err.Error(), http.StatusUnsupportedMediaType)
+	}
+
+	// Read the request body.
+	body, err := io.ReadAll(r.Body)
 	if err != nil {
 		level.Error(h.logger).Log("msg", "Error decoding remote write request", "err", err.Error())
 		http.Error(w, err.Error(), http.StatusBadRequest)
 		return
 	}
 
-	err = h.write(r.Context(), req)
+	decompressed, err := snappy.Decode(nil, body)
+	if err != nil {
+		// TODO(bwplotka): Add more context to responded error?
+		level.Error(h.logger).Log("msg", "Error decompressing remote write request", "err", err.Error())
+		http.Error(w, err.Error(), http.StatusBadRequest)
+		return
+	}
+
+	// Now we have a decompressed buffer we can unmarshal it.
+	switch msg {
+	case config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1:
+		var req prompb.WriteRequest
+		if err := proto.Unmarshal(decompressed, &req); err != nil {
+			// TODO(bwplotka): Add more context to responded error?
+			level.Error(h.logger).Log("msg", "Error decoding v1 remote write request", "protobuf_message", msg, "err", err.Error())
+			http.Error(w, err.Error(), http.StatusBadRequest)
+			return
+		}
+		err = h.write(r.Context(), &req)
+	case config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV2:
+		var req writev2.Request
+		if err := proto.Unmarshal(decompressed, &req); err != nil {
+			// TODO(bwplotka): Add more context to responded error?
+			level.Error(h.logger).Log("msg", "Error decoding v2 remote write request", "protobuf_message", msg, "err", err.Error())
+			http.Error(w, err.Error(), http.StatusBadRequest)
+			return
+		}
+		err = h.writeV2(r.Context(), &req)
+	}
+
 	switch {
 	case err == nil:
 	case errors.Is(err, storage.ErrOutOfOrderSample), errors.Is(err, storage.ErrOutOfBounds), errors.Is(err, storage.ErrDuplicateSampleForTimestamp), errors.Is(err, storage.ErrTooOldSample):
@@ -104,70 +212,41 @@ func (h *writeHandler) write(ctx context.Context, req *prompb.WriteRequest) (err
 	outOfOrderExemplarErrs := 0
 	samplesWithInvalidLabels := 0
 
-	app := h.appendable.Appender(ctx)
+	timeLimitApp := &timeLimitAppender{
+		Appender: h.appendable.Appender(ctx),
+		maxTime:  timestamp.FromTime(time.Now().Add(maxAheadTime)),
+	}
+
 	defer func() {
 		if err != nil {
-			_ = app.Rollback()
+			_ = timeLimitApp.Rollback()
 			return
 		}
-		err = app.Commit()
+		err = timeLimitApp.Commit()
 	}()
 
 	b := labels.NewScratchBuilder(0)
-	var exemplarErr error
 	for _, ts := range req.Timeseries {
-		labels := labelProtosToLabels(&b, ts.Labels)
-		if !labels.IsValid() {
-			level.Warn(h.logger).Log("msg", "Invalid metric names or labels", "got", labels.String())
+		ls := ts.ToLabels(&b, nil)
+		if !ls.IsValid() {
+			level.Warn(h.logger).Log("msg", "Invalid metric names or labels", "got", ls.String())
 			samplesWithInvalidLabels++
 			continue
 		}
-		var ref storage.SeriesRef
-		for _, s := range ts.Samples {
-			ref, err = app.Append(ref, labels, s.Timestamp, s.Value)
-			if err != nil {
-				unwrappedErr := errors.Unwrap(err)
-				if unwrappedErr == nil {
-					unwrappedErr = err
-				}
-				if errors.Is(err, storage.ErrOutOfOrderSample) || errors.Is(unwrappedErr, storage.ErrOutOfBounds) || errors.Is(unwrappedErr, storage.ErrDuplicateSampleForTimestamp) {
-					level.Error(h.logger).Log("msg", "Out of order sample from remote write", "err", err.Error(), "series", labels.String(), "timestamp", s.Timestamp)
-				}
-				return err
-			}
+
+		err := h.appendSamples(timeLimitApp, ts.Samples, ls)
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
 		}
 
 		for _, ep := range ts.Exemplars {
-			e := exemplarProtoToExemplar(&b, ep)
-
-			_, exemplarErr = app.AppendExemplar(0, labels, e)
-			exemplarErr = h.checkAppendExemplarError(exemplarErr, e, &outOfOrderExemplarErrs)
-			if exemplarErr != nil {
-				// Since exemplar storage is still experimental, we don't fail the request on ingestion errors.
-				level.Debug(h.logger).Log("msg", "Error while adding exemplar in AddExemplar", "exemplar", fmt.Sprintf("%+v", e), "err", exemplarErr)
-			}
+			e := ep.ToExemplar(&b, nil)
+			h.appendExemplar(timeLimitApp, e, ls, &outOfOrderExemplarErrs)
 		}
 
-		for _, hp := range ts.Histograms {
-			if hp.IsFloatHistogram() {
-				fhs := FloatHistogramProtoToFloatHistogram(hp)
-				_, err = app.AppendHistogram(0, labels, hp.Timestamp, nil, fhs)
-			} else {
-				hs := HistogramProtoToHistogram(hp)
-				_, err = app.AppendHistogram(0, labels, hp.Timestamp, hs, nil)
-			}
-			if err != nil {
-				unwrappedErr := errors.Unwrap(err)
-				if unwrappedErr == nil {
-					unwrappedErr = err
-				}
-				// Although AppendHistogram does not currently return ErrDuplicateSampleForTimestamp there is
-				// a note indicating its inclusion in the future.
-				if errors.Is(unwrappedErr, storage.ErrOutOfOrderSample) || errors.Is(unwrappedErr, storage.ErrOutOfBounds) || errors.Is(unwrappedErr, storage.ErrDuplicateSampleForTimestamp) {
-					level.Error(h.logger).Log("msg", "Out of order histogram from remote write", "err", err.Error(), "series", labels.String(), "timestamp", hp.Timestamp)
-				}
-				return err
-			}
+		err = h.appendHistograms(timeLimitApp, ts.Histograms, ls)
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
 		}
 	}
 
@@ -181,6 +260,149 @@ func (h *writeHandler) write(ctx context.Context, req *prompb.WriteRequest) (err
 	return nil
 }
 
+func (h *writeHandler) writeV2(ctx context.Context, req *writev2.Request) (err error) {
+	outOfOrderExemplarErrs := 0
+
+	timeLimitApp := &timeLimitAppender{
+		Appender: h.appendable.Appender(ctx),
+		maxTime:  timestamp.FromTime(time.Now().Add(maxAheadTime)),
+	}
+
+	defer func() {
+		if err != nil {
+			_ = timeLimitApp.Rollback()
+			return
+		}
+		err = timeLimitApp.Commit()
+	}()
+
+	b := labels.NewScratchBuilder(0)
+	for _, ts := range req.Timeseries {
+		ls := ts.ToLabels(&b, req.Symbols)
+
+		err := h.appendSamplesV2(timeLimitApp, ts.Samples, ls)
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+
+		for _, ep := range ts.Exemplars {
+			e := ep.ToExemplar(&b, req.Symbols)
+			h.appendExemplar(timeLimitApp, e, ls, &outOfOrderExemplarErrs)
+		}
+
+		err = h.appendHistogramsV2(timeLimitApp, ts.Histograms, ls)
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+
+		m := ts.ToMetadata(req.Symbols)
+		if _, err = timeLimitApp.UpdateMetadata(0, ls, m); err != nil {
+			level.Debug(h.logger).Log("msg", "error while updating metadata from remote write", "err", err)
+		}
+	}
+
+	if outOfOrderExemplarErrs > 0 {
+		_ = level.Warn(h.logger).Log("msg", "Error on ingesting out-of-order exemplars", "num_dropped", outOfOrderExemplarErrs)
+	}
+
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (h *writeHandler) appendExemplar(app storage.Appender, e exemplar.Exemplar, labels labels.Labels, outOfOrderExemplarErrs *int) {
+	_, err := app.AppendExemplar(0, labels, e)
+	err = h.checkAppendExemplarError(err, e, outOfOrderExemplarErrs)
+	if err != nil {
+		// Since exemplar storage is still experimental, we don't fail the request on ingestion errors
+		level.Debug(h.logger).Log("msg", "Error while adding exemplar in AddExemplar", "exemplar", fmt.Sprintf("%+v", e), "err", err)
+	}
+}
+
+func (h *writeHandler) appendSamples(app storage.Appender, ss []prompb.Sample, labels labels.Labels) error {
+	var ref storage.SeriesRef
+	var err error
+	for _, s := range ss {
+		ref, err = app.Append(ref, labels, s.GetTimestamp(), s.GetValue())
+		if err != nil {
+			unwrappedErr := errors.Unwrap(err)
+			if unwrappedErr == nil {
+				unwrappedErr = err
+			}
+			if errors.Is(err, storage.ErrOutOfOrderSample) || errors.Is(unwrappedErr, storage.ErrOutOfBounds) || errors.Is(unwrappedErr, storage.ErrDuplicateSampleForTimestamp) {
+				level.Error(h.logger).Log("msg", "Out of order sample from remote write", "err", err.Error(), "series", labels.String(), "timestamp", s.Timestamp)
+			}
+			return err
+		}
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (h *writeHandler) appendSamplesV2(app storage.Appender, ss []writev2.Sample, labels labels.Labels) error {
+	var ref storage.SeriesRef
+	var err error
+	for _, s := range ss {
+		ref, err = app.Append(ref, labels, s.GetTimestamp(), s.GetValue())
+		if err != nil {
+			unwrappedErr := errors.Unwrap(err)
+			if unwrappedErr == nil {
+				unwrappedErr = err
+			}
+			if errors.Is(err, storage.ErrOutOfOrderSample) || errors.Is(unwrappedErr, storage.ErrOutOfBounds) || errors.Is(unwrappedErr, storage.ErrDuplicateSampleForTimestamp) {
+				level.Error(h.logger).Log("msg", "Out of order sample from remote write", "err", err.Error(), "series", labels.String(), "timestamp", s.Timestamp)
+			}
+			return err
+		}
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (h *writeHandler) appendHistograms(app storage.Appender, hh []prompb.Histogram, labels labels.Labels) error {
+	var err error
+	for _, hp := range hh {
+		if hp.IsFloatHistogram() {
+			_, err = app.AppendHistogram(0, labels, hp.Timestamp, nil, hp.ToFloatHistogram())
+		} else {
+			_, err = app.AppendHistogram(0, labels, hp.Timestamp, hp.ToIntHistogram(), nil)
+		}
+		if err != nil {
+			unwrappedErr := errors.Unwrap(err)
+			if unwrappedErr == nil {
+				unwrappedErr = err
+			}
+			// Although AppendHistogram does not currently return ErrDuplicateSampleForTimestamp there is
+			// a note indicating its inclusion in the future.
+			if errors.Is(unwrappedErr, storage.ErrOutOfOrderSample) || errors.Is(unwrappedErr, storage.ErrOutOfBounds) || errors.Is(unwrappedErr, storage.ErrDuplicateSampleForTimestamp) {
+				level.Error(h.logger).Log("msg", "Out of order histogram from remote write", "err", err.Error(), "series", labels.String(), "timestamp", hp.Timestamp)
+			}
+			return err
+		}
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (h *writeHandler) appendHistogramsV2(app storage.Appender, hh []writev2.Histogram, labels labels.Labels) error {
+	var err error
+	for _, hp := range hh {
+		if hp.IsFloatHistogram() {
+			_, err = app.AppendHistogram(0, labels, hp.Timestamp, nil, hp.ToFloatHistogram())
+		} else {
+			_, err = app.AppendHistogram(0, labels, hp.Timestamp, hp.ToIntHistogram(), nil)
+		}
+		if err != nil {
+			unwrappedErr := errors.Unwrap(err)
+			if unwrappedErr == nil {
+				unwrappedErr = err
+			}
+			// Although AppendHistogram does not currently return ErrDuplicateSampleForTimestamp there is
+			// a note indicating its inclusion in the future.
+			if errors.Is(unwrappedErr, storage.ErrOutOfOrderSample) || errors.Is(unwrappedErr, storage.ErrOutOfBounds) || errors.Is(unwrappedErr, storage.ErrDuplicateSampleForTimestamp) {
+				level.Error(h.logger).Log("msg", "Out of order histogram from remote write", "err", err.Error(), "series", labels.String(), "timestamp", hp.Timestamp)
+			}
+			return err
+		}
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+
 // NewOTLPWriteHandler creates a http.Handler that accepts OTLP write requests and
 // writes them to the provided appendable.
 func NewOTLPWriteHandler(logger log.Logger, appendable storage.Appendable) http.Handler {
@@ -208,21 +430,15 @@ func (h *otlpWriteHandler) ServeHTTP(w http.ResponseWriter, r *http.Request) {
 		return
 	}
 
-	prwMetricsMap, errs := otlptranslator.FromMetrics(req.Metrics(), otlptranslator.Settings{
+	converter := otlptranslator.NewPrometheusConverter()
+	if err := converter.FromMetrics(req.Metrics(), otlptranslator.Settings{
 		AddMetricSuffixes: true,
-	})
-	if errs != nil {
-		level.Warn(h.logger).Log("msg", "Error translating OTLP metrics to Prometheus write request", "err", errs)
-	}
-
-	prwMetrics := make([]prompb.TimeSeries, 0, len(prwMetricsMap))
-
-	for _, ts := range prwMetricsMap {
-		prwMetrics = append(prwMetrics, *ts)
+	}); err != nil {
+		level.Warn(h.logger).Log("msg", "Error translating OTLP metrics to Prometheus write request", "err", err)
 	}
 
 	err = h.rwHandler.write(r.Context(), &prompb.WriteRequest{
-		Timeseries: prwMetrics,
+		Timeseries: converter.TimeSeries(),
 	})
 
 	switch {
@@ -239,3 +455,45 @@ func (h *otlpWriteHandler) ServeHTTP(w http.ResponseWriter, r *http.Request) {
 
 	w.WriteHeader(http.StatusOK)
 }
+
+type timeLimitAppender struct {
+	storage.Appender
+
+	maxTime int64
+}
+
+func (app *timeLimitAppender) Append(ref storage.SeriesRef, lset labels.Labels, t int64, v float64) (storage.SeriesRef, error) {
+	if t > app.maxTime {
+		return 0, fmt.Errorf("%w: timestamp is too far in the future", storage.ErrOutOfBounds)
+	}
+
+	ref, err := app.Appender.Append(ref, lset, t, v)
+	if err != nil {
+		return 0, err
+	}
+	return ref, nil
+}
+
+func (app *timeLimitAppender) AppendHistogram(ref storage.SeriesRef, l labels.Labels, t int64, h *histogram.Histogram, fh *histogram.FloatHistogram) (storage.SeriesRef, error) {
+	if t > app.maxTime {
+		return 0, fmt.Errorf("%w: timestamp is too far in the future", storage.ErrOutOfBounds)
+	}
+
+	ref, err := app.Appender.AppendHistogram(ref, l, t, h, fh)
+	if err != nil {
+		return 0, err
+	}
+	return ref, nil
+}
+
+func (app *timeLimitAppender) AppendExemplar(ref storage.SeriesRef, l labels.Labels, e exemplar.Exemplar) (storage.SeriesRef, error) {
+	if e.Ts > app.maxTime {
+		return 0, fmt.Errorf("%w: timestamp is too far in the future", storage.ErrOutOfBounds)
+	}
+
+	ref, err := app.Appender.AppendExemplar(ref, l, e)
+	if err != nil {
+		return 0, err
+	}
+	return ref, nil
+}
diff --git a/storage/remote/write_handler_test.go b/storage/remote/write_handler_test.go
index 5125290f7c..24bd7059ae 100644
--- a/storage/remote/write_handler_test.go
+++ b/storage/remote/write_handler_test.go
@@ -18,6 +18,7 @@ import (
 	"context"
 	"fmt"
 	"io"
+	"math"
 	"net/http"
 	"net/http/httptest"
 	"strconv"
@@ -29,25 +30,230 @@ import (
 	"github.com/google/go-cmp/cmp"
 	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
 
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/config"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/exemplar"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/histogram"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/labels"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/metadata"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/prompb"
+	writev2 "github.com/prometheus/prometheus/prompb/io/prometheus/write/v2"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/storage"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/tsdb"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/util/testutil"
 )
 
-func TestRemoteWriteHandler(t *testing.T) {
-	buf, _, _, err := buildWriteRequest(nil, writeRequestFixture.Timeseries, nil, nil, nil, nil)
+func TestRemoteWriteHandlerHeadersHandling_V1Message(t *testing.T) {
+	payload, _, _, err := buildWriteRequest(nil, writeRequestFixture.Timeseries, nil, nil, nil, nil, "snappy")
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 
-	req, err := http.NewRequest("", "", bytes.NewReader(buf))
+	for _, tc := range []struct {
+		name         string
+		reqHeaders   map[string]string
+		expectedCode int
+	}{
+		// Generally Prometheus 1.0 Receiver never checked for existence of the headers, so
+		// we keep things permissive.
+		{
+			name: "correct PRW 1.0 headers",
+			reqHeaders: map[string]string{
+				"Content-Type":           remoteWriteContentTypeHeaders[config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1],
+				"Content-Encoding":       string(SnappyBlockCompression),
+				RemoteWriteVersionHeader: RemoteWriteVersion20HeaderValue,
+			},
+			expectedCode: http.StatusNoContent,
+		},
+		{
+			name: "missing remote write version",
+			reqHeaders: map[string]string{
+				"Content-Type":     remoteWriteContentTypeHeaders[config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1],
+				"Content-Encoding": string(SnappyBlockCompression),
+			},
+			expectedCode: http.StatusNoContent,
+		},
+		{
+			name:         "no headers",
+			reqHeaders:   map[string]string{},
+			expectedCode: http.StatusNoContent,
+		},
+		{
+			name: "missing content-type",
+			reqHeaders: map[string]string{
+				"Content-Encoding":       string(SnappyBlockCompression),
+				RemoteWriteVersionHeader: RemoteWriteVersion20HeaderValue,
+			},
+			expectedCode: http.StatusNoContent,
+		},
+		{
+			name: "missing content-encoding",
+			reqHeaders: map[string]string{
+				"Content-Type":           remoteWriteContentTypeHeaders[config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1],
+				RemoteWriteVersionHeader: RemoteWriteVersion20HeaderValue,
+			},
+			expectedCode: http.StatusNoContent,
+		},
+		{
+			name: "wrong content-type",
+			reqHeaders: map[string]string{
+				"Content-Type":           "yolo",
+				"Content-Encoding":       string(SnappyBlockCompression),
+				RemoteWriteVersionHeader: RemoteWriteVersion20HeaderValue,
+			},
+			expectedCode: http.StatusUnsupportedMediaType,
+		},
+		{
+			name: "wrong content-type2",
+			reqHeaders: map[string]string{
+				"Content-Type":           appProtoContentType + ";proto=yolo",
+				"Content-Encoding":       string(SnappyBlockCompression),
+				RemoteWriteVersionHeader: RemoteWriteVersion20HeaderValue,
+			},
+			expectedCode: http.StatusUnsupportedMediaType,
+		},
+		{
+			name: "not supported content-encoding",
+			reqHeaders: map[string]string{
+				"Content-Type":           remoteWriteContentTypeHeaders[config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1],
+				"Content-Encoding":       "zstd",
+				RemoteWriteVersionHeader: RemoteWriteVersion20HeaderValue,
+			},
+			expectedCode: http.StatusUnsupportedMediaType,
+		},
+	} {
+		t.Run(tc.name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			req, err := http.NewRequest("", "", bytes.NewReader(payload))
+			require.NoError(t, err)
+			for k, v := range tc.reqHeaders {
+				req.Header.Set(k, v)
+			}
+
+			appendable := &mockAppendable{}
+			handler := NewWriteHandler(log.NewNopLogger(), nil, appendable, []config.RemoteWriteProtoMsg{config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1})
+
+			recorder := httptest.NewRecorder()
+			handler.ServeHTTP(recorder, req)
+
+			resp := recorder.Result()
+			out, err := io.ReadAll(resp.Body)
+			require.NoError(t, err)
+			_ = resp.Body.Close()
+			require.Equal(t, tc.expectedCode, resp.StatusCode, string(out))
+		})
+	}
+}
+
+func TestRemoteWriteHandlerHeadersHandling_V2Message(t *testing.T) {
+	payload, _, _, err := buildV2WriteRequest(log.NewNopLogger(), writeV2RequestFixture.Timeseries, writeV2RequestFixture.Symbols, nil, nil, nil, "snappy")
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 
+	for _, tc := range []struct {
+		name         string
+		reqHeaders   map[string]string
+		expectedCode int
+	}{
+		{
+			name: "correct PRW 2.0 headers",
+			reqHeaders: map[string]string{
+				"Content-Type":           remoteWriteContentTypeHeaders[config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV2],
+				"Content-Encoding":       string(SnappyBlockCompression),
+				RemoteWriteVersionHeader: RemoteWriteVersion20HeaderValue,
+			},
+			expectedCode: http.StatusNoContent,
+		},
+		{
+			name: "missing remote write version",
+			reqHeaders: map[string]string{
+				"Content-Type":     remoteWriteContentTypeHeaders[config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV2],
+				"Content-Encoding": string(SnappyBlockCompression),
+			},
+			expectedCode: http.StatusNoContent, // We don't check for now.
+		},
+		{
+			name:         "no headers",
+			reqHeaders:   map[string]string{},
+			expectedCode: http.StatusUnsupportedMediaType,
+		},
+		{
+			name: "missing content-type",
+			reqHeaders: map[string]string{
+				"Content-Encoding":       string(SnappyBlockCompression),
+				RemoteWriteVersionHeader: RemoteWriteVersion20HeaderValue,
+			},
+			// This only gives 415, because we explicitly only support 2.0. If we supported both
+			// (default) it would be empty message parsed and ok response.
+			// This is perhaps better, than 415 for previously working 1.0 flow with
+			// no content-type.
+			expectedCode: http.StatusUnsupportedMediaType,
+		},
+		{
+			name: "missing content-encoding",
+			reqHeaders: map[string]string{
+				"Content-Type":           remoteWriteContentTypeHeaders[config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV2],
+				RemoteWriteVersionHeader: RemoteWriteVersion20HeaderValue,
+			},
+			expectedCode: http.StatusNoContent, // Similar to 1.0 impl, we default to Snappy, so it works.
+		},
+		{
+			name: "wrong content-type",
+			reqHeaders: map[string]string{
+				"Content-Type":           "yolo",
+				"Content-Encoding":       string(SnappyBlockCompression),
+				RemoteWriteVersionHeader: RemoteWriteVersion20HeaderValue,
+			},
+			expectedCode: http.StatusUnsupportedMediaType,
+		},
+		{
+			name: "wrong content-type2",
+			reqHeaders: map[string]string{
+				"Content-Type":           appProtoContentType + ";proto=yolo",
+				"Content-Encoding":       string(SnappyBlockCompression),
+				RemoteWriteVersionHeader: RemoteWriteVersion20HeaderValue,
+			},
+			expectedCode: http.StatusUnsupportedMediaType,
+		},
+		{
+			name: "not supported content-encoding",
+			reqHeaders: map[string]string{
+				"Content-Type":           remoteWriteContentTypeHeaders[config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV2],
+				"Content-Encoding":       "zstd",
+				RemoteWriteVersionHeader: RemoteWriteVersion20HeaderValue,
+			},
+			expectedCode: http.StatusUnsupportedMediaType,
+		},
+	} {
+		t.Run(tc.name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			req, err := http.NewRequest("", "", bytes.NewReader(payload))
+			require.NoError(t, err)
+			for k, v := range tc.reqHeaders {
+				req.Header.Set(k, v)
+			}
+
+			appendable := &mockAppendable{}
+			handler := NewWriteHandler(log.NewNopLogger(), nil, appendable, []config.RemoteWriteProtoMsg{config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV2})
+
+			recorder := httptest.NewRecorder()
+			handler.ServeHTTP(recorder, req)
+
+			resp := recorder.Result()
+			out, err := io.ReadAll(resp.Body)
+			require.NoError(t, err)
+			_ = resp.Body.Close()
+			require.Equal(t, tc.expectedCode, resp.StatusCode, string(out))
+		})
+	}
+}
+
+func TestRemoteWriteHandler_V1Message(t *testing.T) {
+	payload, _, _, err := buildWriteRequest(nil, writeRequestFixture.Timeseries, nil, nil, nil, nil, "snappy")
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	req, err := http.NewRequest("", "", bytes.NewReader(payload))
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	// NOTE: Strictly speaking, even for 1.0 we require headers, but we never verified those
+	// in Prometheus, so keeping like this to not break existing 1.0 clients.
+
 	appendable := &mockAppendable{}
-	handler := NewWriteHandler(nil, nil, appendable)
+	handler := NewWriteHandler(log.NewNopLogger(), nil, appendable, []config.RemoteWriteProtoMsg{config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1})
 
 	recorder := httptest.NewRecorder()
 	handler.ServeHTTP(recorder, req)
@@ -60,24 +266,22 @@ func TestRemoteWriteHandler(t *testing.T) {
 	j := 0
 	k := 0
 	for _, ts := range writeRequestFixture.Timeseries {
-		labels := labelProtosToLabels(&b, ts.Labels)
+		labels := ts.ToLabels(&b, nil)
 		for _, s := range ts.Samples {
 			requireEqual(t, mockSample{labels, s.Timestamp, s.Value}, appendable.samples[i])
 			i++
 		}
-
 		for _, e := range ts.Exemplars {
-			exemplarLabels := labelProtosToLabels(&b, e.Labels)
+			exemplarLabels := e.ToExemplar(&b, nil).Labels
 			requireEqual(t, mockExemplar{labels, exemplarLabels, e.Timestamp, e.Value}, appendable.exemplars[j])
 			j++
 		}
-
 		for _, hp := range ts.Histograms {
 			if hp.IsFloatHistogram() {
-				fh := FloatHistogramProtoToFloatHistogram(hp)
+				fh := hp.ToFloatHistogram()
 				requireEqual(t, mockHistogram{labels, hp.Timestamp, nil, fh}, appendable.histograms[k])
 			} else {
-				h := HistogramProtoToHistogram(hp)
+				h := hp.ToIntHistogram()
 				requireEqual(t, mockHistogram{labels, hp.Timestamp, h, nil}, appendable.histograms[k])
 			}
 
@@ -86,79 +290,304 @@ func TestRemoteWriteHandler(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 }
 
-func TestOutOfOrderSample(t *testing.T) {
-	buf, _, _, err := buildWriteRequest(nil, []prompb.TimeSeries{{
-		Labels:  []prompb.Label{{Name: "__name__", Value: "test_metric"}},
-		Samples: []prompb.Sample{{Value: 1, Timestamp: 0}},
-	}}, nil, nil, nil, nil)
+func TestRemoteWriteHandler_V2Message(t *testing.T) {
+	payload, _, _, err := buildV2WriteRequest(log.NewNopLogger(), writeV2RequestFixture.Timeseries, writeV2RequestFixture.Symbols, nil, nil, nil, "snappy")
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 
-	req, err := http.NewRequest("", "", bytes.NewReader(buf))
+	req, err := http.NewRequest("", "", bytes.NewReader(payload))
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 
-	appendable := &mockAppendable{
-		latestSample: 100,
-	}
-	handler := NewWriteHandler(log.NewNopLogger(), nil, appendable)
+	req.Header.Set("Content-Type", remoteWriteContentTypeHeaders[config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV2])
+	req.Header.Set("Content-Encoding", string(SnappyBlockCompression))
+	req.Header.Set(RemoteWriteVersionHeader, RemoteWriteVersion20HeaderValue)
+
+	appendable := &mockAppendable{}
+	handler := NewWriteHandler(log.NewNopLogger(), nil, appendable, []config.RemoteWriteProtoMsg{config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV2})
 
 	recorder := httptest.NewRecorder()
 	handler.ServeHTTP(recorder, req)
 
 	resp := recorder.Result()
-	require.Equal(t, http.StatusBadRequest, resp.StatusCode)
+	require.Equal(t, http.StatusNoContent, resp.StatusCode)
+
+	b := labels.NewScratchBuilder(0)
+	i := 0
+	j := 0
+	k := 0
+	for _, ts := range writeV2RequestFixture.Timeseries {
+		ls := ts.ToLabels(&b, writeV2RequestFixture.Symbols)
+
+		for _, s := range ts.Samples {
+			requireEqual(t, mockSample{ls, s.Timestamp, s.Value}, appendable.samples[i])
+
+			switch i {
+			case 0:
+				requireEqual(t, mockMetadata{ls, writeV2RequestSeries1Metadata}, appendable.metadata[i])
+			case 1:
+				requireEqual(t, mockMetadata{ls, writeV2RequestSeries2Metadata}, appendable.metadata[i])
+			default:
+				t.Fatal("more series/samples then expected")
+			}
+			i++
+		}
+		for _, e := range ts.Exemplars {
+			exemplarLabels := e.ToExemplar(&b, writeV2RequestFixture.Symbols).Labels
+			requireEqual(t, mockExemplar{ls, exemplarLabels, e.Timestamp, e.Value}, appendable.exemplars[j])
+			j++
+		}
+		for _, hp := range ts.Histograms {
+			if hp.IsFloatHistogram() {
+				fh := hp.ToFloatHistogram()
+				requireEqual(t, mockHistogram{ls, hp.Timestamp, nil, fh}, appendable.histograms[k])
+			} else {
+				h := hp.ToIntHistogram()
+				requireEqual(t, mockHistogram{ls, hp.Timestamp, h, nil}, appendable.histograms[k])
+			}
+			k++
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+func TestOutOfOrderSample_V1Message(t *testing.T) {
+	for _, tc := range []struct {
+		Name      string
+		Timestamp int64
+	}{
+		{
+			Name:      "historic",
+			Timestamp: 0,
+		},
+		{
+			Name:      "future",
+			Timestamp: math.MaxInt64,
+		},
+	} {
+		t.Run(tc.Name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			payload, _, _, err := buildWriteRequest(nil, []prompb.TimeSeries{{
+				Labels:  []prompb.Label{{Name: "__name__", Value: "test_metric"}},
+				Samples: []prompb.Sample{{Value: 1, Timestamp: tc.Timestamp}},
+			}}, nil, nil, nil, nil, "snappy")
+			require.NoError(t, err)
+
+			req, err := http.NewRequest("", "", bytes.NewReader(payload))
+			require.NoError(t, err)
+
+			appendable := &mockAppendable{latestSample: 100}
+			handler := NewWriteHandler(log.NewNopLogger(), nil, appendable, []config.RemoteWriteProtoMsg{config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1})
+
+			recorder := httptest.NewRecorder()
+			handler.ServeHTTP(recorder, req)
+
+			resp := recorder.Result()
+			require.Equal(t, http.StatusBadRequest, resp.StatusCode)
+		})
+	}
+}
+
+func TestOutOfOrderSample_V2Message(t *testing.T) {
+	for _, tc := range []struct {
+		Name      string
+		Timestamp int64
+	}{
+		{
+			Name:      "historic",
+			Timestamp: 0,
+		},
+		{
+			Name:      "future",
+			Timestamp: math.MaxInt64,
+		},
+	} {
+		t.Run(tc.Name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			payload, _, _, err := buildV2WriteRequest(nil, []writev2.TimeSeries{{
+				LabelsRefs: []uint32{1, 2},
+				Samples:    []writev2.Sample{{Value: 1, Timestamp: tc.Timestamp}},
+			}}, []string{"", "__name__", "metric1"}, nil, nil, nil, "snappy")
+			require.NoError(t, err)
+
+			req, err := http.NewRequest("", "", bytes.NewReader(payload))
+			require.NoError(t, err)
+
+			req.Header.Set("Content-Type", remoteWriteContentTypeHeaders[config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV2])
+			req.Header.Set("Content-Encoding", string(SnappyBlockCompression))
+			req.Header.Set(RemoteWriteVersionHeader, RemoteWriteVersion20HeaderValue)
+
+			appendable := &mockAppendable{latestSample: 100}
+			handler := NewWriteHandler(log.NewNopLogger(), nil, appendable, []config.RemoteWriteProtoMsg{config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV2})
+
+			recorder := httptest.NewRecorder()
+			handler.ServeHTTP(recorder, req)
+
+			resp := recorder.Result()
+			require.Equal(t, http.StatusBadRequest, resp.StatusCode)
+		})
+	}
 }
 
 // This test case currently aims to verify that the WriteHandler endpoint
-// don't fail on ingestion errors since the exemplar storage is
+// don't fail on exemplar ingestion errors since the exemplar storage is
 // still experimental.
-func TestOutOfOrderExemplar(t *testing.T) {
-	buf, _, _, err := buildWriteRequest(nil, []prompb.TimeSeries{{
-		Labels:    []prompb.Label{{Name: "__name__", Value: "test_metric"}},
-		Exemplars: []prompb.Exemplar{{Labels: []prompb.Label{{Name: "foo", Value: "bar"}}, Value: 1, Timestamp: 0}},
-	}}, nil, nil, nil, nil)
-	require.NoError(t, err)
-
-	req, err := http.NewRequest("", "", bytes.NewReader(buf))
-	require.NoError(t, err)
-
-	appendable := &mockAppendable{
-		latestExemplar: 100,
+func TestOutOfOrderExemplar_V1Message(t *testing.T) {
+	tests := []struct {
+		Name      string
+		Timestamp int64
+	}{
+		{
+			Name:      "historic",
+			Timestamp: 0,
+		},
+		{
+			Name:      "future",
+			Timestamp: math.MaxInt64,
+		},
 	}
-	handler := NewWriteHandler(log.NewNopLogger(), nil, appendable)
 
-	recorder := httptest.NewRecorder()
-	handler.ServeHTTP(recorder, req)
+	for _, tc := range tests {
+		t.Run(tc.Name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			payload, _, _, err := buildWriteRequest(nil, []prompb.TimeSeries{{
+				Labels:    []prompb.Label{{Name: "__name__", Value: "test_metric"}},
+				Exemplars: []prompb.Exemplar{{Labels: []prompb.Label{{Name: "foo", Value: "bar"}}, Value: 1, Timestamp: tc.Timestamp}},
+			}}, nil, nil, nil, nil, "snappy")
+			require.NoError(t, err)
 
-	resp := recorder.Result()
-	// TODO: update to require.Equal(t, http.StatusConflict, resp.StatusCode) once exemplar storage is not experimental.
-	require.Equal(t, http.StatusNoContent, resp.StatusCode)
+			req, err := http.NewRequest("", "", bytes.NewReader(payload))
+			require.NoError(t, err)
+
+			appendable := &mockAppendable{latestExemplar: 100}
+			handler := NewWriteHandler(log.NewNopLogger(), nil, appendable, []config.RemoteWriteProtoMsg{config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1})
+
+			recorder := httptest.NewRecorder()
+			handler.ServeHTTP(recorder, req)
+
+			resp := recorder.Result()
+			// TODO: update to require.Equal(t, http.StatusConflict, resp.StatusCode) once exemplar storage is not experimental.
+			require.Equal(t, http.StatusNoContent, resp.StatusCode)
+		})
+	}
 }
 
-func TestOutOfOrderHistogram(t *testing.T) {
-	buf, _, _, err := buildWriteRequest(nil, []prompb.TimeSeries{{
-		Labels:     []prompb.Label{{Name: "__name__", Value: "test_metric"}},
-		Histograms: []prompb.Histogram{HistogramToHistogramProto(0, &testHistogram), FloatHistogramToHistogramProto(1, testHistogram.ToFloat(nil))},
-	}}, nil, nil, nil, nil)
-	require.NoError(t, err)
-
-	req, err := http.NewRequest("", "", bytes.NewReader(buf))
-	require.NoError(t, err)
-
-	appendable := &mockAppendable{
-		latestHistogram: 100,
+func TestOutOfOrderExemplar_V2Message(t *testing.T) {
+	tests := []struct {
+		Name      string
+		Timestamp int64
+	}{
+		{
+			Name:      "historic",
+			Timestamp: 0,
+		},
+		{
+			Name:      "future",
+			Timestamp: math.MaxInt64,
+		},
 	}
-	handler := NewWriteHandler(log.NewNopLogger(), nil, appendable)
 
-	recorder := httptest.NewRecorder()
-	handler.ServeHTTP(recorder, req)
+	for _, tc := range tests {
+		t.Run(tc.Name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			payload, _, _, err := buildV2WriteRequest(nil, []writev2.TimeSeries{{
+				LabelsRefs: []uint32{1, 2},
+				Exemplars:  []writev2.Exemplar{{LabelsRefs: []uint32{3, 4}, Value: 1, Timestamp: tc.Timestamp}},
+			}}, []string{"", "__name__", "metric1", "foo", "bar"}, nil, nil, nil, "snappy")
+			require.NoError(t, err)
 
-	resp := recorder.Result()
-	require.Equal(t, http.StatusBadRequest, resp.StatusCode)
+			req, err := http.NewRequest("", "", bytes.NewReader(payload))
+			require.NoError(t, err)
+
+			req.Header.Set("Content-Type", remoteWriteContentTypeHeaders[config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV2])
+			req.Header.Set("Content-Encoding", string(SnappyBlockCompression))
+			req.Header.Set(RemoteWriteVersionHeader, RemoteWriteVersion20HeaderValue)
+
+			appendable := &mockAppendable{latestExemplar: 100}
+			handler := NewWriteHandler(log.NewNopLogger(), nil, appendable, []config.RemoteWriteProtoMsg{config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV2})
+
+			recorder := httptest.NewRecorder()
+			handler.ServeHTTP(recorder, req)
+
+			resp := recorder.Result()
+			// TODO: update to require.Equal(t, http.StatusConflict, resp.StatusCode) once exemplar storage is not experimental.
+			require.Equal(t, http.StatusNoContent, resp.StatusCode)
+		})
+	}
 }
 
-func BenchmarkRemoteWritehandler(b *testing.B) {
+func TestOutOfOrderHistogram_V1Message(t *testing.T) {
+	for _, tc := range []struct {
+		Name      string
+		Timestamp int64
+	}{
+		{
+			Name:      "historic",
+			Timestamp: 0,
+		},
+		{
+			Name:      "future",
+			Timestamp: math.MaxInt64,
+		},
+	} {
+		t.Run(tc.Name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			payload, _, _, err := buildWriteRequest(nil, []prompb.TimeSeries{{
+				Labels:     []prompb.Label{{Name: "__name__", Value: "test_metric"}},
+				Histograms: []prompb.Histogram{prompb.FromIntHistogram(tc.Timestamp, &testHistogram), prompb.FromFloatHistogram(1, testHistogram.ToFloat(nil))},
+			}}, nil, nil, nil, nil, "snappy")
+			require.NoError(t, err)
+
+			req, err := http.NewRequest("", "", bytes.NewReader(payload))
+			require.NoError(t, err)
+
+			appendable := &mockAppendable{latestHistogram: 100}
+			handler := NewWriteHandler(log.NewNopLogger(), nil, appendable, []config.RemoteWriteProtoMsg{config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1})
+
+			recorder := httptest.NewRecorder()
+			handler.ServeHTTP(recorder, req)
+
+			resp := recorder.Result()
+			require.Equal(t, http.StatusBadRequest, resp.StatusCode)
+		})
+	}
+}
+
+func TestOutOfOrderHistogram_V2Message(t *testing.T) {
+	for _, tc := range []struct {
+		Name      string
+		Timestamp int64
+	}{
+		{
+			Name:      "historic",
+			Timestamp: 0,
+		},
+		{
+			Name:      "future",
+			Timestamp: math.MaxInt64,
+		},
+	} {
+		t.Run(tc.Name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			payload, _, _, err := buildV2WriteRequest(nil, []writev2.TimeSeries{{
+				LabelsRefs: []uint32{0, 1},
+				Histograms: []writev2.Histogram{writev2.FromIntHistogram(0, &testHistogram), writev2.FromFloatHistogram(1, testHistogram.ToFloat(nil))},
+			}}, []string{"__name__", "metric1"}, nil, nil, nil, "snappy")
+			require.NoError(t, err)
+
+			req, err := http.NewRequest("", "", bytes.NewReader(payload))
+			require.NoError(t, err)
+
+			req.Header.Set("Content-Type", remoteWriteContentTypeHeaders[config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV2])
+			req.Header.Set("Content-Encoding", string(SnappyBlockCompression))
+			req.Header.Set(RemoteWriteVersionHeader, RemoteWriteVersion20HeaderValue)
+
+			appendable := &mockAppendable{latestHistogram: 100}
+			handler := NewWriteHandler(log.NewNopLogger(), nil, appendable, []config.RemoteWriteProtoMsg{config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV2})
+
+			recorder := httptest.NewRecorder()
+			handler.ServeHTTP(recorder, req)
+
+			resp := recorder.Result()
+			require.Equal(t, http.StatusBadRequest, resp.StatusCode)
+		})
+	}
+}
+
+func BenchmarkRemoteWriteHandler(b *testing.B) {
 	const labelValue = "abcdefg'hijlmn234!@#$%^&*()_+~`\"{}[],./<>?hello0123hiOlá你好Dzieńdobry9Zd8ra765v4stvuyte"
-	reqs := []*http.Request{}
+	var reqs []*http.Request
 	for i := 0; i < b.N; i++ {
 		num := strings.Repeat(strconv.Itoa(i), 16)
 		buf, _, _, err := buildWriteRequest(nil, []prompb.TimeSeries{{
@@ -166,8 +595,8 @@ func BenchmarkRemoteWritehandler(b *testing.B) {
 				{Name: "__name__", Value: "test_metric"},
 				{Name: "test_label_name_" + num, Value: labelValue + num},
 			},
-			Histograms: []prompb.Histogram{HistogramToHistogramProto(0, &testHistogram)},
-		}}, nil, nil, nil, nil)
+			Histograms: []prompb.Histogram{prompb.FromIntHistogram(0, &testHistogram)},
+		}}, nil, nil, nil, nil, "snappy")
 		require.NoError(b, err)
 		req, err := http.NewRequest("", "", bytes.NewReader(buf))
 		require.NoError(b, err)
@@ -175,7 +604,8 @@ func BenchmarkRemoteWritehandler(b *testing.B) {
 	}
 
 	appendable := &mockAppendable{}
-	handler := NewWriteHandler(log.NewNopLogger(), nil, appendable)
+	// TODO: test with other proto format(s)
+	handler := NewWriteHandler(log.NewNopLogger(), nil, appendable, []config.RemoteWriteProtoMsg{config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1})
 	recorder := httptest.NewRecorder()
 
 	b.ResetTimer()
@@ -184,17 +614,39 @@ func BenchmarkRemoteWritehandler(b *testing.B) {
 	}
 }
 
-func TestCommitErr(t *testing.T) {
-	buf, _, _, err := buildWriteRequest(nil, writeRequestFixture.Timeseries, nil, nil, nil, nil)
+func TestCommitErr_V1Message(t *testing.T) {
+	payload, _, _, err := buildWriteRequest(nil, writeRequestFixture.Timeseries, nil, nil, nil, nil, "snappy")
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 
-	req, err := http.NewRequest("", "", bytes.NewReader(buf))
+	req, err := http.NewRequest("", "", bytes.NewReader(payload))
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 
-	appendable := &mockAppendable{
-		commitErr: fmt.Errorf("commit error"),
-	}
-	handler := NewWriteHandler(log.NewNopLogger(), nil, appendable)
+	appendable := &mockAppendable{commitErr: fmt.Errorf("commit error")}
+	handler := NewWriteHandler(log.NewNopLogger(), nil, appendable, []config.RemoteWriteProtoMsg{config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1})
+
+	recorder := httptest.NewRecorder()
+	handler.ServeHTTP(recorder, req)
+
+	resp := recorder.Result()
+	body, err := io.ReadAll(resp.Body)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	require.Equal(t, http.StatusInternalServerError, resp.StatusCode)
+	require.Equal(t, "commit error\n", string(body))
+}
+
+func TestCommitErr_V2Message(t *testing.T) {
+	payload, _, _, err := buildV2WriteRequest(log.NewNopLogger(), writeV2RequestFixture.Timeseries, writeV2RequestFixture.Symbols, nil, nil, nil, "snappy")
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	req, err := http.NewRequest("", "", bytes.NewReader(payload))
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	req.Header.Set("Content-Type", remoteWriteContentTypeHeaders[config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV2])
+	req.Header.Set("Content-Encoding", string(SnappyBlockCompression))
+	req.Header.Set(RemoteWriteVersionHeader, RemoteWriteVersion20HeaderValue)
+
+	appendable := &mockAppendable{commitErr: fmt.Errorf("commit error")}
+	handler := NewWriteHandler(log.NewNopLogger(), nil, appendable, []config.RemoteWriteProtoMsg{config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV2})
 
 	recorder := httptest.NewRecorder()
 	handler.ServeHTTP(recorder, req)
@@ -220,10 +672,10 @@ func BenchmarkRemoteWriteOOOSamples(b *testing.B) {
 	b.Cleanup(func() {
 		require.NoError(b, db.Close())
 	})
+	// TODO: test with other proto format(s)
+	handler := NewWriteHandler(log.NewNopLogger(), nil, db.Head(), []config.RemoteWriteProtoMsg{config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1})
 
-	handler := NewWriteHandler(log.NewNopLogger(), nil, db.Head())
-
-	buf, _, _, err := buildWriteRequest(nil, genSeriesWithSample(1000, 200*time.Minute.Milliseconds()), nil, nil, nil, nil)
+	buf, _, _, err := buildWriteRequest(nil, genSeriesWithSample(1000, 200*time.Minute.Milliseconds()), nil, nil, nil, nil, "snappy")
 	require.NoError(b, err)
 
 	req, err := http.NewRequest("", "", bytes.NewReader(buf))
@@ -236,7 +688,7 @@ func BenchmarkRemoteWriteOOOSamples(b *testing.B) {
 
 	var bufRequests [][]byte
 	for i := 0; i < 100; i++ {
-		buf, _, _, err = buildWriteRequest(nil, genSeriesWithSample(1000, int64(80+i)*time.Minute.Milliseconds()), nil, nil, nil, nil)
+		buf, _, _, err = buildWriteRequest(nil, genSeriesWithSample(1000, int64(80+i)*time.Minute.Milliseconds()), nil, nil, nil, nil, "snappy")
 		require.NoError(b, err)
 		bufRequests = append(bufRequests, buf)
 	}
@@ -273,7 +725,9 @@ type mockAppendable struct {
 	exemplars       []mockExemplar
 	latestHistogram int64
 	histograms      []mockHistogram
-	commitErr       error
+	metadata        []mockMetadata
+
+	commitErr error
 }
 
 type mockSample struct {
@@ -296,10 +750,17 @@ type mockHistogram struct {
 	fh *histogram.FloatHistogram
 }
 
+type mockMetadata struct {
+	l labels.Labels
+	m metadata.Metadata
+}
+
 // Wrapper to instruct go-cmp package to compare a list of structs with unexported fields.
 func requireEqual(t *testing.T, expected, actual interface{}, msgAndArgs ...interface{}) {
+	t.Helper()
+
 	testutil.RequireEqualWithOptions(t, expected, actual,
-		[]cmp.Option{cmp.AllowUnexported(mockSample{}), cmp.AllowUnexported(mockExemplar{}), cmp.AllowUnexported(mockHistogram{})},
+		[]cmp.Option{cmp.AllowUnexported(mockSample{}), cmp.AllowUnexported(mockExemplar{}), cmp.AllowUnexported(mockHistogram{}), cmp.AllowUnexported(mockMetadata{})},
 		msgAndArgs...)
 }
 
@@ -345,13 +806,14 @@ func (m *mockAppendable) AppendHistogram(_ storage.SeriesRef, l labels.Labels, t
 	return 0, nil
 }
 
-func (m *mockAppendable) UpdateMetadata(_ storage.SeriesRef, _ labels.Labels, _ metadata.Metadata) (storage.SeriesRef, error) {
-	// TODO: Wire metadata in a mockAppendable field when we get around to handling metadata in remote_write.
-	// UpdateMetadata is no-op for remote write (where mockAppendable is being used to test) for now.
+func (m *mockAppendable) UpdateMetadata(_ storage.SeriesRef, l labels.Labels, mp metadata.Metadata) (storage.SeriesRef, error) {
+	m.metadata = append(m.metadata, mockMetadata{l: l, m: mp})
 	return 0, nil
 }
 
 func (m *mockAppendable) AppendCTZeroSample(_ storage.SeriesRef, _ labels.Labels, _, _ int64) (storage.SeriesRef, error) {
 	// AppendCTZeroSample is no-op for remote-write for now.
+	// TODO(bwplotka): Add support for PRW 2.0 for CT zero feature (but also we might
+	// replace this with in-metadata CT storage, see https://github.com/prometheus/prometheus/issues/14218).
 	return 0, nil
 }
diff --git a/storage/remote/write_test.go b/storage/remote/write_test.go
index c79ac3ab7d..648ec4b17f 100644
--- a/storage/remote/write_test.go
+++ b/storage/remote/write_test.go
@@ -15,6 +15,7 @@ package remote
 
 import (
 	"bytes"
+	"errors"
 	"net/http"
 	"net/http/httptest"
 	"net/url"
@@ -43,11 +44,12 @@ func testRemoteWriteConfig() *config.RemoteWriteConfig {
 				Host:   "localhost",
 			},
 		},
-		QueueConfig: config.DefaultQueueConfig,
+		QueueConfig:     config.DefaultQueueConfig,
+		ProtobufMessage: config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1,
 	}
 }
 
-func TestNoDuplicateWriteConfigs(t *testing.T) {
+func TestWriteStorageApplyConfig_NoDuplicateWriteConfigs(t *testing.T) {
 	dir := t.TempDir()
 
 	cfg1 := config.RemoteWriteConfig{
@@ -58,7 +60,8 @@ func TestNoDuplicateWriteConfigs(t *testing.T) {
 				Host:   "localhost",
 			},
 		},
-		QueueConfig: config.DefaultQueueConfig,
+		QueueConfig:     config.DefaultQueueConfig,
+		ProtobufMessage: config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1,
 	}
 	cfg2 := config.RemoteWriteConfig{
 		Name: "write-2",
@@ -68,7 +71,8 @@ func TestNoDuplicateWriteConfigs(t *testing.T) {
 				Host:   "localhost",
 			},
 		},
-		QueueConfig: config.DefaultQueueConfig,
+		QueueConfig:     config.DefaultQueueConfig,
+		ProtobufMessage: config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1,
 	}
 	cfg3 := config.RemoteWriteConfig{
 		URL: &common_config.URL{
@@ -77,61 +81,49 @@ func TestNoDuplicateWriteConfigs(t *testing.T) {
 				Host:   "localhost",
 			},
 		},
-		QueueConfig: config.DefaultQueueConfig,
+		QueueConfig:     config.DefaultQueueConfig,
+		ProtobufMessage: config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1,
 	}
 
-	type testcase struct {
-		cfgs []*config.RemoteWriteConfig
-		err  bool
-	}
-
-	cases := []testcase{
+	for _, tc := range []struct {
+		cfgs        []*config.RemoteWriteConfig
+		expectedErr error
+	}{
 		{ // Two duplicates, we should get an error.
-			cfgs: []*config.RemoteWriteConfig{
-				&cfg1,
-				&cfg1,
-			},
-			err: true,
+			cfgs:        []*config.RemoteWriteConfig{&cfg1, &cfg1},
+			expectedErr: errors.New("duplicate remote write configs are not allowed, found duplicate for URL: http://localhost"),
 		},
 		{ // Duplicates but with different names, we should not get an error.
-			cfgs: []*config.RemoteWriteConfig{
-				&cfg1,
-				&cfg2,
-			},
-			err: false,
+			cfgs: []*config.RemoteWriteConfig{&cfg1, &cfg2},
 		},
 		{ // Duplicates but one with no name, we should not get an error.
-			cfgs: []*config.RemoteWriteConfig{
-				&cfg1,
-				&cfg3,
-			},
-			err: false,
+			cfgs: []*config.RemoteWriteConfig{&cfg1, &cfg3},
 		},
 		{ // Duplicates both with no name, we should get an error.
-			cfgs: []*config.RemoteWriteConfig{
-				&cfg3,
-				&cfg3,
-			},
-			err: true,
+			cfgs:        []*config.RemoteWriteConfig{&cfg3, &cfg3},
+			expectedErr: errors.New("duplicate remote write configs are not allowed, found duplicate for URL: http://localhost"),
 		},
-	}
+	} {
+		t.Run("", func(t *testing.T) {
+			s := NewWriteStorage(nil, nil, dir, time.Millisecond, nil, false)
+			conf := &config.Config{
+				GlobalConfig:       config.DefaultGlobalConfig,
+				RemoteWriteConfigs: tc.cfgs,
+			}
+			err := s.ApplyConfig(conf)
+			if tc.expectedErr == nil {
+				require.NoError(t, err)
+			} else {
+				require.Error(t, err)
+				require.Equal(t, tc.expectedErr, err)
+			}
 
-	for _, tc := range cases {
-		s := NewWriteStorage(nil, nil, dir, time.Millisecond, nil)
-		conf := &config.Config{
-			GlobalConfig:       config.DefaultGlobalConfig,
-			RemoteWriteConfigs: tc.cfgs,
-		}
-		err := s.ApplyConfig(conf)
-		gotError := err != nil
-		require.Equal(t, tc.err, gotError)
-
-		err = s.Close()
-		require.NoError(t, err)
+			require.NoError(t, s.Close())
+		})
 	}
 }
 
-func TestRestartOnNameChange(t *testing.T) {
+func TestWriteStorageApplyConfig_RestartOnNameChange(t *testing.T) {
 	dir := t.TempDir()
 
 	cfg := testRemoteWriteConfig()
@@ -139,13 +131,11 @@ func TestRestartOnNameChange(t *testing.T) {
 	hash, err := toHash(cfg)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 
-	s := NewWriteStorage(nil, nil, dir, time.Millisecond, nil)
+	s := NewWriteStorage(nil, nil, dir, time.Millisecond, nil, false)
 
 	conf := &config.Config{
-		GlobalConfig: config.DefaultGlobalConfig,
-		RemoteWriteConfigs: []*config.RemoteWriteConfig{
-			cfg,
-		},
+		GlobalConfig:       config.DefaultGlobalConfig,
+		RemoteWriteConfigs: []*config.RemoteWriteConfig{cfg},
 	}
 	require.NoError(t, s.ApplyConfig(conf))
 	require.Equal(t, s.queues[hash].client().Name(), cfg.Name)
@@ -157,14 +147,13 @@ func TestRestartOnNameChange(t *testing.T) {
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	require.Equal(t, s.queues[hash].client().Name(), conf.RemoteWriteConfigs[0].Name)
 
-	err = s.Close()
-	require.NoError(t, err)
+	require.NoError(t, s.Close())
 }
 
-func TestUpdateWithRegisterer(t *testing.T) {
+func TestWriteStorageApplyConfig_UpdateWithRegisterer(t *testing.T) {
 	dir := t.TempDir()
 
-	s := NewWriteStorage(nil, prometheus.NewRegistry(), dir, time.Millisecond, nil)
+	s := NewWriteStorage(nil, prometheus.NewRegistry(), dir, time.Millisecond, nil, false)
 	c1 := &config.RemoteWriteConfig{
 		Name: "named",
 		URL: &common_config.URL{
@@ -173,7 +162,8 @@ func TestUpdateWithRegisterer(t *testing.T) {
 				Host:   "localhost",
 			},
 		},
-		QueueConfig: config.DefaultQueueConfig,
+		QueueConfig:     config.DefaultQueueConfig,
+		ProtobufMessage: config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1,
 	}
 	c2 := &config.RemoteWriteConfig{
 		URL: &common_config.URL{
@@ -182,7 +172,8 @@ func TestUpdateWithRegisterer(t *testing.T) {
 				Host:   "localhost",
 			},
 		},
-		QueueConfig: config.DefaultQueueConfig,
+		QueueConfig:     config.DefaultQueueConfig,
+		ProtobufMessage: config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1,
 	}
 	conf := &config.Config{
 		GlobalConfig:       config.DefaultGlobalConfig,
@@ -197,14 +188,13 @@ func TestUpdateWithRegisterer(t *testing.T) {
 		require.Equal(t, 10, queue.cfg.MaxShards)
 	}
 
-	err := s.Close()
-	require.NoError(t, err)
+	require.NoError(t, s.Close())
 }
 
-func TestWriteStorageLifecycle(t *testing.T) {
+func TestWriteStorageApplyConfig_Lifecycle(t *testing.T) {
 	dir := t.TempDir()
 
-	s := NewWriteStorage(nil, nil, dir, defaultFlushDeadline, nil)
+	s := NewWriteStorage(nil, nil, dir, defaultFlushDeadline, nil, false)
 	conf := &config.Config{
 		GlobalConfig: config.DefaultGlobalConfig,
 		RemoteWriteConfigs: []*config.RemoteWriteConfig{
@@ -214,14 +204,13 @@ func TestWriteStorageLifecycle(t *testing.T) {
 	require.NoError(t, s.ApplyConfig(conf))
 	require.Len(t, s.queues, 1)
 
-	err := s.Close()
-	require.NoError(t, err)
+	require.NoError(t, s.Close())
 }
 
-func TestUpdateExternalLabels(t *testing.T) {
+func TestWriteStorageApplyConfig_UpdateExternalLabels(t *testing.T) {
 	dir := t.TempDir()
 
-	s := NewWriteStorage(nil, prometheus.NewRegistry(), dir, time.Second, nil)
+	s := NewWriteStorage(nil, prometheus.NewRegistry(), dir, time.Second, nil, false)
 
 	externalLabels := labels.FromStrings("external", "true")
 	conf := &config.Config{
@@ -243,15 +232,13 @@ func TestUpdateExternalLabels(t *testing.T) {
 	require.Len(t, s.queues, 1)
 	require.Equal(t, []labels.Label{{Name: "external", Value: "true"}}, s.queues[hash].externalLabels)
 
-	err = s.Close()
-	require.NoError(t, err)
+	require.NoError(t, s.Close())
 }
 
-func TestWriteStorageApplyConfigsIdempotent(t *testing.T) {
+func TestWriteStorageApplyConfig_Idempotent(t *testing.T) {
 	dir := t.TempDir()
 
-	s := NewWriteStorage(nil, nil, dir, defaultFlushDeadline, nil)
-
+	s := NewWriteStorage(nil, nil, dir, defaultFlushDeadline, nil, false)
 	conf := &config.Config{
 		GlobalConfig: config.GlobalConfig{},
 		RemoteWriteConfigs: []*config.RemoteWriteConfig{
@@ -269,14 +256,13 @@ func TestWriteStorageApplyConfigsIdempotent(t *testing.T) {
 	_, hashExists := s.queues[hash]
 	require.True(t, hashExists, "Queue pointer should have remained the same")
 
-	err = s.Close()
-	require.NoError(t, err)
+	require.NoError(t, s.Close())
 }
 
-func TestWriteStorageApplyConfigsPartialUpdate(t *testing.T) {
+func TestWriteStorageApplyConfig_PartialUpdate(t *testing.T) {
 	dir := t.TempDir()
 
-	s := NewWriteStorage(nil, nil, dir, defaultFlushDeadline, nil)
+	s := NewWriteStorage(nil, nil, dir, defaultFlushDeadline, nil, false)
 
 	c0 := &config.RemoteWriteConfig{
 		RemoteTimeout: model.Duration(10 * time.Second),
@@ -286,6 +272,7 @@ func TestWriteStorageApplyConfigsPartialUpdate(t *testing.T) {
 				Regex: relabel.MustNewRegexp(".+"),
 			},
 		},
+		ProtobufMessage: config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1,
 	}
 	c1 := &config.RemoteWriteConfig{
 		RemoteTimeout: model.Duration(20 * time.Second),
@@ -293,10 +280,12 @@ func TestWriteStorageApplyConfigsPartialUpdate(t *testing.T) {
 		HTTPClientConfig: common_config.HTTPClientConfig{
 			BearerToken: "foo",
 		},
+		ProtobufMessage: config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1,
 	}
 	c2 := &config.RemoteWriteConfig{
-		RemoteTimeout: model.Duration(30 * time.Second),
-		QueueConfig:   config.DefaultQueueConfig,
+		RemoteTimeout:   model.Duration(30 * time.Second),
+		QueueConfig:     config.DefaultQueueConfig,
+		ProtobufMessage: config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1,
 	}
 
 	conf := &config.Config{
@@ -376,8 +365,7 @@ func TestWriteStorageApplyConfigsPartialUpdate(t *testing.T) {
 	_, hashExists = s.queues[hashes[2]]
 	require.True(t, hashExists, "Pointer of unchanged queue should have remained the same")
 
-	err = s.Close()
-	require.NoError(t, err)
+	require.NoError(t, s.Close())
 }
 
 func TestOTLPWriteHandler(t *testing.T) {
diff --git a/storage/series.go b/storage/series.go
index eba11b4d9b..70e3d0a199 100644
--- a/storage/series.go
+++ b/storage/series.go
@@ -55,8 +55,8 @@ func NewListSeries(lset labels.Labels, s []chunks.Sample) *SeriesEntry {
 	}
 }
 
-// NewListChunkSeriesFromSamples returns chunk series entry that allows to iterate over provided samples.
-// NOTE: It uses inefficient chunks encoding implementation, not caring about chunk size.
+// NewListChunkSeriesFromSamples returns a chunk series entry that allows to iterate over provided samples.
+// NOTE: It uses an inefficient chunks encoding implementation, not caring about chunk size.
 // Use only for testing.
 func NewListChunkSeriesFromSamples(lset labels.Labels, samples ...[]chunks.Sample) *ChunkSeriesEntry {
 	chksFromSamples := make([]chunks.Meta, 0, len(samples))
diff --git a/template/template.go b/template/template.go
index 43772805cd..dbe1607cfa 100644
--- a/template/template.go
+++ b/template/template.go
@@ -32,6 +32,8 @@ import (
 	"github.com/prometheus/client_golang/prometheus"
 	"github.com/prometheus/common/model"
 
+	common_templates "github.com/prometheus/common/helpers/templates"
+
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/promql"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/util/strutil"
 )
@@ -263,51 +265,7 @@ func NewTemplateExpander(
 				}
 				return fmt.Sprintf("%.4g%s", v, prefix), nil
 			},
-			"humanizeDuration": func(i interface{}) (string, error) {
-				v, err := convertToFloat(i)
-				if err != nil {
-					return "", err
-				}
-				if math.IsNaN(v) || math.IsInf(v, 0) {
-					return fmt.Sprintf("%.4g", v), nil
-				}
-				if v == 0 {
-					return fmt.Sprintf("%.4gs", v), nil
-				}
-				if math.Abs(v) >= 1 {
-					sign := ""
-					if v < 0 {
-						sign = "-"
-						v = -v
-					}
-					duration := int64(v)
-					seconds := duration % 60
-					minutes := (duration / 60) % 60
-					hours := (duration / 60 / 60) % 24
-					days := duration / 60 / 60 / 24
-					// For days to minutes, we display seconds as an integer.
-					if days != 0 {
-						return fmt.Sprintf("%s%dd %dh %dm %ds", sign, days, hours, minutes, seconds), nil
-					}
-					if hours != 0 {
-						return fmt.Sprintf("%s%dh %dm %ds", sign, hours, minutes, seconds), nil
-					}
-					if minutes != 0 {
-						return fmt.Sprintf("%s%dm %ds", sign, minutes, seconds), nil
-					}
-					// For seconds, we display 4 significant digits.
-					return fmt.Sprintf("%s%.4gs", sign, v), nil
-				}
-				prefix := ""
-				for _, p := range []string{"m", "u", "n", "p", "f", "a", "z", "y"} {
-					if math.Abs(v) >= 1 {
-						break
-					}
-					prefix = p
-					v *= 1000
-				}
-				return fmt.Sprintf("%.4g%ss", v, prefix), nil
-			},
+			"humanizeDuration": common_templates.HumanizeDuration,
 			"humanizePercentage": func(i interface{}) (string, error) {
 				v, err := convertToFloat(i)
 				if err != nil {
diff --git a/tracing/tracing.go b/tracing/tracing.go
index 6a19137370..3b1c61532b 100644
--- a/tracing/tracing.go
+++ b/tracing/tracing.go
@@ -30,7 +30,7 @@ import (
 	"go.opentelemetry.io/otel/propagation"
 	"go.opentelemetry.io/otel/sdk/resource"
 	tracesdk "go.opentelemetry.io/otel/sdk/trace"
-	semconv "go.opentelemetry.io/otel/semconv/v1.24.0"
+	semconv "go.opentelemetry.io/otel/semconv/v1.25.0"
 	"go.opentelemetry.io/otel/trace"
 	"go.opentelemetry.io/otel/trace/noop"
 	"google.golang.org/grpc/credentials"
diff --git a/tsdb/agent/db.go b/tsdb/agent/db.go
index 513c2ed5a3..1b6df3af0f 100644
--- a/tsdb/agent/db.go
+++ b/tsdb/agent/db.go
@@ -81,19 +81,23 @@ type Options struct {
 
 	// NoLockfile disables creation and consideration of a lock file.
 	NoLockfile bool
+
+	// OutOfOrderTimeWindow specifies how much out of order is allowed, if any.
+	OutOfOrderTimeWindow int64
 }
 
 // DefaultOptions used for the WAL storage. They are reasonable for setups using
 // millisecond-precision timestamps.
 func DefaultOptions() *Options {
 	return &Options{
-		WALSegmentSize:    wlog.DefaultSegmentSize,
-		WALCompression:    wlog.CompressionNone,
-		StripeSize:        tsdb.DefaultStripeSize,
-		TruncateFrequency: DefaultTruncateFrequency,
-		MinWALTime:        DefaultMinWALTime,
-		MaxWALTime:        DefaultMaxWALTime,
-		NoLockfile:        false,
+		WALSegmentSize:       wlog.DefaultSegmentSize,
+		WALCompression:       wlog.CompressionNone,
+		StripeSize:           tsdb.DefaultStripeSize,
+		TruncateFrequency:    DefaultTruncateFrequency,
+		MinWALTime:           DefaultMinWALTime,
+		MaxWALTime:           DefaultMaxWALTime,
+		NoLockfile:           false,
+		OutOfOrderTimeWindow: 0,
 	}
 }
 
@@ -812,6 +816,11 @@ func (a *appender) Append(ref storage.SeriesRef, l labels.Labels, t int64, v flo
 	series.Lock()
 	defer series.Unlock()
 
+	if t <= a.minValidTime(series.lastTs) {
+		a.metrics.totalOutOfOrderSamples.Inc()
+		return 0, storage.ErrOutOfOrderSample
+	}
+
 	// NOTE: always modify pendingSamples and sampleSeries together.
 	a.pendingSamples = append(a.pendingSamples, record.RefSample{
 		Ref: series.ref,
@@ -935,6 +944,11 @@ func (a *appender) AppendHistogram(ref storage.SeriesRef, l labels.Labels, t int
 	series.Lock()
 	defer series.Unlock()
 
+	if t <= a.minValidTime(series.lastTs) {
+		a.metrics.totalOutOfOrderSamples.Inc()
+		return 0, storage.ErrOutOfOrderSample
+	}
+
 	switch {
 	case h != nil:
 		// NOTE: always modify pendingHistograms and histogramSeries together
@@ -1103,3 +1117,13 @@ func (a *appender) logSeries() error {
 
 	return nil
 }
+
+// mintTs returns the minimum timestamp that a sample can have
+// and is needed for preventing underflow.
+func (a *appender) minValidTime(lastTs int64) int64 {
+	if lastTs < math.MinInt64+a.opts.OutOfOrderTimeWindow {
+		return math.MinInt64
+	}
+
+	return lastTs - a.opts.OutOfOrderTimeWindow
+}
diff --git a/tsdb/agent/db_test.go b/tsdb/agent/db_test.go
index a7dae32208..b31041b1b9 100644
--- a/tsdb/agent/db_test.go
+++ b/tsdb/agent/db_test.go
@@ -16,6 +16,7 @@ package agent
 import (
 	"context"
 	"fmt"
+	"math"
 	"path/filepath"
 	"strconv"
 	"testing"
@@ -88,7 +89,7 @@ func createTestAgentDB(t testing.TB, reg prometheus.Registerer, opts *Options) *
 	t.Helper()
 
 	dbDir := t.TempDir()
-	rs := remote.NewStorage(log.NewNopLogger(), reg, startTime, dbDir, time.Second*30, nil)
+	rs := remote.NewStorage(log.NewNopLogger(), reg, startTime, dbDir, time.Second*30, nil, false)
 	t.Cleanup(func() {
 		require.NoError(t, rs.Close())
 	})
@@ -584,7 +585,7 @@ func TestLockfile(t *testing.T) {
 	tsdbutil.TestDirLockerUsage(t, func(t *testing.T, data string, createLock bool) (*tsdbutil.DirLocker, testutil.Closer) {
 		logger := log.NewNopLogger()
 		reg := prometheus.NewRegistry()
-		rs := remote.NewStorage(logger, reg, startTime, data, time.Second*30, nil)
+		rs := remote.NewStorage(logger, reg, startTime, data, time.Second*30, nil, false)
 		t.Cleanup(func() {
 			require.NoError(t, rs.Close())
 		})
@@ -604,7 +605,7 @@ func TestLockfile(t *testing.T) {
 
 func Test_ExistingWAL_NextRef(t *testing.T) {
 	dbDir := t.TempDir()
-	rs := remote.NewStorage(log.NewNopLogger(), nil, startTime, dbDir, time.Second*30, nil)
+	rs := remote.NewStorage(log.NewNopLogger(), nil, startTime, dbDir, time.Second*30, nil, false)
 	defer func() {
 		require.NoError(t, rs.Close())
 	}()
@@ -761,7 +762,9 @@ func TestDBAllowOOOSamples(t *testing.T) {
 	)
 
 	reg := prometheus.NewRegistry()
-	s := createTestAgentDB(t, reg, DefaultOptions())
+	opts := DefaultOptions()
+	opts.OutOfOrderTimeWindow = math.MaxInt64
+	s := createTestAgentDB(t, reg, opts)
 	app := s.Appender(context.TODO())
 
 	// Let's add some samples in the [offset, offset+numDatapoints) range.
@@ -879,6 +882,56 @@ func TestDBAllowOOOSamples(t *testing.T) {
 	require.NoError(t, db.Close())
 }
 
+func TestDBOutOfOrderTimeWindow(t *testing.T) {
+	tc := []struct {
+		outOfOrderTimeWindow, firstTs, secondTs int64
+		expectedError                           error
+	}{
+		{0, 100, 101, nil},
+		{0, 100, 100, storage.ErrOutOfOrderSample},
+		{0, 100, 99, storage.ErrOutOfOrderSample},
+		{100, 100, 1, nil},
+		{100, 100, 0, storage.ErrOutOfOrderSample},
+	}
+
+	for _, c := range tc {
+		t.Run(fmt.Sprintf("outOfOrderTimeWindow=%d, firstTs=%d, secondTs=%d, expectedError=%s", c.outOfOrderTimeWindow, c.firstTs, c.secondTs, c.expectedError), func(t *testing.T) {
+			reg := prometheus.NewRegistry()
+			opts := DefaultOptions()
+			opts.OutOfOrderTimeWindow = c.outOfOrderTimeWindow
+			s := createTestAgentDB(t, reg, opts)
+			app := s.Appender(context.TODO())
+
+			lbls := labelsForTest(t.Name()+"_histogram", 1)
+			lset := labels.New(lbls[0]...)
+			_, err := app.AppendHistogram(0, lset, c.firstTs, tsdbutil.GenerateTestHistograms(1)[0], nil)
+			require.NoError(t, err)
+			err = app.Commit()
+			require.NoError(t, err)
+			_, err = app.AppendHistogram(0, lset, c.secondTs, tsdbutil.GenerateTestHistograms(1)[0], nil)
+			require.ErrorIs(t, err, c.expectedError)
+
+			lbls = labelsForTest(t.Name(), 1)
+			lset = labels.New(lbls[0]...)
+			_, err = app.Append(0, lset, c.firstTs, 0)
+			require.NoError(t, err)
+			err = app.Commit()
+			require.NoError(t, err)
+			_, err = app.Append(0, lset, c.secondTs, 0)
+			require.ErrorIs(t, err, c.expectedError)
+
+			expectedAppendedSamples := float64(2)
+			if c.expectedError != nil {
+				expectedAppendedSamples = 1
+			}
+			m := gatherFamily(t, reg, "prometheus_agent_samples_appended_total")
+			require.Equal(t, expectedAppendedSamples, m.Metric[0].Counter.GetValue(), "agent wal mismatch of total appended samples")
+			require.Equal(t, expectedAppendedSamples, m.Metric[1].Counter.GetValue(), "agent wal mismatch of total appended histograms")
+			require.NoError(t, s.Close())
+		})
+	}
+}
+
 func BenchmarkCreateSeries(b *testing.B) {
 	s := createTestAgentDB(b, nil, DefaultOptions())
 	defer s.Close()
diff --git a/tsdb/agent/series_test.go b/tsdb/agent/series_test.go
index ae327d8582..bc5a4af5d3 100644
--- a/tsdb/agent/series_test.go
+++ b/tsdb/agent/series_test.go
@@ -14,8 +14,8 @@
 package agent
 
 import (
-	"fmt"
 	"math"
+	"strconv"
 	"sync"
 	"testing"
 	"time"
@@ -53,7 +53,7 @@ func TestNoDeadlock(t *testing.T) {
 			series := &memSeries{
 				ref: chunks.HeadSeriesRef(i),
 				lset: labels.FromMap(map[string]string{
-					"id": fmt.Sprintf("%d", i),
+					"id": strconv.Itoa(i),
 				}),
 			}
 			stripeSeries.Set(series.lset.Hash(), series)
diff --git a/tsdb/block.go b/tsdb/block.go
index abd223e4ad..2f32733f8c 100644
--- a/tsdb/block.go
+++ b/tsdb/block.go
@@ -77,6 +77,10 @@ type IndexReader interface {
 	// during background garbage collections.
 	Postings(ctx context.Context, name string, values ...string) (index.Postings, error)
 
+	// PostingsForLabelMatching returns a sorted iterator over postings having a label with the given name and a value for which match returns true.
+	// If no postings are found having at least one matching label, an empty iterator is returned.
+	PostingsForLabelMatching(ctx context.Context, name string, match func(value string) bool) index.Postings
+
 	// SortedPostings returns a postings list that is reordered to be sorted
 	// by the label set of the underlying series.
 	SortedPostings(index.Postings) index.Postings
@@ -99,9 +103,9 @@ type IndexReader interface {
 	// storage.ErrNotFound is returned as error.
 	LabelValueFor(ctx context.Context, id storage.SeriesRef, label string) (string, error)
 
-	// LabelNamesFor returns all the label names for the series referred to by IDs.
+	// LabelNamesFor returns all the label names for the series referred to by the postings.
 	// The names returned are sorted.
-	LabelNamesFor(ctx context.Context, ids ...storage.SeriesRef) ([]string, error)
+	LabelNamesFor(ctx context.Context, postings index.Postings) ([]string, error)
 
 	// Close releases the underlying resources of the reader.
 	Close() error
@@ -518,6 +522,10 @@ func (r blockIndexReader) Postings(ctx context.Context, name string, values ...s
 	return p, nil
 }
 
+func (r blockIndexReader) PostingsForLabelMatching(ctx context.Context, name string, match func(string) bool) index.Postings {
+	return r.ir.PostingsForLabelMatching(ctx, name, match)
+}
+
 func (r blockIndexReader) SortedPostings(p index.Postings) index.Postings {
 	return r.ir.SortedPostings(p)
 }
@@ -543,10 +551,10 @@ func (r blockIndexReader) LabelValueFor(ctx context.Context, id storage.SeriesRe
 	return r.ir.LabelValueFor(ctx, id, label)
 }
 
-// LabelNamesFor returns all the label names for the series referred to by IDs.
+// LabelNamesFor returns all the label names for the series referred to by the postings.
 // The names returned are sorted.
-func (r blockIndexReader) LabelNamesFor(ctx context.Context, ids ...storage.SeriesRef) ([]string, error) {
-	return r.ir.LabelNamesFor(ctx, ids...)
+func (r blockIndexReader) LabelNamesFor(ctx context.Context, postings index.Postings) ([]string, error) {
+	return r.ir.LabelNamesFor(ctx, postings)
 }
 
 type blockTombstoneReader struct {
@@ -638,10 +646,10 @@ Outer:
 }
 
 // CleanTombstones will remove the tombstones and rewrite the block (only if there are any tombstones).
-// If there was a rewrite, then it returns the ULID of the new block written, else nil.
-// If the resultant block is empty (tombstones covered the whole block), then it deletes the new block and return nil UID.
+// If there was a rewrite, then it returns the ULID of new blocks written, else nil.
+// If a resultant block is empty (tombstones covered the whole block), then it returns an empty slice.
 // It returns a boolean indicating if the parent block can be deleted safely of not.
-func (pb *Block) CleanTombstones(dest string, c Compactor) (*ulid.ULID, bool, error) {
+func (pb *Block) CleanTombstones(dest string, c Compactor) ([]ulid.ULID, bool, error) {
 	numStones := 0
 
 	if err := pb.tombstones.Iter(func(id storage.SeriesRef, ivs tombstones.Intervals) error {
@@ -656,12 +664,12 @@ func (pb *Block) CleanTombstones(dest string, c Compactor) (*ulid.ULID, bool, er
 	}
 
 	meta := pb.Meta()
-	uid, err := c.Write(dest, pb, pb.meta.MinTime, pb.meta.MaxTime, &meta)
+	uids, err := c.Write(dest, pb, pb.meta.MinTime, pb.meta.MaxTime, &meta)
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, false, err
 	}
 
-	return &uid, true, nil
+	return uids, true, nil
 }
 
 // Snapshot creates snapshot of the block into dir.
diff --git a/tsdb/block_test.go b/tsdb/block_test.go
index 6d15d1838b..f2569e35be 100644
--- a/tsdb/block_test.go
+++ b/tsdb/block_test.go
@@ -36,6 +36,7 @@ import (
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/tsdb/chunkenc"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/tsdb/chunks"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/tsdb/fileutil"
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/tsdb/index"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/tsdb/wlog"
 )
 
@@ -345,9 +346,10 @@ func TestBlockSize(t *testing.T) {
 
 		c, err := NewLeveledCompactor(context.Background(), nil, log.NewNopLogger(), []int64{0}, nil, nil)
 		require.NoError(t, err)
-		blockDirAfterCompact, err := c.Compact(tmpdir, []string{blockInit.Dir()}, nil)
+		blockDirsAfterCompact, err := c.Compact(tmpdir, []string{blockInit.Dir()}, nil)
 		require.NoError(t, err)
-		blockAfterCompact, err := OpenBlock(nil, filepath.Join(tmpdir, blockDirAfterCompact.String()), nil)
+		require.Len(t, blockDirsAfterCompact, 1)
+		blockAfterCompact, err := OpenBlock(nil, filepath.Join(tmpdir, blockDirsAfterCompact[0].String()), nil)
 		require.NoError(t, err)
 		defer func() {
 			require.NoError(t, blockAfterCompact.Close())
@@ -509,6 +511,86 @@ func TestLabelNamesWithMatchers(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 }
 
+func TestBlockIndexReader_PostingsForLabelMatching(t *testing.T) {
+	testPostingsForLabelMatching(t, 2, func(t *testing.T, series []labels.Labels) IndexReader {
+		var seriesEntries []storage.Series
+		for _, s := range series {
+			seriesEntries = append(seriesEntries, storage.NewListSeries(s, []chunks.Sample{sample{100, 0, nil, nil}}))
+		}
+
+		blockDir := createBlock(t, t.TempDir(), seriesEntries)
+		files, err := sequenceFiles(chunkDir(blockDir))
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+		require.NotEmpty(t, files, "No chunk created.")
+
+		block, err := OpenBlock(nil, blockDir, nil)
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+		t.Cleanup(func() { require.NoError(t, block.Close()) })
+
+		ir, err := block.Index()
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+		return ir
+	})
+}
+
+func testPostingsForLabelMatching(t *testing.T, offset storage.SeriesRef, setUp func(*testing.T, []labels.Labels) IndexReader) {
+	t.Helper()
+
+	ctx := context.Background()
+	series := []labels.Labels{
+		labels.FromStrings("n", "1"),
+		labels.FromStrings("n", "1", "i", "a"),
+		labels.FromStrings("n", "1", "i", "b"),
+		labels.FromStrings("n", "2"),
+		labels.FromStrings("n", "2.5"),
+	}
+	ir := setUp(t, series)
+	t.Cleanup(func() {
+		require.NoError(t, ir.Close())
+	})
+
+	testCases := []struct {
+		name      string
+		labelName string
+		match     func(string) bool
+		exp       []storage.SeriesRef
+	}{
+		{
+			name:      "n=1",
+			labelName: "n",
+			match: func(val string) bool {
+				return val == "1"
+			},
+			exp: []storage.SeriesRef{offset + 1, offset + 2, offset + 3},
+		},
+		{
+			name:      "n=2",
+			labelName: "n",
+			match: func(val string) bool {
+				return val == "2"
+			},
+			exp: []storage.SeriesRef{offset + 4},
+		},
+		{
+			name:      "missing label",
+			labelName: "missing",
+			match: func(val string) bool {
+				return true
+			},
+			exp: nil,
+		},
+	}
+	for _, tc := range testCases {
+		t.Run(tc.name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			p := ir.PostingsForLabelMatching(ctx, tc.labelName, tc.match)
+			require.NotNil(t, p)
+			srs, err := index.ExpandPostings(p)
+			require.NoError(t, err)
+			require.Equal(t, tc.exp, srs)
+		})
+	}
+}
+
 // createBlock creates a block with given set of series and returns its dir.
 func createBlock(tb testing.TB, dir string, series []storage.Series) string {
 	blockDir, err := CreateBlock(series, dir, 0, log.NewNopLogger())
@@ -524,9 +606,10 @@ func createBlockFromHead(tb testing.TB, dir string, head *Head) string {
 
 	// Add +1 millisecond to block maxt because block intervals are half-open: [b.MinTime, b.MaxTime).
 	// Because of this block intervals are always +1 than the total samples it includes.
-	ulid, err := compactor.Write(dir, head, head.MinTime(), head.MaxTime()+1, nil)
+	ulids, err := compactor.Write(dir, head, head.MinTime(), head.MaxTime()+1, nil)
 	require.NoError(tb, err)
-	return filepath.Join(dir, ulid.String())
+	require.Len(tb, ulids, 1)
+	return filepath.Join(dir, ulids[0].String())
 }
 
 func createBlockFromOOOHead(tb testing.TB, dir string, head *OOOCompactionHead) string {
@@ -537,9 +620,10 @@ func createBlockFromOOOHead(tb testing.TB, dir string, head *OOOCompactionHead)
 
 	// Add +1 millisecond to block maxt because block intervals are half-open: [b.MinTime, b.MaxTime).
 	// Because of this block intervals are always +1 than the total samples it includes.
-	ulid, err := compactor.Write(dir, head, head.MinTime(), head.MaxTime()+1, nil)
+	ulids, err := compactor.Write(dir, head, head.MinTime(), head.MaxTime()+1, nil)
 	require.NoError(tb, err)
-	return filepath.Join(dir, ulid.String())
+	require.Len(tb, ulids, 1)
+	return filepath.Join(dir, ulids[0].String())
 }
 
 func createHead(tb testing.TB, w *wlog.WL, series []storage.Series, chunkDir string) *Head {
diff --git a/tsdb/blockwriter.go b/tsdb/blockwriter.go
index 73bc5f1e35..232ec2b914 100644
--- a/tsdb/blockwriter.go
+++ b/tsdb/blockwriter.go
@@ -42,7 +42,7 @@ type BlockWriter struct {
 // ErrNoSeriesAppended is returned if the series count is zero while flushing blocks.
 var ErrNoSeriesAppended = errors.New("no series appended, aborting")
 
-// NewBlockWriter create a new block writer.
+// NewBlockWriter creates a new block writer.
 //
 // The returned writer accumulates all the series in the Head block until `Flush` is called.
 //
@@ -105,12 +105,17 @@ func (w *BlockWriter) Flush(ctx context.Context) (ulid.ULID, error) {
 	if err != nil {
 		return ulid.ULID{}, fmt.Errorf("create leveled compactor: %w", err)
 	}
-	id, err := compactor.Write(w.destinationDir, w.head, mint, maxt, nil)
+	ids, err := compactor.Write(w.destinationDir, w.head, mint, maxt, nil)
 	if err != nil {
 		return ulid.ULID{}, fmt.Errorf("compactor write: %w", err)
 	}
 
-	return id, nil
+	// No block was produced. Caller is responsible to check empty
+	// ulid.ULID based on its use case.
+	if len(ids) == 0 {
+		return ulid.ULID{}, nil
+	}
+	return ids[0], nil
 }
 
 func (w *BlockWriter) Close() error {
diff --git a/tsdb/chunkenc/bstream.go b/tsdb/chunkenc/bstream.go
index 7b17f4686b..8cc59f3ea7 100644
--- a/tsdb/chunkenc/bstream.go
+++ b/tsdb/chunkenc/bstream.go
@@ -52,6 +52,12 @@ type bstream struct {
 	count  uint8  // How many right-most bits are available for writing in the current byte (the last byte of the stream).
 }
 
+// Reset resets b around stream.
+func (b *bstream) Reset(stream []byte) {
+	b.stream = stream
+	b.count = 0
+}
+
 func (b *bstream) bytes() []byte {
 	return b.stream
 }
diff --git a/tsdb/chunkenc/bstream_test.go b/tsdb/chunkenc/bstream_test.go
index 66a54bc8e9..8ac45ef0b6 100644
--- a/tsdb/chunkenc/bstream_test.go
+++ b/tsdb/chunkenc/bstream_test.go
@@ -19,6 +19,19 @@ import (
 	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
 )
 
+func TestBstream_Reset(t *testing.T) {
+	bs := bstream{
+		stream: []byte("test"),
+		count:  10,
+	}
+	bs.Reset([]byte("was reset"))
+
+	require.Equal(t, bstream{
+		stream: []byte("was reset"),
+		count:  0,
+	}, bs)
+}
+
 func TestBstreamReader(t *testing.T) {
 	// Write to the bit stream.
 	w := bstream{}
diff --git a/tsdb/chunkenc/chunk.go b/tsdb/chunkenc/chunk.go
index 21c41257b5..1421f3b398 100644
--- a/tsdb/chunkenc/chunk.go
+++ b/tsdb/chunkenc/chunk.go
@@ -87,6 +87,9 @@ type Chunk interface {
 	// There's no strong guarantee that no samples will be appended once
 	// Compact() is called. Implementing this function is optional.
 	Compact()
+
+	// Reset resets the chunk given stream.
+	Reset(stream []byte)
 }
 
 type Iterable interface {
@@ -303,64 +306,47 @@ func NewPool() Pool {
 }
 
 func (p *pool) Get(e Encoding, b []byte) (Chunk, error) {
+	var c Chunk
 	switch e {
 	case EncXOR:
-		c := p.xor.Get().(*XORChunk)
-		c.b.stream = b
-		c.b.count = 0
-		return c, nil
+		c = p.xor.Get().(*XORChunk)
 	case EncHistogram:
-		c := p.histogram.Get().(*HistogramChunk)
-		c.b.stream = b
-		c.b.count = 0
-		return c, nil
+		c = p.histogram.Get().(*HistogramChunk)
 	case EncFloatHistogram:
-		c := p.floatHistogram.Get().(*FloatHistogramChunk)
-		c.b.stream = b
-		c.b.count = 0
-		return c, nil
+		c = p.floatHistogram.Get().(*FloatHistogramChunk)
+	default:
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("invalid chunk encoding %q", e)
 	}
-	return nil, fmt.Errorf("invalid chunk encoding %q", e)
+
+	c.Reset(b)
+	return c, nil
 }
 
 func (p *pool) Put(c Chunk) error {
+	var sp *sync.Pool
+	var ok bool
 	switch c.Encoding() {
 	case EncXOR:
-		xc, ok := c.(*XORChunk)
-		// This may happen often with wrapped chunks. Nothing we can really do about
-		// it but returning an error would cause a lot of allocations again. Thus,
-		// we just skip it.
-		if !ok {
-			return nil
-		}
-		xc.b.stream = nil
-		xc.b.count = 0
-		p.xor.Put(c)
+		_, ok = c.(*XORChunk)
+		sp = &p.xor
 	case EncHistogram:
-		sh, ok := c.(*HistogramChunk)
-		// This may happen often with wrapped chunks. Nothing we can really do about
-		// it but returning an error would cause a lot of allocations again. Thus,
-		// we just skip it.
-		if !ok {
-			return nil
-		}
-		sh.b.stream = nil
-		sh.b.count = 0
-		p.histogram.Put(c)
+		_, ok = c.(*HistogramChunk)
+		sp = &p.histogram
 	case EncFloatHistogram:
-		sh, ok := c.(*FloatHistogramChunk)
-		// This may happen often with wrapped chunks. Nothing we can really do about
-		// it but returning an error would cause a lot of allocations again. Thus,
-		// we just skip it.
-		if !ok {
-			return nil
-		}
-		sh.b.stream = nil
-		sh.b.count = 0
-		p.floatHistogram.Put(c)
+		_, ok = c.(*FloatHistogramChunk)
+		sp = &p.floatHistogram
 	default:
 		return fmt.Errorf("invalid chunk encoding %q", c.Encoding())
 	}
+	if !ok {
+		// This may happen often with wrapped chunks. Nothing we can really do about
+		// it but returning an error would cause a lot of allocations again. Thus,
+		// we just skip it.
+		return nil
+	}
+
+	c.Reset(nil)
+	sp.Put(c)
 	return nil
 }
 
diff --git a/tsdb/chunkenc/chunk_test.go b/tsdb/chunkenc/chunk_test.go
index 9db1bf364f..b72492a08b 100644
--- a/tsdb/chunkenc/chunk_test.go
+++ b/tsdb/chunkenc/chunk_test.go
@@ -110,6 +110,96 @@ func testChunk(t *testing.T, c Chunk) {
 	require.Equal(t, ValNone, it3.Seek(exp[len(exp)-1].t+1))
 }
 
+func TestPool(t *testing.T) {
+	p := NewPool()
+	for _, tc := range []struct {
+		name     string
+		encoding Encoding
+		expErr   error
+	}{
+		{
+			name:     "xor",
+			encoding: EncXOR,
+		},
+		{
+			name:     "histogram",
+			encoding: EncHistogram,
+		},
+		{
+			name:     "float histogram",
+			encoding: EncFloatHistogram,
+		},
+		{
+			name:     "invalid encoding",
+			encoding: EncNone,
+			expErr:   fmt.Errorf(`invalid chunk encoding "none"`),
+		},
+	} {
+		t.Run(tc.name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			c, err := p.Get(tc.encoding, []byte("test"))
+			if tc.expErr != nil {
+				require.EqualError(t, err, tc.expErr.Error())
+				return
+			}
+
+			require.NoError(t, err)
+
+			var b *bstream
+			switch tc.encoding {
+			case EncHistogram:
+				b = &c.(*HistogramChunk).b
+			case EncFloatHistogram:
+				b = &c.(*FloatHistogramChunk).b
+			default:
+				b = &c.(*XORChunk).b
+			}
+
+			require.Equal(t, &bstream{
+				stream: []byte("test"),
+				count:  0,
+			}, b)
+
+			b.count = 1
+			require.NoError(t, p.Put(c))
+			require.Equal(t, &bstream{
+				stream: nil,
+				count:  0,
+			}, b)
+		})
+	}
+
+	t.Run("put bad chunk wrapper", func(t *testing.T) {
+		// When a wrapping chunk poses as an encoding it can't be converted to, Put should skip it.
+		c := fakeChunk{
+			encoding: EncXOR,
+			t:        t,
+		}
+		require.NoError(t, p.Put(c))
+	})
+	t.Run("put invalid encoding", func(t *testing.T) {
+		c := fakeChunk{
+			encoding: EncNone,
+			t:        t,
+		}
+		require.EqualError(t, p.Put(c), `invalid chunk encoding "none"`)
+	})
+}
+
+type fakeChunk struct {
+	Chunk
+
+	encoding Encoding
+	t        *testing.T
+}
+
+func (c fakeChunk) Encoding() Encoding {
+	return c.encoding
+}
+
+func (c fakeChunk) Reset([]byte) {
+	c.t.Fatal("Reset should not be called")
+}
+
 func benchmarkIterator(b *testing.B, newChunk func() Chunk) {
 	const samplesPerChunk = 250
 	var (
diff --git a/tsdb/chunkenc/float_histogram.go b/tsdb/chunkenc/float_histogram.go
index 88d189254f..a7c1fffb1e 100644
--- a/tsdb/chunkenc/float_histogram.go
+++ b/tsdb/chunkenc/float_histogram.go
@@ -44,6 +44,10 @@ func NewFloatHistogramChunk() *FloatHistogramChunk {
 	return &FloatHistogramChunk{b: bstream{stream: b, count: 0}}
 }
 
+func (c *FloatHistogramChunk) Reset(stream []byte) {
+	c.b.Reset(stream)
+}
+
 // xorValue holds all the necessary information to encode
 // and decode XOR encoded float64 values.
 type xorValue struct {
@@ -72,6 +76,7 @@ func (c *FloatHistogramChunk) NumSamples() int {
 func (c *FloatHistogramChunk) Layout() (
 	schema int32, zeroThreshold float64,
 	negativeSpans, positiveSpans []histogram.Span,
+	customValues []float64,
 	err error,
 ) {
 	if c.NumSamples() == 0 {
@@ -129,17 +134,18 @@ func (c *FloatHistogramChunk) Appender() (Appender, error) {
 	a := &FloatHistogramAppender{
 		b: &c.b,
 
-		schema:     it.schema,
-		zThreshold: it.zThreshold,
-		pSpans:     it.pSpans,
-		nSpans:     it.nSpans,
-		t:          it.t,
-		tDelta:     it.tDelta,
-		cnt:        it.cnt,
-		zCnt:       it.zCnt,
-		pBuckets:   pBuckets,
-		nBuckets:   nBuckets,
-		sum:        it.sum,
+		schema:       it.schema,
+		zThreshold:   it.zThreshold,
+		pSpans:       it.pSpans,
+		nSpans:       it.nSpans,
+		customValues: it.customValues,
+		t:            it.t,
+		tDelta:       it.tDelta,
+		cnt:          it.cnt,
+		zCnt:         it.zCnt,
+		pBuckets:     pBuckets,
+		nBuckets:     nBuckets,
+		sum:          it.sum,
 	}
 	if it.numTotal == 0 {
 		a.sum.leading = 0xff
@@ -187,6 +193,7 @@ type FloatHistogramAppender struct {
 	schema         int32
 	zThreshold     float64
 	pSpans, nSpans []histogram.Span
+	customValues   []float64
 
 	t, tDelta          int64
 	sum, cnt, zCnt     xorValue
@@ -218,6 +225,7 @@ func (a *FloatHistogramAppender) Append(int64, float64) {
 //
 // The chunk is not appendable in the following cases:
 //   - The schema has changed.
+//   - The custom bounds have changed if the current schema is custom buckets.
 //   - The threshold for the zero bucket has changed.
 //   - Any buckets have disappeared.
 //   - There was a counter reset in the count of observations or in any bucket, including the zero bucket.
@@ -259,6 +267,11 @@ func (a *FloatHistogramAppender) appendable(h *histogram.FloatHistogram) (
 		return
 	}
 
+	if histogram.IsCustomBucketsSchema(h.Schema) && !histogram.FloatBucketsMatch(h.CustomValues, a.customValues) {
+		counterReset = true
+		return
+	}
+
 	if h.ZeroCount < a.zCnt.value {
 		// There has been a counter reset since ZeroThreshold didn't change.
 		counterReset = true
@@ -299,6 +312,7 @@ func (a *FloatHistogramAppender) appendable(h *histogram.FloatHistogram) (
 //
 // The chunk is not appendable in the following cases:
 //   - The schema has changed.
+//   - The custom bounds have changed if the current schema is custom buckets.
 //   - The threshold for the zero bucket has changed.
 //   - The last sample in the chunk was stale while the current sample is not stale.
 func (a *FloatHistogramAppender) appendableGauge(h *histogram.FloatHistogram) (
@@ -325,6 +339,10 @@ func (a *FloatHistogramAppender) appendableGauge(h *histogram.FloatHistogram) (
 		return
 	}
 
+	if histogram.IsCustomBucketsSchema(h.Schema) && !histogram.FloatBucketsMatch(h.CustomValues, a.customValues) {
+		return
+	}
+
 	positiveInserts, backwardPositiveInserts, positiveSpans = expandSpansBothWays(a.pSpans, h.PositiveSpans)
 	negativeInserts, backwardNegativeInserts, negativeSpans = expandSpansBothWays(a.nSpans, h.NegativeSpans)
 	okToAppend = true
@@ -418,7 +436,7 @@ func (a *FloatHistogramAppender) appendFloatHistogram(t int64, h *histogram.Floa
 	if num == 0 {
 		// The first append gets the privilege to dictate the layout
 		// but it's also responsible for encoding it into the chunk!
-		writeHistogramChunkLayout(a.b, h.Schema, h.ZeroThreshold, h.PositiveSpans, h.NegativeSpans)
+		writeHistogramChunkLayout(a.b, h.Schema, h.ZeroThreshold, h.PositiveSpans, h.NegativeSpans, h.CustomValues)
 		a.schema = h.Schema
 		a.zThreshold = h.ZeroThreshold
 
@@ -434,6 +452,12 @@ func (a *FloatHistogramAppender) appendFloatHistogram(t int64, h *histogram.Floa
 		} else {
 			a.nSpans = nil
 		}
+		if len(h.CustomValues) > 0 {
+			a.customValues = make([]float64, len(h.CustomValues))
+			copy(a.customValues, h.CustomValues)
+		} else {
+			a.customValues = nil
+		}
 
 		numPBuckets, numNBuckets := countSpans(h.PositiveSpans), countSpans(h.NegativeSpans)
 		if numPBuckets > 0 {
@@ -689,6 +713,7 @@ type floatHistogramIterator struct {
 	schema         int32
 	zThreshold     float64
 	pSpans, nSpans []histogram.Span
+	customValues   []float64
 
 	// For the fields that are tracked as deltas and ultimately dod's.
 	t      int64
@@ -749,6 +774,7 @@ func (it *floatHistogramIterator) AtFloatHistogram(fh *histogram.FloatHistogram)
 			NegativeSpans:    it.nSpans,
 			PositiveBuckets:  it.pBuckets,
 			NegativeBuckets:  it.nBuckets,
+			CustomValues:     it.customValues,
 		}
 	}
 
@@ -771,6 +797,9 @@ func (it *floatHistogramIterator) AtFloatHistogram(fh *histogram.FloatHistogram)
 	fh.NegativeBuckets = resize(fh.NegativeBuckets, len(it.nBuckets))
 	copy(fh.NegativeBuckets, it.nBuckets)
 
+	fh.CustomValues = resize(fh.CustomValues, len(it.customValues))
+	copy(fh.CustomValues, it.customValues)
+
 	return it.t, fh
 }
 
@@ -815,7 +844,7 @@ func (it *floatHistogramIterator) Next() ValueType {
 		// The first read is responsible for reading the chunk layout
 		// and for initializing fields that depend on it. We give
 		// counter reset info at chunk level, hence we discard it here.
-		schema, zeroThreshold, posSpans, negSpans, err := readHistogramChunkLayout(&it.br)
+		schema, zeroThreshold, posSpans, negSpans, customValues, err := readHistogramChunkLayout(&it.br)
 		if err != nil {
 			it.err = err
 			return ValNone
@@ -823,6 +852,7 @@ func (it *floatHistogramIterator) Next() ValueType {
 		it.schema = schema
 		it.zThreshold = zeroThreshold
 		it.pSpans, it.nSpans = posSpans, negSpans
+		it.customValues = customValues
 		numPBuckets, numNBuckets := countSpans(posSpans), countSpans(negSpans)
 		// Allocate bucket slices as needed, recycling existing slices
 		// in case this iterator was reset and already has slices of a
diff --git a/tsdb/chunkenc/float_histogram_test.go b/tsdb/chunkenc/float_histogram_test.go
index 054c17f7d9..2ee4422b91 100644
--- a/tsdb/chunkenc/float_histogram_test.go
+++ b/tsdb/chunkenc/float_histogram_test.go
@@ -280,7 +280,38 @@ func TestFloatHistogramChunkBucketChanges(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestFloatHistogramChunkAppendable(t *testing.T) {
-	setup := func() (Chunk, *FloatHistogramAppender, int64, *histogram.FloatHistogram) {
+	eh := &histogram.FloatHistogram{
+		Count:         5,
+		ZeroCount:     2,
+		Sum:           18.4,
+		ZeroThreshold: 1e-125,
+		Schema:        1,
+		PositiveSpans: []histogram.Span{
+			{Offset: 0, Length: 2},
+			{Offset: 2, Length: 1},
+			{Offset: 3, Length: 2},
+			{Offset: 3, Length: 1},
+			{Offset: 1, Length: 1},
+		},
+		PositiveBuckets: []float64{6, 3, 3, 2, 4, 5, 1},
+	}
+
+	cbh := &histogram.FloatHistogram{
+		Count:  24,
+		Sum:    18.4,
+		Schema: histogram.CustomBucketsSchema,
+		PositiveSpans: []histogram.Span{
+			{Offset: 0, Length: 2},
+			{Offset: 2, Length: 1},
+			{Offset: 3, Length: 2},
+			{Offset: 3, Length: 1},
+			{Offset: 1, Length: 1},
+		},
+		PositiveBuckets: []float64{6, 3, 3, 2, 4, 5, 1},
+		CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20},
+	}
+
+	setup := func(h *histogram.FloatHistogram) (Chunk, *FloatHistogramAppender, int64, *histogram.FloatHistogram) {
 		c := Chunk(NewFloatHistogramChunk())
 
 		// Create fresh appender and add the first histogram.
@@ -289,32 +320,17 @@ func TestFloatHistogramChunkAppendable(t *testing.T) {
 		require.Equal(t, 0, c.NumSamples())
 
 		ts := int64(1234567890)
-		h1 := &histogram.FloatHistogram{
-			Count:         5,
-			ZeroCount:     2,
-			Sum:           18.4,
-			ZeroThreshold: 1e-125,
-			Schema:        1,
-			PositiveSpans: []histogram.Span{
-				{Offset: 0, Length: 2},
-				{Offset: 2, Length: 1},
-				{Offset: 3, Length: 2},
-				{Offset: 3, Length: 1},
-				{Offset: 1, Length: 1},
-			},
-			PositiveBuckets: []float64{6, 3, 3, 2, 4, 5, 1},
-		}
 
-		chk, _, app, err := app.AppendFloatHistogram(nil, ts, h1.Copy(), false)
+		chk, _, app, err := app.AppendFloatHistogram(nil, ts, h.Copy(), false)
 		require.NoError(t, err)
 		require.Nil(t, chk)
 		require.Equal(t, 1, c.NumSamples())
 		require.Equal(t, UnknownCounterReset, c.(*FloatHistogramChunk).GetCounterResetHeader())
-		return c, app.(*FloatHistogramAppender), ts, h1
+		return c, app.(*FloatHistogramAppender), ts, h
 	}
 
 	{ // Schema change.
-		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup()
+		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(eh)
 		h2 := h1.Copy()
 		h2.Schema++
 		_, _, ok, _ := hApp.appendable(h2)
@@ -324,7 +340,7 @@ func TestFloatHistogramChunkAppendable(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 
 	{ // Zero threshold change.
-		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup()
+		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(eh)
 		h2 := h1.Copy()
 		h2.ZeroThreshold += 0.1
 		_, _, ok, _ := hApp.appendable(h2)
@@ -334,7 +350,7 @@ func TestFloatHistogramChunkAppendable(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 
 	{ // New histogram that has more buckets.
-		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup()
+		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(eh)
 		h2 := h1.Copy()
 		h2.PositiveSpans = []histogram.Span{
 			{Offset: 0, Length: 3},
@@ -357,7 +373,7 @@ func TestFloatHistogramChunkAppendable(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 
 	{ // New histogram that has a bucket missing.
-		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup()
+		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(eh)
 
 		h2 := h1.Copy()
 		h2.PositiveSpans = []histogram.Span{
@@ -379,7 +395,7 @@ func TestFloatHistogramChunkAppendable(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 
 	{ // New histogram that has a counter reset while buckets are same.
-		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup()
+		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(eh)
 		h2 := h1.Copy()
 		h2.Sum = 23
 		h2.PositiveBuckets = []float64{6, 2, 3, 2, 4, 5, 1}
@@ -394,7 +410,7 @@ func TestFloatHistogramChunkAppendable(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 
 	{ // New histogram that has a counter reset while new buckets were added.
-		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup()
+		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(eh)
 		h2 := h1.Copy()
 		h2.PositiveSpans = []histogram.Span{
 			{Offset: 0, Length: 3},
@@ -415,7 +431,7 @@ func TestFloatHistogramChunkAppendable(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 
 	{
-		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup()
+		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(eh)
 		// New histogram that has a counter reset while new buckets were
 		// added before the first bucket and reset on first bucket.  (to
 		// catch the edge case where the new bucket should be forwarded
@@ -442,7 +458,7 @@ func TestFloatHistogramChunkAppendable(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 
 	{ // New histogram that has an explicit counter reset.
-		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup()
+		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(eh)
 		h2 := h1.Copy()
 		h2.CounterResetHint = histogram.CounterReset
 
@@ -450,7 +466,7 @@ func TestFloatHistogramChunkAppendable(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 
 	{ // Start new chunk explicitly, and append a new histogram that is considered appendable to the previous chunk.
-		_, hApp, ts, h1 := setup()
+		_, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(eh)
 		h2 := h1.Copy() // Identity is appendable.
 
 		nextChunk := NewFloatHistogramChunk()
@@ -466,7 +482,7 @@ func TestFloatHistogramChunkAppendable(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 
 	{ // Start new chunk explicitly, and append a new histogram that is not considered appendable to the previous chunk.
-		_, hApp, ts, h1 := setup()
+		_, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(eh)
 		h2 := h1.Copy()
 		h2.Count-- // Make this not appendable due to counter reset.
 
@@ -483,7 +499,7 @@ func TestFloatHistogramChunkAppendable(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 
 	{ // Start new chunk explicitly, and append a new histogram that would need recoding if we added it to the chunk.
-		_, hApp, ts, h1 := setup()
+		_, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(eh)
 		h2 := h1.Copy()
 		h2.PositiveSpans = []histogram.Span{
 			{Offset: 0, Length: 3},
@@ -507,6 +523,72 @@ func TestFloatHistogramChunkAppendable(t *testing.T) {
 		assertSampleCount(t, nextChunk, 1, ValFloatHistogram)
 		require.Equal(t, NotCounterReset, nextChunk.GetCounterResetHeader())
 	}
+
+	{ // Custom buckets, no change.
+		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(cbh)
+		h2 := h1.Copy()
+		_, _, ok, _ := hApp.appendable(h2)
+		require.True(t, ok)
+
+		assertNoNewFloatHistogramChunkOnAppend(t, c, hApp, ts+1, h2, UnknownCounterReset)
+	}
+
+	{ // Custom buckets, increase in bucket counts but no change in layout.
+		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(cbh)
+		h2 := h1.Copy()
+		h2.Count++
+		h2.PositiveBuckets = []float64{6, 3, 3, 2, 4, 5, 2}
+		_, _, ok, _ := hApp.appendable(h2)
+		require.True(t, ok)
+
+		assertNoNewFloatHistogramChunkOnAppend(t, c, hApp, ts+1, h2, UnknownCounterReset)
+	}
+
+	{ // Custom buckets, decrease in bucket counts but no change in layout.
+		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(cbh)
+		h2 := h1.Copy()
+		h2.Count--
+		h2.PositiveBuckets = []float64{6, 3, 3, 2, 4, 5, 0}
+		_, _, ok, _ := hApp.appendable(h2)
+		require.False(t, ok)
+
+		assertNewFloatHistogramChunkOnAppend(t, c, hApp, ts+1, h2, CounterReset)
+	}
+
+	{ // Custom buckets, change only in custom bounds.
+		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(cbh)
+		h2 := h1.Copy()
+		h2.CustomValues = []float64{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21}
+		_, _, ok, _ := hApp.appendable(h2)
+		require.False(t, ok)
+
+		assertNewFloatHistogramChunkOnAppend(t, c, hApp, ts+1, h2, CounterReset)
+	}
+
+	{ // Custom buckets, with more buckets.
+		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(cbh)
+		h2 := h1.Copy()
+		h2.PositiveSpans = []histogram.Span{
+			{Offset: 0, Length: 3},
+			{Offset: 1, Length: 1},
+			{Offset: 1, Length: 4},
+			{Offset: 3, Length: 3},
+		}
+		h2.Count += 6
+		h2.Sum = 30
+		// Existing histogram should get values converted from the above to:
+		//   6 3 0 3 0 0 2 4 5 0 1 (previous values with some new empty buckets in between)
+		// so the new histogram should have new counts >= these per-bucket counts, e.g.:
+		h2.PositiveBuckets = []float64{7, 5, 1, 3, 1, 0, 2, 5, 5, 0, 1} // (total 30)
+
+		posInterjections, negInterjections, ok, cr := hApp.appendable(h2)
+		require.NotEmpty(t, posInterjections)
+		require.Empty(t, negInterjections)
+		require.True(t, ok) // Only new buckets came in.
+		require.False(t, cr)
+
+		assertRecodedFloatHistogramChunkOnAppend(t, c, hApp, ts+1, h2, UnknownCounterReset)
+	}
 }
 
 func assertNewFloatHistogramChunkOnAppend(t *testing.T, oldChunk Chunk, hApp *FloatHistogramAppender, ts int64, h *histogram.FloatHistogram, expectHeader CounterResetHeader) {
@@ -526,7 +608,7 @@ func assertNewFloatHistogramChunkOnAppend(t *testing.T, oldChunk Chunk, hApp *Fl
 func assertNoNewFloatHistogramChunkOnAppend(t *testing.T, oldChunk Chunk, hApp *FloatHistogramAppender, ts int64, h *histogram.FloatHistogram, expectHeader CounterResetHeader) {
 	oldChunkBytes := oldChunk.Bytes()
 	newChunk, recoded, newAppender, err := hApp.AppendFloatHistogram(nil, ts, h, false)
-	require.NotEqual(t, oldChunkBytes, oldChunk.Bytes()) // Sanity check that previous chunk is untouched.
+	require.Greater(t, len(oldChunk.Bytes()), len(oldChunkBytes)) // Check that current chunk is bigger than previously.
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	require.Nil(t, newChunk)
 	require.False(t, recoded)
@@ -715,6 +797,32 @@ func TestFloatHistogramChunkAppendableWithEmptySpan(t *testing.T) {
 				NegativeBuckets: []float64{1, 4, 2, 7, 5, 5, 2},
 			},
 		},
+		"empty span in old and new custom buckets histogram": {
+			h1: &histogram.FloatHistogram{
+				Schema: histogram.CustomBucketsSchema,
+				Count:  7,
+				Sum:    1234.5,
+				PositiveSpans: []histogram.Span{
+					{Offset: 0, Length: 4},
+					{Offset: 0, Length: 0},
+					{Offset: 0, Length: 3},
+				},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 2, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10},
+			},
+			h2: &histogram.FloatHistogram{
+				Schema: histogram.CustomBucketsSchema,
+				Count:  10,
+				Sum:    2345.6,
+				PositiveSpans: []histogram.Span{
+					{Offset: 0, Length: 4},
+					{Offset: 0, Length: 0},
+					{Offset: 0, Length: 3},
+				},
+				PositiveBuckets: []float64{1, 3, 1, 2, 1, 1, 1},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10},
+			},
+		},
 	}
 
 	for name, tc := range tests {
@@ -741,7 +849,40 @@ func TestFloatHistogramChunkAppendableWithEmptySpan(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestFloatHistogramChunkAppendableGauge(t *testing.T) {
-	setup := func() (Chunk, *FloatHistogramAppender, int64, *histogram.FloatHistogram) {
+	eh := &histogram.FloatHistogram{
+		CounterResetHint: histogram.GaugeType,
+		Count:            5,
+		ZeroCount:        2,
+		Sum:              18.4,
+		ZeroThreshold:    1e-125,
+		Schema:           1,
+		PositiveSpans: []histogram.Span{
+			{Offset: 0, Length: 2},
+			{Offset: 2, Length: 1},
+			{Offset: 3, Length: 2},
+			{Offset: 3, Length: 1},
+			{Offset: 1, Length: 1},
+		},
+		PositiveBuckets: []float64{6, 3, 3, 2, 4, 5, 1},
+	}
+
+	cbh := &histogram.FloatHistogram{
+		CounterResetHint: histogram.GaugeType,
+		Count:            24,
+		Sum:              18.4,
+		Schema:           histogram.CustomBucketsSchema,
+		PositiveSpans: []histogram.Span{
+			{Offset: 0, Length: 2},
+			{Offset: 2, Length: 1},
+			{Offset: 3, Length: 2},
+			{Offset: 3, Length: 1},
+			{Offset: 1, Length: 1},
+		},
+		PositiveBuckets: []float64{6, 3, 3, 2, 4, 5, 1},
+		CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20},
+	}
+
+	setup := func(h *histogram.FloatHistogram) (Chunk, *FloatHistogramAppender, int64, *histogram.FloatHistogram) {
 		c := Chunk(NewFloatHistogramChunk())
 
 		// Create fresh appender and add the first histogram.
@@ -750,33 +891,17 @@ func TestFloatHistogramChunkAppendableGauge(t *testing.T) {
 		require.Equal(t, 0, c.NumSamples())
 
 		ts := int64(1234567890)
-		h1 := &histogram.FloatHistogram{
-			CounterResetHint: histogram.GaugeType,
-			Count:            5,
-			ZeroCount:        2,
-			Sum:              18.4,
-			ZeroThreshold:    1e-125,
-			Schema:           1,
-			PositiveSpans: []histogram.Span{
-				{Offset: 0, Length: 2},
-				{Offset: 2, Length: 1},
-				{Offset: 3, Length: 2},
-				{Offset: 3, Length: 1},
-				{Offset: 1, Length: 1},
-			},
-			PositiveBuckets: []float64{6, 3, 3, 2, 4, 5, 1},
-		}
 
-		chk, _, app, err := app.AppendFloatHistogram(nil, ts, h1.Copy(), false)
+		chk, _, app, err := app.AppendFloatHistogram(nil, ts, h.Copy(), false)
 		require.NoError(t, err)
 		require.Nil(t, chk)
 		require.Equal(t, 1, c.NumSamples())
 		require.Equal(t, GaugeType, c.(*FloatHistogramChunk).GetCounterResetHeader())
-		return c, app.(*FloatHistogramAppender), ts, h1
+		return c, app.(*FloatHistogramAppender), ts, h
 	}
 
 	{ // Schema change.
-		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup()
+		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(eh)
 		h2 := h1.Copy()
 		h2.Schema++
 		_, _, _, _, _, _, ok := hApp.appendableGauge(h2)
@@ -786,7 +911,7 @@ func TestFloatHistogramChunkAppendableGauge(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 
 	{ // Zero threshold change.
-		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup()
+		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(eh)
 		h2 := h1.Copy()
 		h2.ZeroThreshold += 0.1
 		_, _, _, _, _, _, ok := hApp.appendableGauge(h2)
@@ -796,7 +921,7 @@ func TestFloatHistogramChunkAppendableGauge(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 
 	{ // New histogram that has more buckets.
-		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup()
+		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(eh)
 		h2 := h1.Copy()
 		h2.PositiveSpans = []histogram.Span{
 			{Offset: 0, Length: 3},
@@ -820,7 +945,7 @@ func TestFloatHistogramChunkAppendableGauge(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 
 	{ // New histogram that has buckets missing.
-		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup()
+		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(eh)
 		h2 := h1.Copy()
 		h2.PositiveSpans = []histogram.Span{
 			{Offset: 0, Length: 2},
@@ -844,7 +969,7 @@ func TestFloatHistogramChunkAppendableGauge(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 
 	{ // New histogram that has a bucket missing and new buckets.
-		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup()
+		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(eh)
 		h2 := h1.Copy()
 		h2.PositiveSpans = []histogram.Span{
 			{Offset: 0, Length: 2},
@@ -866,7 +991,7 @@ func TestFloatHistogramChunkAppendableGauge(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 
 	{ // New histogram that has a counter reset while buckets are same.
-		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup()
+		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(eh)
 		h2 := h1.Copy()
 		h2.Sum = 23
 		h2.PositiveBuckets = []float64{6, 2, 3, 2, 4, 5, 1}
@@ -882,7 +1007,7 @@ func TestFloatHistogramChunkAppendableGauge(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 
 	{ // New histogram that has a counter reset while new buckets were added.
-		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup()
+		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(eh)
 		h2 := h1.Copy()
 		h2.PositiveSpans = []histogram.Span{
 			{Offset: 0, Length: 3},
@@ -906,7 +1031,7 @@ func TestFloatHistogramChunkAppendableGauge(t *testing.T) {
 	{
 		// New histogram that has a counter reset while new buckets were
 		// added before the first bucket and reset on first bucket.
-		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup()
+		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(eh)
 		h2 := h1.Copy()
 		h2.PositiveSpans = []histogram.Span{
 			{Offset: -3, Length: 2},
@@ -928,6 +1053,73 @@ func TestFloatHistogramChunkAppendableGauge(t *testing.T) {
 
 		assertRecodedFloatHistogramChunkOnAppend(t, c, hApp, ts+1, h2, GaugeType)
 	}
+
+	{ // Custom buckets, no change.
+		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(cbh)
+		h2 := h1.Copy()
+		_, _, _, _, _, _, ok := hApp.appendableGauge(h2)
+		require.True(t, ok)
+
+		assertNoNewFloatHistogramChunkOnAppend(t, c, hApp, ts+1, h2, GaugeType)
+	}
+
+	{ // Custom buckets, increase in bucket counts but no change in layout.
+		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(cbh)
+		h2 := h1.Copy()
+		h2.Count++
+		h2.PositiveBuckets = []float64{6, 3, 3, 2, 4, 5, 2}
+		_, _, _, _, _, _, ok := hApp.appendableGauge(h2)
+		require.True(t, ok)
+
+		assertNoNewFloatHistogramChunkOnAppend(t, c, hApp, ts+1, h2, GaugeType)
+	}
+
+	{ // Custom buckets, decrease in bucket counts but no change in layout.
+		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(cbh)
+		h2 := h1.Copy()
+		h2.Count--
+		h2.PositiveBuckets = []float64{6, 3, 3, 2, 4, 5, 0}
+		_, _, _, _, _, _, ok := hApp.appendableGauge(h2)
+		require.True(t, ok)
+
+		assertNoNewFloatHistogramChunkOnAppend(t, c, hApp, ts+1, h2, GaugeType)
+	}
+
+	{ // Custom buckets, change only in custom bounds.
+		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(cbh)
+		h2 := h1.Copy()
+		h2.CustomValues = []float64{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21}
+		_, _, _, _, _, _, ok := hApp.appendableGauge(h2)
+		require.False(t, ok)
+
+		assertNewFloatHistogramChunkOnAppend(t, c, hApp, ts+1, h2, GaugeType)
+	}
+
+	{ // Custom buckets, with more buckets.
+		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(cbh)
+		h2 := h1.Copy()
+		h2.PositiveSpans = []histogram.Span{
+			{Offset: 0, Length: 3},
+			{Offset: 1, Length: 1},
+			{Offset: 1, Length: 4},
+			{Offset: 3, Length: 3},
+		}
+		h2.Count += 6
+		h2.Sum = 30
+		// Existing histogram should get values converted from the above to:
+		//   6 3 0 3 0 0 2 4 5 0 1 (previous values with some new empty buckets in between)
+		// so the new histogram should have new counts >= these per-bucket counts, e.g.:
+		h2.PositiveBuckets = []float64{7, 5, 1, 3, 1, 0, 2, 5, 5, 0, 1} // (total 30)
+
+		posInterjections, negInterjections, pBackwardI, nBackwardI, _, _, ok := hApp.appendableGauge(h2)
+		require.NotEmpty(t, posInterjections)
+		require.Empty(t, negInterjections)
+		require.Empty(t, pBackwardI)
+		require.Empty(t, nBackwardI)
+		require.True(t, ok) // Only new buckets came in.
+
+		assertRecodedFloatHistogramChunkOnAppend(t, c, hApp, ts+1, h2, GaugeType)
+	}
 }
 
 func TestFloatHistogramAppendOnlyErrors(t *testing.T) {
@@ -975,4 +1167,26 @@ func TestFloatHistogramAppendOnlyErrors(t *testing.T) {
 		require.False(t, isRecoded)
 		require.EqualError(t, err, "float histogram counter reset")
 	})
+	t.Run("counter reset error with custom buckets", func(t *testing.T) {
+		c := Chunk(NewFloatHistogramChunk())
+
+		// Create fresh appender and add the first histogram.
+		app, err := c.Appender()
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+
+		h := tsdbutil.GenerateTestCustomBucketsFloatHistogram(0)
+		var isRecoded bool
+		c, isRecoded, app, err = app.AppendFloatHistogram(nil, 1, h, true)
+		require.Nil(t, c)
+		require.False(t, isRecoded)
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+
+		// Add erroring histogram.
+		h2 := h.Copy()
+		h2.CustomValues = []float64{0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
+		c, isRecoded, _, err = app.AppendFloatHistogram(nil, 2, h2, true)
+		require.Nil(t, c)
+		require.False(t, isRecoded)
+		require.EqualError(t, err, "float histogram counter reset")
+	})
 }
diff --git a/tsdb/chunkenc/histogram.go b/tsdb/chunkenc/histogram.go
index cb09eda26d..aa74badd10 100644
--- a/tsdb/chunkenc/histogram.go
+++ b/tsdb/chunkenc/histogram.go
@@ -45,6 +45,10 @@ func NewHistogramChunk() *HistogramChunk {
 	return &HistogramChunk{b: bstream{stream: b, count: 0}}
 }
 
+func (c *HistogramChunk) Reset(stream []byte) {
+	c.b.Reset(stream)
+}
+
 // Encoding returns the encoding type.
 func (c *HistogramChunk) Encoding() Encoding {
 	return EncHistogram
@@ -65,6 +69,7 @@ func (c *HistogramChunk) NumSamples() int {
 func (c *HistogramChunk) Layout() (
 	schema int32, zeroThreshold float64,
 	negativeSpans, positiveSpans []histogram.Span,
+	customValues []float64,
 	err error,
 ) {
 	if c.NumSamples() == 0 {
@@ -127,6 +132,7 @@ func (c *HistogramChunk) Appender() (Appender, error) {
 		zThreshold:    it.zThreshold,
 		pSpans:        it.pSpans,
 		nSpans:        it.nSpans,
+		customValues:  it.customValues,
 		t:             it.t,
 		cnt:           it.cnt,
 		zCnt:          it.zCnt,
@@ -194,6 +200,7 @@ type HistogramAppender struct {
 	schema         int32
 	zThreshold     float64
 	pSpans, nSpans []histogram.Span
+	customValues   []float64
 
 	// Although we intend to start new chunks on counter resets, we still
 	// have to handle negative deltas for gauge histograms. Therefore, even
@@ -237,6 +244,7 @@ func (a *HistogramAppender) Append(int64, float64) {
 // The chunk is not appendable in the following cases:
 //
 //   - The schema has changed.
+//   - The custom bounds have changed if the current schema is custom buckets.
 //   - The threshold for the zero bucket has changed.
 //   - Any buckets have disappeared.
 //   - There was a counter reset in the count of observations or in any bucket,
@@ -279,6 +287,11 @@ func (a *HistogramAppender) appendable(h *histogram.Histogram) (
 		return
 	}
 
+	if histogram.IsCustomBucketsSchema(h.Schema) && !histogram.FloatBucketsMatch(h.CustomValues, a.customValues) {
+		counterReset = true
+		return
+	}
+
 	if h.ZeroCount < a.zCnt {
 		// There has been a counter reset since ZeroThreshold didn't change.
 		counterReset = true
@@ -319,6 +332,7 @@ func (a *HistogramAppender) appendable(h *histogram.Histogram) (
 //
 // The chunk is not appendable in the following cases:
 //   - The schema has changed.
+//   - The custom bounds have changed if the current schema is custom buckets.
 //   - The threshold for the zero bucket has changed.
 //   - The last sample in the chunk was stale while the current sample is not stale.
 func (a *HistogramAppender) appendableGauge(h *histogram.Histogram) (
@@ -345,6 +359,10 @@ func (a *HistogramAppender) appendableGauge(h *histogram.Histogram) (
 		return
 	}
 
+	if histogram.IsCustomBucketsSchema(h.Schema) && !histogram.FloatBucketsMatch(h.CustomValues, a.customValues) {
+		return
+	}
+
 	positiveInserts, backwardPositiveInserts, positiveSpans = expandSpansBothWays(a.pSpans, h.PositiveSpans)
 	negativeInserts, backwardNegativeInserts, negativeSpans = expandSpansBothWays(a.nSpans, h.NegativeSpans)
 	okToAppend = true
@@ -438,7 +456,7 @@ func (a *HistogramAppender) appendHistogram(t int64, h *histogram.Histogram) {
 	if num == 0 {
 		// The first append gets the privilege to dictate the layout
 		// but it's also responsible for encoding it into the chunk!
-		writeHistogramChunkLayout(a.b, h.Schema, h.ZeroThreshold, h.PositiveSpans, h.NegativeSpans)
+		writeHistogramChunkLayout(a.b, h.Schema, h.ZeroThreshold, h.PositiveSpans, h.NegativeSpans, h.CustomValues)
 		a.schema = h.Schema
 		a.zThreshold = h.ZeroThreshold
 
@@ -454,6 +472,12 @@ func (a *HistogramAppender) appendHistogram(t int64, h *histogram.Histogram) {
 		} else {
 			a.nSpans = nil
 		}
+		if len(h.CustomValues) > 0 {
+			a.customValues = make([]float64, len(h.CustomValues))
+			copy(a.customValues, h.CustomValues)
+		} else {
+			a.customValues = nil
+		}
 
 		numPBuckets, numNBuckets := countSpans(h.PositiveSpans), countSpans(h.NegativeSpans)
 		if numPBuckets > 0 {
@@ -737,6 +761,7 @@ type histogramIterator struct {
 	schema         int32
 	zThreshold     float64
 	pSpans, nSpans []histogram.Span
+	customValues   []float64
 
 	// For the fields that are tracked as deltas and ultimately dod's.
 	t                            int64
@@ -793,6 +818,7 @@ func (it *histogramIterator) AtHistogram(h *histogram.Histogram) (int64, *histog
 			NegativeSpans:    it.nSpans,
 			PositiveBuckets:  it.pBuckets,
 			NegativeBuckets:  it.nBuckets,
+			CustomValues:     it.customValues,
 		}
 	}
 
@@ -815,6 +841,9 @@ func (it *histogramIterator) AtHistogram(h *histogram.Histogram) (int64, *histog
 	h.NegativeBuckets = resize(h.NegativeBuckets, len(it.nBuckets))
 	copy(h.NegativeBuckets, it.nBuckets)
 
+	h.CustomValues = resize(h.CustomValues, len(it.customValues))
+	copy(h.CustomValues, it.customValues)
+
 	return it.t, h
 }
 
@@ -835,6 +864,7 @@ func (it *histogramIterator) AtFloatHistogram(fh *histogram.FloatHistogram) (int
 			NegativeSpans:    it.nSpans,
 			PositiveBuckets:  it.pFloatBuckets,
 			NegativeBuckets:  it.nFloatBuckets,
+			CustomValues:     it.customValues,
 		}
 	}
 
@@ -865,6 +895,9 @@ func (it *histogramIterator) AtFloatHistogram(fh *histogram.FloatHistogram) (int
 		fh.NegativeBuckets[i] = currentNegative
 	}
 
+	fh.CustomValues = resize(fh.CustomValues, len(it.customValues))
+	copy(fh.CustomValues, it.customValues)
+
 	return it.t, fh
 }
 
@@ -923,7 +956,7 @@ func (it *histogramIterator) Next() ValueType {
 		// The first read is responsible for reading the chunk layout
 		// and for initializing fields that depend on it. We give
 		// counter reset info at chunk level, hence we discard it here.
-		schema, zeroThreshold, posSpans, negSpans, err := readHistogramChunkLayout(&it.br)
+		schema, zeroThreshold, posSpans, negSpans, customValues, err := readHistogramChunkLayout(&it.br)
 		if err != nil {
 			it.err = err
 			return ValNone
@@ -931,6 +964,7 @@ func (it *histogramIterator) Next() ValueType {
 		it.schema = schema
 		it.zThreshold = zeroThreshold
 		it.pSpans, it.nSpans = posSpans, negSpans
+		it.customValues = customValues
 		numPBuckets, numNBuckets := countSpans(posSpans), countSpans(negSpans)
 		// The code below recycles existing slices in case this iterator
 		// was reset and already has slices of a sufficient capacity.
diff --git a/tsdb/chunkenc/histogram_meta.go b/tsdb/chunkenc/histogram_meta.go
index 9aae485a83..c5381ba2fb 100644
--- a/tsdb/chunkenc/histogram_meta.go
+++ b/tsdb/chunkenc/histogram_meta.go
@@ -21,17 +21,21 @@ import (
 
 func writeHistogramChunkLayout(
 	b *bstream, schema int32, zeroThreshold float64,
-	positiveSpans, negativeSpans []histogram.Span,
+	positiveSpans, negativeSpans []histogram.Span, customValues []float64,
 ) {
 	putZeroThreshold(b, zeroThreshold)
 	putVarbitInt(b, int64(schema))
 	putHistogramChunkLayoutSpans(b, positiveSpans)
 	putHistogramChunkLayoutSpans(b, negativeSpans)
+	if histogram.IsCustomBucketsSchema(schema) {
+		putHistogramChunkLayoutCustomBounds(b, customValues)
+	}
 }
 
 func readHistogramChunkLayout(b *bstreamReader) (
 	schema int32, zeroThreshold float64,
 	positiveSpans, negativeSpans []histogram.Span,
+	customValues []float64,
 	err error,
 ) {
 	zeroThreshold, err = readZeroThreshold(b)
@@ -55,6 +59,13 @@ func readHistogramChunkLayout(b *bstreamReader) (
 		return
 	}
 
+	if histogram.IsCustomBucketsSchema(schema) {
+		customValues, err = readHistogramChunkLayoutCustomBounds(b)
+		if err != nil {
+			return
+		}
+	}
+
 	return
 }
 
@@ -91,6 +102,30 @@ func readHistogramChunkLayoutSpans(b *bstreamReader) ([]histogram.Span, error) {
 	return spans, nil
 }
 
+func putHistogramChunkLayoutCustomBounds(b *bstream, customValues []float64) {
+	putVarbitUint(b, uint64(len(customValues)))
+	for _, bound := range customValues {
+		putCustomBound(b, bound)
+	}
+}
+
+func readHistogramChunkLayoutCustomBounds(b *bstreamReader) ([]float64, error) {
+	var customValues []float64
+	num, err := readVarbitUint(b)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+	for i := 0; i < int(num); i++ {
+		bound, err := readCustomBound(b)
+		if err != nil {
+			return nil, err
+		}
+
+		customValues = append(customValues, bound)
+	}
+	return customValues, nil
+}
+
 // putZeroThreshold writes the zero threshold to the bstream. It stores typical
 // values in just one byte, but needs 9 bytes for other values. In detail:
 //   - If the threshold is 0, store a single zero byte.
@@ -139,6 +174,59 @@ func readZeroThreshold(br *bstreamReader) (float64, error) {
 	}
 }
 
+// isWholeWhenMultiplied checks to see if the number when multiplied by 1000 can
+// be converted into an integer without losing precision.
+func isWholeWhenMultiplied(in float64) bool {
+	i := uint(math.Round(in * 1000))
+	out := float64(i) / 1000
+	return in == out
+}
+
+// putCustomBound writes a custom bound to the bstream. It stores values from
+// 0 to 33554.430 (inclusive) that are multiples of 0.001 in unsigned varbit
+// encoding of up to 4 bytes, but needs 1 bit + 8 bytes for other values like
+// negative numbers, numbers greater than 33554.430, or numbers that are not
+// a multiple of 0.001, on the assumption that they are less common. In detail:
+//   - Multiply the bound by 1000, without rounding.
+//   - If the multiplied bound is >= 0, <= 33554430 and a whole number,
+//     add 1 and store it in unsigned varbit encoding. All these numbers are
+//     greater than 0, so the leading bit of the varbit is always 1!
+//   - Otherwise, store a 0 bit, followed by the 8 bytes of the original
+//     bound as a float64.
+//
+// When reading the values, we can first decode a value as unsigned varbit,
+// if it's 0, then we read the next 8 bytes as a float64, otherwise
+// we can convert the value to a float64 by subtracting 1 and dividing by 1000.
+func putCustomBound(b *bstream, f float64) {
+	tf := f * 1000
+	// 33554431-1 comes from the maximum that can be stored in a varbit in 4
+	// bytes, other values are stored in 8 bytes anyway.
+	if tf < 0 || tf > 33554430 || !isWholeWhenMultiplied(f) {
+		b.writeBit(zero)
+		b.writeBits(math.Float64bits(f), 64)
+		return
+	}
+	putVarbitUint(b, uint64(math.Round(tf))+1)
+}
+
+// readCustomBound reads the custom bound written with putCustomBound.
+func readCustomBound(br *bstreamReader) (float64, error) {
+	b, err := readVarbitUint(br)
+	if err != nil {
+		return 0, err
+	}
+	switch b {
+	case 0:
+		v, err := br.readBits(64)
+		if err != nil {
+			return 0, err
+		}
+		return math.Float64frombits(v), nil
+	default:
+		return float64(b-1) / 1000, nil
+	}
+}
+
 type bucketIterator struct {
 	spans  []histogram.Span
 	span   int // Span position of last yielded bucket.
diff --git a/tsdb/chunkenc/histogram_meta_test.go b/tsdb/chunkenc/histogram_meta_test.go
index 0b2b187475..fdbd1825aa 100644
--- a/tsdb/chunkenc/histogram_meta_test.go
+++ b/tsdb/chunkenc/histogram_meta_test.go
@@ -373,6 +373,7 @@ func TestWriteReadHistogramChunkLayout(t *testing.T) {
 		schema                       int32
 		zeroThreshold                float64
 		positiveSpans, negativeSpans []histogram.Span
+		customValues                 []float64
 	}{
 		{
 			schema:        3,
@@ -422,23 +423,48 @@ func TestWriteReadHistogramChunkLayout(t *testing.T) {
 			positiveSpans: nil,
 			negativeSpans: nil,
 		},
+		{
+			schema:        histogram.CustomBucketsSchema,
+			positiveSpans: []histogram.Span{{Offset: -4, Length: 3}, {Offset: 2, Length: 42}},
+			negativeSpans: nil,
+			customValues:  []float64{-5, -2.5, 0, 0.1, 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100, 255, 500, 1000, 50000, 1e7},
+		},
+		{
+			schema:        histogram.CustomBucketsSchema,
+			positiveSpans: []histogram.Span{{Offset: -4, Length: 3}, {Offset: 2, Length: 42}},
+			negativeSpans: nil,
+			customValues:  []float64{0.005, 0.01, 0.025, 0.05, 0.1, 0.25, 0.5, 1.0, 2.5, 5.0, 10.0, 25.0, 50.0, 100.0},
+		},
+		{
+			schema:        histogram.CustomBucketsSchema,
+			positiveSpans: []histogram.Span{{Offset: -4, Length: 3}, {Offset: 2, Length: 42}},
+			negativeSpans: nil,
+			customValues:  []float64{0.001, 0.002, 0.004, 0.008, 0.016, 0.032, 0.064, 0.128, 0.256, 0.512, 1.024, 2.048, 4.096, 8.192},
+		},
+		{
+			schema:        histogram.CustomBucketsSchema,
+			positiveSpans: []histogram.Span{{Offset: -4, Length: 3}, {Offset: 2, Length: 42}},
+			negativeSpans: nil,
+			customValues:  []float64{1.001, 1.023, 2.01, 4.007, 4.095, 8.001, 8.19, 16.24},
+		},
 	}
 
 	bs := bstream{}
 
 	for _, l := range layouts {
-		writeHistogramChunkLayout(&bs, l.schema, l.zeroThreshold, l.positiveSpans, l.negativeSpans)
+		writeHistogramChunkLayout(&bs, l.schema, l.zeroThreshold, l.positiveSpans, l.negativeSpans, l.customValues)
 	}
 
 	bsr := newBReader(bs.bytes())
 
 	for _, want := range layouts {
-		gotSchema, gotZeroThreshold, gotPositiveSpans, gotNegativeSpans, err := readHistogramChunkLayout(&bsr)
+		gotSchema, gotZeroThreshold, gotPositiveSpans, gotNegativeSpans, gotCustomBounds, err := readHistogramChunkLayout(&bsr)
 		require.NoError(t, err)
 		require.Equal(t, want.schema, gotSchema)
 		require.Equal(t, want.zeroThreshold, gotZeroThreshold)
 		require.Equal(t, want.positiveSpans, gotPositiveSpans)
 		require.Equal(t, want.negativeSpans, gotNegativeSpans)
+		require.Equal(t, want.customValues, gotCustomBounds)
 	}
 }
 
diff --git a/tsdb/chunkenc/histogram_test.go b/tsdb/chunkenc/histogram_test.go
index f7609c1936..d029aaefcb 100644
--- a/tsdb/chunkenc/histogram_test.go
+++ b/tsdb/chunkenc/histogram_test.go
@@ -294,7 +294,38 @@ func TestHistogramChunkBucketChanges(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestHistogramChunkAppendable(t *testing.T) {
-	setup := func() (Chunk, *HistogramAppender, int64, *histogram.Histogram) {
+	eh := &histogram.Histogram{
+		Count:         5,
+		ZeroCount:     2,
+		Sum:           18.4,
+		ZeroThreshold: 1e-125,
+		Schema:        1,
+		PositiveSpans: []histogram.Span{
+			{Offset: 0, Length: 2},
+			{Offset: 2, Length: 1},
+			{Offset: 3, Length: 2},
+			{Offset: 3, Length: 1},
+			{Offset: 1, Length: 1},
+		},
+		PositiveBuckets: []int64{6, -3, 0, -1, 2, 1, -4}, // counts: 6, 3, 3, 2, 4, 5, 1 (total 24)
+	}
+
+	cbh := &histogram.Histogram{
+		Count:  24,
+		Sum:    18.4,
+		Schema: histogram.CustomBucketsSchema,
+		PositiveSpans: []histogram.Span{
+			{Offset: 0, Length: 2},
+			{Offset: 2, Length: 1},
+			{Offset: 3, Length: 2},
+			{Offset: 3, Length: 1},
+			{Offset: 1, Length: 1},
+		},
+		PositiveBuckets: []int64{6, -3, 0, -1, 2, 1, -4}, // counts: 6, 3, 3, 2, 4, 5, 1 (total 24)
+		CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20},
+	}
+
+	setup := func(h *histogram.Histogram) (Chunk, *HistogramAppender, int64, *histogram.Histogram) {
 		c := Chunk(NewHistogramChunk())
 
 		// Create fresh appender and add the first histogram.
@@ -303,32 +334,17 @@ func TestHistogramChunkAppendable(t *testing.T) {
 		require.Equal(t, 0, c.NumSamples())
 
 		ts := int64(1234567890)
-		h1 := &histogram.Histogram{
-			Count:         5,
-			ZeroCount:     2,
-			Sum:           18.4,
-			ZeroThreshold: 1e-125,
-			Schema:        1,
-			PositiveSpans: []histogram.Span{
-				{Offset: 0, Length: 2},
-				{Offset: 2, Length: 1},
-				{Offset: 3, Length: 2},
-				{Offset: 3, Length: 1},
-				{Offset: 1, Length: 1},
-			},
-			PositiveBuckets: []int64{6, -3, 0, -1, 2, 1, -4}, // counts: 6, 3, 3, 2, 4, 5, 1 (total 24)
-		}
 
-		chk, _, app, err := app.AppendHistogram(nil, ts, h1.Copy(), false)
+		chk, _, app, err := app.AppendHistogram(nil, ts, h.Copy(), false)
 		require.NoError(t, err)
 		require.Nil(t, chk)
 		require.Equal(t, 1, c.NumSamples())
 		require.Equal(t, UnknownCounterReset, c.(*HistogramChunk).GetCounterResetHeader())
-		return c, app.(*HistogramAppender), ts, h1
+		return c, app.(*HistogramAppender), ts, h
 	}
 
 	{ // Schema change.
-		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup()
+		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(eh)
 		h2 := h1.Copy()
 		h2.Schema++
 		_, _, ok, _ := hApp.appendable(h2)
@@ -338,7 +354,7 @@ func TestHistogramChunkAppendable(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 
 	{ // Zero threshold change.
-		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup()
+		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(eh)
 		h2 := h1.Copy()
 		h2.ZeroThreshold += 0.1
 		_, _, ok, _ := hApp.appendable(h2)
@@ -348,7 +364,7 @@ func TestHistogramChunkAppendable(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 
 	{ // New histogram that has more buckets.
-		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup()
+		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(eh)
 		h2 := h1.Copy()
 		h2.PositiveSpans = []histogram.Span{
 			{Offset: 0, Length: 3},
@@ -374,7 +390,7 @@ func TestHistogramChunkAppendable(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 
 	{ // New histogram that has a bucket missing.
-		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup()
+		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(eh)
 		h2 := h1.Copy()
 		h2.PositiveSpans = []histogram.Span{
 			{Offset: 0, Length: 2},
@@ -395,7 +411,7 @@ func TestHistogramChunkAppendable(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 
 	{ // New histogram that has a counter reset while buckets are same.
-		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup()
+		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(eh)
 		h2 := h1.Copy()
 		h2.Sum = 23
 		h2.PositiveBuckets = []int64{6, -4, 1, -1, 2, 1, -4} // counts: 6, 2, 3, 2, 4, 5, 1 (total 23)
@@ -410,7 +426,7 @@ func TestHistogramChunkAppendable(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 
 	{ // New histogram that has a counter reset while new buckets were added.
-		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup()
+		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(eh)
 		h2 := h1.Copy()
 		h2.PositiveSpans = []histogram.Span{
 			{Offset: 0, Length: 3},
@@ -438,7 +454,7 @@ func TestHistogramChunkAppendable(t *testing.T) {
 		// added before the first bucket and reset on first bucket.  (to
 		// catch the edge case where the new bucket should be forwarded
 		// ahead until first old bucket at start)
-		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup()
+		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(eh)
 		h2 := h1.Copy()
 		h2.PositiveSpans = []histogram.Span{
 			{Offset: -3, Length: 2},
@@ -464,7 +480,7 @@ func TestHistogramChunkAppendable(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 
 	{ // New histogram that has an explicit counter reset.
-		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup()
+		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(eh)
 		h2 := h1.Copy()
 		h2.CounterResetHint = histogram.CounterReset
 
@@ -472,7 +488,7 @@ func TestHistogramChunkAppendable(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 
 	{ // Start new chunk explicitly, and append a new histogram that is considered appendable to the previous chunk.
-		_, hApp, ts, h1 := setup()
+		_, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(eh)
 		h2 := h1.Copy() // Identity is appendable.
 
 		nextChunk := NewHistogramChunk()
@@ -488,7 +504,7 @@ func TestHistogramChunkAppendable(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 
 	{ // Start new chunk explicitly, and append a new histogram that is not considered appendable to the previous chunk.
-		_, hApp, ts, h1 := setup()
+		_, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(eh)
 		h2 := h1.Copy()
 		h2.Count-- // Make this not appendable due to counter reset.
 
@@ -505,7 +521,7 @@ func TestHistogramChunkAppendable(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 
 	{ // Start new chunk explicitly, and append a new histogram that would need recoding if we added it to the chunk.
-		_, hApp, ts, h1 := setup()
+		_, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(eh)
 		h2 := h1.Copy()
 		h2.PositiveSpans = []histogram.Span{
 			{Offset: 0, Length: 3},
@@ -532,6 +548,72 @@ func TestHistogramChunkAppendable(t *testing.T) {
 		assertSampleCount(t, nextChunk, 1, ValHistogram)
 		require.Equal(t, NotCounterReset, nextChunk.GetCounterResetHeader())
 	}
+
+	{ // Custom buckets, no change.
+		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(cbh)
+		h2 := h1.Copy()
+		_, _, ok, _ := hApp.appendable(h2)
+		require.True(t, ok)
+
+		assertNoNewHistogramChunkOnAppend(t, c, hApp, ts+1, h2, UnknownCounterReset)
+	}
+
+	{ // Custom buckets, increase in bucket counts but no change in layout.
+		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(cbh)
+		h2 := h1.Copy()
+		h2.Count++
+		h2.PositiveBuckets = []int64{6, -3, 0, -1, 2, 1, -3}
+		_, _, ok, _ := hApp.appendable(h2)
+		require.True(t, ok)
+
+		assertNoNewHistogramChunkOnAppend(t, c, hApp, ts+1, h2, UnknownCounterReset)
+	}
+
+	{ // Custom buckets, decrease in bucket counts but no change in layout.
+		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(cbh)
+		h2 := h1.Copy()
+		h2.Count--
+		h2.PositiveBuckets = []int64{6, -3, 0, -1, 2, 1, -5}
+		_, _, ok, _ := hApp.appendable(h2)
+		require.False(t, ok)
+
+		assertNewHistogramChunkOnAppend(t, c, hApp, ts+1, h2, CounterReset)
+	}
+
+	{ // Custom buckets, change only in custom bounds.
+		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(cbh)
+		h2 := h1.Copy()
+		h2.CustomValues = []float64{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21}
+		_, _, ok, _ := hApp.appendable(h2)
+		require.False(t, ok)
+
+		assertNewHistogramChunkOnAppend(t, c, hApp, ts+1, h2, CounterReset)
+	}
+
+	{ // Custom buckets, with more buckets.
+		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(cbh)
+		h2 := h1.Copy()
+		h2.PositiveSpans = []histogram.Span{
+			{Offset: 0, Length: 3},
+			{Offset: 1, Length: 1},
+			{Offset: 1, Length: 4},
+			{Offset: 3, Length: 3},
+		}
+		h2.Count += 6
+		h2.Sum = 30
+		// Existing histogram should get values converted from the above to:
+		//   6 3 0 3 0 0 2 4 5 0 1 (previous values with some new empty buckets in between)
+		// so the new histogram should have new counts >= these per-bucket counts, e.g.:
+		h2.PositiveBuckets = []int64{7, -2, -4, 2, -2, -1, 2, 3, 0, -5, 1} // 7 5 1 3 1 0 2 5 5 0 1 (total 30)
+
+		posInterjections, negInterjections, ok, cr := hApp.appendable(h2)
+		require.NotEmpty(t, posInterjections)
+		require.Empty(t, negInterjections)
+		require.True(t, ok) // Only new buckets came in.
+		require.False(t, cr)
+
+		assertRecodedHistogramChunkOnAppend(t, c, hApp, ts+1, h2, UnknownCounterReset)
+	}
 }
 
 func assertNewHistogramChunkOnAppend(t *testing.T, oldChunk Chunk, hApp *HistogramAppender, ts int64, h *histogram.Histogram, expectHeader CounterResetHeader) {
@@ -548,6 +630,19 @@ func assertNewHistogramChunkOnAppend(t *testing.T, oldChunk Chunk, hApp *Histogr
 	assertSampleCount(t, newChunk, 1, ValHistogram)
 }
 
+func assertNoNewHistogramChunkOnAppend(t *testing.T, currChunk Chunk, hApp *HistogramAppender, ts int64, h *histogram.Histogram, expectHeader CounterResetHeader) {
+	prevChunkBytes := currChunk.Bytes()
+	newChunk, recoded, newAppender, err := hApp.AppendHistogram(nil, ts, h, false)
+	require.Greater(t, len(currChunk.Bytes()), len(prevChunkBytes)) // Check that current chunk is bigger than previously.
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	require.Nil(t, newChunk)
+	require.False(t, recoded)
+	require.Equal(t, expectHeader, currChunk.(*HistogramChunk).GetCounterResetHeader())
+	require.NotNil(t, newAppender)
+	require.Equal(t, hApp, newAppender)
+	assertSampleCount(t, currChunk, 2, ValHistogram)
+}
+
 func assertRecodedHistogramChunkOnAppend(t *testing.T, prevChunk Chunk, hApp *HistogramAppender, ts int64, h *histogram.Histogram, expectHeader CounterResetHeader) {
 	prevChunkBytes := prevChunk.Bytes()
 	newChunk, recoded, newAppender, err := hApp.AppendHistogram(nil, ts, h, false)
@@ -738,6 +833,32 @@ func TestHistogramChunkAppendableWithEmptySpan(t *testing.T) {
 				NegativeBuckets: []int64{1, 3, -2, 5, -2, 0, -3},
 			},
 		},
+		"empty span in old and new custom buckets histogram": {
+			h1: &histogram.Histogram{
+				Schema: histogram.CustomBucketsSchema,
+				Count:  7,
+				Sum:    1234.5,
+				PositiveSpans: []histogram.Span{
+					{Offset: 0, Length: 4},
+					{Offset: 0, Length: 0},
+					{Offset: 0, Length: 3},
+				},
+				PositiveBuckets: []int64{1, 1, -1, 0, 0, 0, 0},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10},
+			},
+			h2: &histogram.Histogram{
+				Schema: histogram.CustomBucketsSchema,
+				Count:  10,
+				Sum:    2345.6,
+				PositiveSpans: []histogram.Span{
+					{Offset: 0, Length: 4},
+					{Offset: 0, Length: 0},
+					{Offset: 0, Length: 3},
+				},
+				PositiveBuckets: []int64{1, 2, -2, 1, -1, 0, 0},
+				CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10},
+			},
+		},
 	}
 
 	for name, tc := range tests {
@@ -905,7 +1026,40 @@ func TestAtFloatHistogram(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestHistogramChunkAppendableGauge(t *testing.T) {
-	setup := func() (Chunk, *HistogramAppender, int64, *histogram.Histogram) {
+	eh := &histogram.Histogram{
+		CounterResetHint: histogram.GaugeType,
+		Count:            5,
+		ZeroCount:        2,
+		Sum:              18.4,
+		ZeroThreshold:    1e-125,
+		Schema:           1,
+		PositiveSpans: []histogram.Span{
+			{Offset: 0, Length: 2},
+			{Offset: 2, Length: 1},
+			{Offset: 3, Length: 2},
+			{Offset: 3, Length: 1},
+			{Offset: 1, Length: 1},
+		},
+		PositiveBuckets: []int64{6, -3, 0, -1, 2, 1, -4}, // {6, 3, 3, 2, 4, 5, 1}
+	}
+
+	cbh := &histogram.Histogram{
+		CounterResetHint: histogram.GaugeType,
+		Count:            24,
+		Sum:              18.4,
+		Schema:           histogram.CustomBucketsSchema,
+		PositiveSpans: []histogram.Span{
+			{Offset: 0, Length: 2},
+			{Offset: 2, Length: 1},
+			{Offset: 3, Length: 2},
+			{Offset: 3, Length: 1},
+			{Offset: 1, Length: 1},
+		},
+		PositiveBuckets: []int64{6, -3, 0, -1, 2, 1, -4}, // {6, 3, 3, 2, 4, 5, 1}
+		CustomValues:    []float64{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20},
+	}
+
+	setup := func(h *histogram.Histogram) (Chunk, *HistogramAppender, int64, *histogram.Histogram) {
 		c := Chunk(NewHistogramChunk())
 
 		// Create fresh appender and add the first histogram.
@@ -914,66 +1068,38 @@ func TestHistogramChunkAppendableGauge(t *testing.T) {
 		require.Equal(t, 0, c.NumSamples())
 
 		ts := int64(1234567890)
-		h1 := &histogram.Histogram{
-			CounterResetHint: histogram.GaugeType,
-			Count:            5,
-			ZeroCount:        2,
-			Sum:              18.4,
-			ZeroThreshold:    1e-125,
-			Schema:           1,
-			PositiveSpans: []histogram.Span{
-				{Offset: 0, Length: 2},
-				{Offset: 2, Length: 1},
-				{Offset: 3, Length: 2},
-				{Offset: 3, Length: 1},
-				{Offset: 1, Length: 1},
-			},
-			PositiveBuckets: []int64{6, -3, 0, -1, 2, 1, -4}, // {6, 3, 3, 2, 4, 5, 1}
-		}
 
-		chk, _, app, err := app.AppendHistogram(nil, ts, h1.Copy(), false)
+		chk, _, app, err := app.AppendHistogram(nil, ts, h.Copy(), false)
 		require.NoError(t, err)
 		require.Nil(t, chk)
 		require.Equal(t, 1, c.NumSamples())
 		require.Equal(t, GaugeType, c.(*HistogramChunk).GetCounterResetHeader())
 
-		return c, app.(*HistogramAppender), ts, h1
+		return c, app.(*HistogramAppender), ts, h
 	}
 
 	{ // Schema change.
-		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup()
+		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(eh)
 		h2 := h1.Copy()
 		h2.Schema++
 		_, _, _, _, _, _, ok := hApp.appendableGauge(h2)
 		require.False(t, ok)
 
-		newc, recoded, _, err := hApp.AppendHistogram(nil, ts+1, h2, false)
-		require.NoError(t, err)
-		require.NotNil(t, newc)
-		require.False(t, recoded)
-		require.NotEqual(t, c, newc)
-		require.Equal(t, GaugeType, c.(*HistogramChunk).GetCounterResetHeader())
-		require.Equal(t, GaugeType, newc.(*HistogramChunk).GetCounterResetHeader())
+		assertNewHistogramChunkOnAppend(t, c, hApp, ts+1, h2, GaugeType)
 	}
 
 	{ // Zero threshold change.
-		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup()
+		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(eh)
 		h2 := h1.Copy()
 		h2.ZeroThreshold += 0.1
 		_, _, _, _, _, _, ok := hApp.appendableGauge(h2)
 		require.False(t, ok)
 
-		newc, recoded, _, err := hApp.AppendHistogram(nil, ts+1, h2, false)
-		require.NoError(t, err)
-		require.NotNil(t, newc)
-		require.False(t, recoded)
-		require.NotEqual(t, c, newc)
-		require.Equal(t, GaugeType, c.(*HistogramChunk).GetCounterResetHeader())
-		require.Equal(t, GaugeType, newc.(*HistogramChunk).GetCounterResetHeader())
+		assertNewHistogramChunkOnAppend(t, c, hApp, ts+1, h2, GaugeType)
 	}
 
 	{ // New histogram that has more buckets.
-		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup()
+		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(eh)
 		h2 := h1.Copy()
 		h2.PositiveSpans = []histogram.Span{
 			{Offset: 0, Length: 3},
@@ -993,15 +1119,11 @@ func TestHistogramChunkAppendableGauge(t *testing.T) {
 		require.Empty(t, nBackwardI)
 		require.True(t, ok)
 
-		newc, recoded, _, err := hApp.AppendHistogram(nil, ts+1, h2, false)
-		require.NoError(t, err)
-		require.NotNil(t, newc)
-		require.True(t, recoded)
-		require.Equal(t, GaugeType, c.(*HistogramChunk).GetCounterResetHeader())
+		assertRecodedHistogramChunkOnAppend(t, c, hApp, ts+1, h2, GaugeType)
 	}
 
 	{ // New histogram that has buckets missing.
-		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup()
+		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(eh)
 		h2 := h1.Copy()
 		h2.PositiveSpans = []histogram.Span{
 			{Offset: 0, Length: 2},
@@ -1021,15 +1143,11 @@ func TestHistogramChunkAppendableGauge(t *testing.T) {
 		require.Empty(t, nBackwardI)
 		require.True(t, ok)
 
-		newc, recoded, _, err := hApp.AppendHistogram(nil, ts+1, h2, false)
-		require.NoError(t, err)
-		require.Nil(t, newc)
-		require.False(t, recoded)
-		require.Equal(t, GaugeType, c.(*HistogramChunk).GetCounterResetHeader())
+		assertNoNewHistogramChunkOnAppend(t, c, hApp, ts+1, h2, GaugeType)
 	}
 
 	{ // New histogram that has a bucket missing and new buckets.
-		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup()
+		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(eh)
 		h2 := h1.Copy()
 		h2.PositiveSpans = []histogram.Span{
 			{Offset: 0, Length: 2},
@@ -1047,15 +1165,11 @@ func TestHistogramChunkAppendableGauge(t *testing.T) {
 		require.Empty(t, nBackwardI)
 		require.True(t, ok)
 
-		newc, recoded, _, err := hApp.AppendHistogram(nil, ts+1, h2, false)
-		require.NoError(t, err)
-		require.NotNil(t, newc)
-		require.True(t, recoded)
-		require.Equal(t, GaugeType, c.(*HistogramChunk).GetCounterResetHeader())
+		assertRecodedHistogramChunkOnAppend(t, c, hApp, ts+1, h2, GaugeType)
 	}
 
 	{ // New histogram that has a counter reset while buckets are same.
-		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup()
+		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(eh)
 		h2 := h1.Copy()
 		h2.Sum = 23
 		h2.PositiveBuckets = []int64{6, -4, 1, -1, 2, 1, -4} // {6, 2, 3, 2, 4, 5, 1}
@@ -1067,15 +1181,11 @@ func TestHistogramChunkAppendableGauge(t *testing.T) {
 		require.Empty(t, nBackwardI)
 		require.True(t, ok)
 
-		newc, recoded, _, err := hApp.AppendHistogram(nil, ts+1, h2, false)
-		require.NoError(t, err)
-		require.Nil(t, newc)
-		require.False(t, recoded)
-		require.Equal(t, GaugeType, c.(*HistogramChunk).GetCounterResetHeader())
+		assertNoNewHistogramChunkOnAppend(t, c, hApp, ts+1, h2, GaugeType)
 	}
 
 	{ // New histogram that has a counter reset while new buckets were added.
-		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup()
+		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(eh)
 		h2 := h1.Copy()
 		h2.PositiveSpans = []histogram.Span{
 			{Offset: 0, Length: 3},
@@ -1093,17 +1203,13 @@ func TestHistogramChunkAppendableGauge(t *testing.T) {
 		require.Empty(t, nBackwardI)
 		require.True(t, ok)
 
-		newc, recoded, _, err := hApp.AppendHistogram(nil, ts+1, h2, false)
-		require.NoError(t, err)
-		require.NotNil(t, newc)
-		require.True(t, recoded)
-		require.Equal(t, GaugeType, c.(*HistogramChunk).GetCounterResetHeader())
+		assertRecodedHistogramChunkOnAppend(t, c, hApp, ts+1, h2, GaugeType)
 	}
 
 	{
 		// New histogram that has a counter reset while new buckets were
 		// added before the first bucket and reset on first bucket.
-		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup()
+		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(eh)
 		h2 := h1.Copy()
 		h2.PositiveSpans = []histogram.Span{
 			{Offset: -3, Length: 2},
@@ -1123,11 +1229,74 @@ func TestHistogramChunkAppendableGauge(t *testing.T) {
 		require.Empty(t, nBackwardI)
 		require.True(t, ok)
 
-		newc, recoded, _, err := hApp.AppendHistogram(nil, ts+1, h2, false)
-		require.NoError(t, err)
-		require.NotNil(t, newc)
-		require.True(t, recoded)
-		require.Equal(t, GaugeType, c.(*HistogramChunk).GetCounterResetHeader())
+		assertRecodedHistogramChunkOnAppend(t, c, hApp, ts+1, h2, GaugeType)
+	}
+
+	{ // Custom buckets, no change.
+		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(cbh)
+		h2 := h1.Copy()
+		_, _, _, _, _, _, ok := hApp.appendableGauge(h2)
+		require.True(t, ok)
+
+		assertNoNewHistogramChunkOnAppend(t, c, hApp, ts+1, h2, GaugeType)
+	}
+
+	{ // Custom buckets, increase in bucket counts but no change in layout.
+		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(cbh)
+		h2 := h1.Copy()
+		h2.Count++
+		h2.PositiveBuckets = []int64{6, -3, 0, -1, 2, 1, -3}
+		_, _, _, _, _, _, ok := hApp.appendableGauge(h2)
+		require.True(t, ok)
+
+		assertNoNewHistogramChunkOnAppend(t, c, hApp, ts+1, h2, GaugeType)
+	}
+
+	{ // Custom buckets, decrease in bucket counts but no change in layout.
+		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(cbh)
+		h2 := h1.Copy()
+		h2.Count--
+		h2.PositiveBuckets = []int64{6, -3, 0, -1, 2, 1, -5}
+		_, _, _, _, _, _, ok := hApp.appendableGauge(h2)
+		require.True(t, ok)
+
+		assertNoNewHistogramChunkOnAppend(t, c, hApp, ts+1, h2, GaugeType)
+	}
+
+	{ // Custom buckets, change only in custom bounds.
+		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(cbh)
+		h2 := h1.Copy()
+		h2.CustomValues = []float64{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21}
+		_, _, _, _, _, _, ok := hApp.appendableGauge(h2)
+		require.False(t, ok)
+
+		assertNewHistogramChunkOnAppend(t, c, hApp, ts+1, h2, GaugeType)
+	}
+
+	{ // Custom buckets, with more buckets.
+		c, hApp, ts, h1 := setup(cbh)
+		h2 := h1.Copy()
+		h2.PositiveSpans = []histogram.Span{
+			{Offset: 0, Length: 3},
+			{Offset: 1, Length: 1},
+			{Offset: 1, Length: 4},
+			{Offset: 3, Length: 3},
+		}
+		h2.Count += 6
+		h2.Sum = 30
+		// Existing histogram should get values converted from the above to:
+		//   6 3 0 3 0 0 2 4 5 0 1 (previous values with some new empty buckets in between)
+		// so the new histogram should have new counts >= these per-bucket counts, e.g.:
+		h2.PositiveBuckets = []int64{7, -2, -4, 2, -2, -1, 2, 3, 0, -5, 1} // 7 5 1 3 1 0 2 5 5 0 1 (total 30)
+
+		posInterjections, negInterjections, pBackwardI, nBackwardI, _, _, ok := hApp.appendableGauge(h2)
+		require.NotEmpty(t, posInterjections)
+		require.Empty(t, negInterjections)
+		require.Empty(t, pBackwardI)
+		require.Empty(t, nBackwardI)
+		require.True(t, ok) // Only new buckets came in.
+
+		assertRecodedHistogramChunkOnAppend(t, c, hApp, ts+1, h2, GaugeType)
 	}
 }
 
@@ -1176,4 +1345,26 @@ func TestHistogramAppendOnlyErrors(t *testing.T) {
 		require.False(t, isRecoded)
 		require.EqualError(t, err, "histogram counter reset")
 	})
+	t.Run("counter reset error with custom buckets", func(t *testing.T) {
+		c := Chunk(NewHistogramChunk())
+
+		// Create fresh appender and add the first histogram.
+		app, err := c.Appender()
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+
+		h := tsdbutil.GenerateTestCustomBucketsHistogram(0)
+		var isRecoded bool
+		c, isRecoded, app, err = app.AppendHistogram(nil, 1, h, true)
+		require.Nil(t, c)
+		require.False(t, isRecoded)
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+
+		// Add erroring histogram.
+		h2 := h.Copy()
+		h2.CustomValues = []float64{0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
+		c, isRecoded, _, err = app.AppendHistogram(nil, 2, h2, true)
+		require.Nil(t, c)
+		require.False(t, isRecoded)
+		require.EqualError(t, err, "histogram counter reset")
+	})
 }
diff --git a/tsdb/chunkenc/varbit.go b/tsdb/chunkenc/varbit.go
index b43574dcb6..574edec48b 100644
--- a/tsdb/chunkenc/varbit.go
+++ b/tsdb/chunkenc/varbit.go
@@ -61,7 +61,7 @@ func putVarbitInt(b *bstream, val int64) {
 	}
 }
 
-// readVarbitInt reads an int64 encoced with putVarbitInt.
+// readVarbitInt reads an int64 encoded with putVarbitInt.
 func readVarbitInt(b *bstreamReader) (int64, error) {
 	var d byte
 	for i := 0; i < 8; i++ {
@@ -166,7 +166,7 @@ func putVarbitUint(b *bstream, val uint64) {
 	}
 }
 
-// readVarbitUint reads a uint64 encoced with putVarbitUint.
+// readVarbitUint reads a uint64 encoded with putVarbitUint.
 func readVarbitUint(b *bstreamReader) (uint64, error) {
 	var d byte
 	for i := 0; i < 8; i++ {
diff --git a/tsdb/chunkenc/xor.go b/tsdb/chunkenc/xor.go
index 07b9238315..3177762f81 100644
--- a/tsdb/chunkenc/xor.go
+++ b/tsdb/chunkenc/xor.go
@@ -60,12 +60,16 @@ type XORChunk struct {
 	b bstream
 }
 
-// NewXORChunk returns a new chunk with XOR encoding of the given size.
+// NewXORChunk returns a new chunk with XOR encoding.
 func NewXORChunk() *XORChunk {
 	b := make([]byte, 2, 128)
 	return &XORChunk{b: bstream{stream: b, count: 0}}
 }
 
+func (c *XORChunk) Reset(stream []byte) {
+	c.b.Reset(stream)
+}
+
 // Encoding returns the encoding type.
 func (c *XORChunk) Encoding() Encoding {
 	return EncXOR
@@ -171,7 +175,6 @@ func (a *xorAppender) Append(t int64, v float64) {
 		}
 
 		a.writeVDelta(v)
-
 	default:
 		tDelta = uint64(t - a.t)
 		dod := int64(tDelta - a.tDelta)
diff --git a/tsdb/chunks/chunks.go b/tsdb/chunks/chunks.go
index 0826f69670..ec0f6d4036 100644
--- a/tsdb/chunks/chunks.go
+++ b/tsdb/chunks/chunks.go
@@ -133,15 +133,6 @@ type Meta struct {
 	// Time range the data covers.
 	// When MaxTime == math.MaxInt64 the chunk is still open and being appended to.
 	MinTime, MaxTime int64
-
-	// OOOLastRef, OOOLastMinTime and OOOLastMaxTime are kept as markers for
-	// overlapping chunks.
-	// These fields point to the last created out of order Chunk (the head) that existed
-	// when Series() was called and was overlapping.
-	// Series() and Chunk() method responses should be consistent for the same
-	// query even if new data is added in between the calls.
-	OOOLastRef                     ChunkRef
-	OOOLastMinTime, OOOLastMaxTime int64
 }
 
 // ChunkFromSamples requires all samples to have the same type.
@@ -233,7 +224,7 @@ func ChunkMetasToSamples(chunks []Meta) (result []Sample) {
 // Iterator iterates over the chunks of a single time series.
 type Iterator interface {
 	// At returns the current meta.
-	// It depends on implementation if the chunk is populated or not.
+	// It depends on the implementation whether the chunk is populated or not.
 	At() Meta
 	// Next advances the iterator by one.
 	Next() bool
@@ -478,7 +469,7 @@ func (w *Writer) WriteChunks(chks ...Meta) error {
 		// the batch is too large to fit in the current segment.
 		cutNewBatch := (i != 0) && (batchSize+SegmentHeaderSize > w.segmentSize)
 
-		// When the segment already has some data than
+		// If the segment already has some data then
 		// the first batch size calculation should account for that.
 		if firstBatch && w.n > SegmentHeaderSize {
 			cutNewBatch = batchSize+w.n > w.segmentSize
@@ -717,7 +708,7 @@ func nextSequenceFile(dir string) (string, int, error) {
 		}
 		// It is not necessary that we find the files in number order,
 		// for example with '1000000' and '200000', '1000000' would come first.
-		// Though this is a very very race case, we check anyway for the max id.
+		// Though this is a very very rare case, we check anyway for the max id.
 		if j > i {
 			i = j
 		}
diff --git a/tsdb/chunks/head_chunks.go b/tsdb/chunks/head_chunks.go
index 087f25fbb3..6c8707c57b 100644
--- a/tsdb/chunks/head_chunks.go
+++ b/tsdb/chunks/head_chunks.go
@@ -188,8 +188,8 @@ func (f *chunkPos) bytesToWriteForChunk(chkLen uint64) uint64 {
 	return bytes
 }
 
-// ChunkDiskMapper is for writing the Head block chunks to the disk
-// and access chunks via mmapped file.
+// ChunkDiskMapper is for writing the Head block chunks to disk
+// and access chunks via mmapped files.
 type ChunkDiskMapper struct {
 	/// Writer.
 	dir             *os.File
@@ -231,7 +231,7 @@ type ChunkDiskMapper struct {
 	closed bool
 }
 
-// mmappedChunkFile provides mmapp access to an entire head chunks file that holds many chunks.
+// mmappedChunkFile provides mmap access to an entire head chunks file that holds many chunks.
 type mmappedChunkFile struct {
 	byteSlice ByteSlice
 	maxt      int64 // Max timestamp among all of this file's chunks.
@@ -240,7 +240,7 @@ type mmappedChunkFile struct {
 // NewChunkDiskMapper returns a new ChunkDiskMapper against the given directory
 // using the default head chunk file duration.
 // NOTE: 'IterateAllChunks' method needs to be called at least once after creating ChunkDiskMapper
-// to set the maxt of all the file.
+// to set the maxt of all files.
 func NewChunkDiskMapper(reg prometheus.Registerer, dir string, pool chunkenc.Pool, writeBufferSize, writeQueueSize int) (*ChunkDiskMapper, error) {
 	// Validate write buffer size.
 	if writeBufferSize < MinWriteBufferSize || writeBufferSize > MaxWriteBufferSize {
@@ -381,6 +381,33 @@ func listChunkFiles(dir string) (map[int]string, error) {
 	return res, nil
 }
 
+// HardLinkChunkFiles creates hardlinks for chunk files from src to dst.
+// It does nothing if src doesn't exist and ensures dst is created if not.
+func HardLinkChunkFiles(src, dst string) error {
+	_, err := os.Stat(src)
+	if os.IsNotExist(err) {
+		return nil
+	}
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("check source chunks dir: %w", err)
+	}
+	if err := os.MkdirAll(dst, 0o777); err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("set up destination chunks dir: %w", err)
+	}
+	files, err := listChunkFiles(src)
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("list chunks: %w", err)
+	}
+	for _, filePath := range files {
+		_, fileName := filepath.Split(filePath)
+		err := os.Link(filepath.Join(src, fileName), filepath.Join(dst, fileName))
+		if err != nil {
+			return fmt.Errorf("hardlink a chunk: %w", err)
+		}
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+
 // repairLastChunkFile deletes the last file if it's empty.
 // Because we don't fsync when creating these files, we could end
 // up with an empty file at the end during an abrupt shutdown.
@@ -425,7 +452,7 @@ func repairLastChunkFile(files map[int]string) (_ map[int]string, returnErr erro
 	return files, nil
 }
 
-// WriteChunk writes the chunk to the disk.
+// WriteChunk writes the chunk to disk.
 // The returned chunk ref is the reference from where the chunk encoding starts for the chunk.
 func (cdm *ChunkDiskMapper) WriteChunk(seriesRef HeadSeriesRef, mint, maxt int64, chk chunkenc.Chunk, isOOO bool, callback func(err error)) (chkRef ChunkDiskMapperRef) {
 	// cdm.evtlPosMtx must be held to serialize the calls to cdm.evtlPos.getNextChunkRef() and the writing of the chunk (either with or without queue).
@@ -784,7 +811,7 @@ func (cdm *ChunkDiskMapper) Chunk(ref ChunkDiskMapperRef) (chunkenc.Chunk, error
 // IterateAllChunks iterates all mmappedChunkFiles (in order of head chunk file name/number) and all the chunks within it
 // and runs the provided function with information about each chunk. It returns on the first error encountered.
 // NOTE: This method needs to be called at least once after creating ChunkDiskMapper
-// to set the maxt of all the file.
+// to set the maxt of all files.
 func (cdm *ChunkDiskMapper) IterateAllChunks(f func(seriesRef HeadSeriesRef, chunkRef ChunkDiskMapperRef, mint, maxt int64, numSamples uint16, encoding chunkenc.Encoding, isOOO bool) error) (err error) {
 	cdm.writePathMtx.Lock()
 	defer cdm.writePathMtx.Unlock()
@@ -904,7 +931,7 @@ func (cdm *ChunkDiskMapper) IterateAllChunks(f func(seriesRef HeadSeriesRef, chu
 	return nil
 }
 
-// Truncate deletes the head chunk files whose file number is less than given fileNo.
+// Truncate deletes the head chunk files with numbers less than the given fileNo.
 func (cdm *ChunkDiskMapper) Truncate(fileNo uint32) error {
 	cdm.readPathMtx.RLock()
 
diff --git a/tsdb/chunks/queue_test.go b/tsdb/chunks/queue_test.go
index 5756e45856..9f761a5f3b 100644
--- a/tsdb/chunks/queue_test.go
+++ b/tsdb/chunks/queue_test.go
@@ -55,7 +55,7 @@ func (q *writeJobQueue) assertInvariants(t *testing.T) {
 			require.Len(t, s.segment, s.nextWrite)
 		}
 		// Last segment must have at least one element, or we wouldn't have created it.
-		require.Greater(t, s.nextWrite, 0)
+		require.Positive(t, s.nextWrite)
 	}
 
 	require.Equal(t, q.size, totalSize)
diff --git a/tsdb/compact.go b/tsdb/compact.go
index e09039cf33..9ef42b339b 100644
--- a/tsdb/compact.go
+++ b/tsdb/compact.go
@@ -58,19 +58,23 @@ type Compactor interface {
 	// Results returned when compactions are in progress are undefined.
 	Plan(dir string) ([]string, error)
 
-	// Write persists a Block into a directory.
-	// No Block is written when resulting Block has 0 samples, and returns empty ulid.ULID{}.
-	Write(dest string, b BlockReader, mint, maxt int64, base *BlockMeta) (ulid.ULID, error)
+	// Write persists one or more Blocks into a directory.
+	// No Block is written when resulting Block has 0 samples and returns an empty slice.
+	// Prometheus always return one or no block. The interface allows returning more than one
+	// block for downstream users to experiment with compactor.
+	Write(dest string, b BlockReader, mint, maxt int64, base *BlockMeta) ([]ulid.ULID, error)
 
 	// Compact runs compaction against the provided directories. Must
 	// only be called concurrently with results of Plan().
 	// Can optionally pass a list of already open blocks,
 	// to avoid having to reopen them.
-	// When resulting Block has 0 samples
+	// Prometheus always return one or no block. The interface allows returning more than one
+	// block for downstream users to experiment with compactor.
+	// When one resulting Block has 0 samples
 	//  * No block is written.
 	//  * The source dirs are marked Deletable.
-	//  * Returns empty ulid.ULID{}.
-	Compact(dest string, dirs []string, open []*Block) (ulid.ULID, error)
+	//  * Block is not included in the result.
+	Compact(dest string, dirs []string, open []*Block) ([]ulid.ULID, error)
 }
 
 // LeveledCompactor implements the Compactor interface.
@@ -272,7 +276,7 @@ func (c *LeveledCompactor) plan(dms []dirMeta) ([]string, error) {
 		meta := dms[i].meta
 		if meta.MaxTime-meta.MinTime < c.ranges[len(c.ranges)/2] {
 			// If the block is entirely deleted, then we don't care about the block being big enough.
-			// TODO: This is assuming single tombstone is for distinct series, which might be no true.
+			// TODO: This is assuming a single tombstone is for a distinct series, which might not be true.
 			if meta.Stats.NumTombstones > 0 && meta.Stats.NumTombstones >= meta.Stats.NumSeries {
 				return []string{dms[i].dir}, nil
 			}
@@ -372,7 +376,7 @@ func splitByRange(ds []dirMeta, tr int64) [][]dirMeta {
 			t0 = tr * ((m.MinTime - tr + 1) / tr)
 		}
 		// Skip blocks that don't fall into the range. This can happen via mis-alignment or
-		// by being the multiple of the intended range.
+		// by being a multiple of the intended range.
 		if m.MaxTime > t0+tr {
 			i++
 			continue
@@ -395,7 +399,7 @@ func splitByRange(ds []dirMeta, tr int64) [][]dirMeta {
 	return splitDirs
 }
 
-// CompactBlockMetas merges many block metas into one, combining it's source blocks together
+// CompactBlockMetas merges many block metas into one, combining its source blocks together
 // and adjusting compaction level. Min/Max time of result block meta covers all input blocks.
 func CompactBlockMetas(uid ulid.ULID, blocks ...*BlockMeta) *BlockMeta {
 	res := &BlockMeta{
@@ -441,11 +445,11 @@ func CompactBlockMetas(uid ulid.ULID, blocks ...*BlockMeta) *BlockMeta {
 
 // Compact creates a new block in the compactor's directory from the blocks in the
 // provided directories.
-func (c *LeveledCompactor) Compact(dest string, dirs []string, open []*Block) (uid ulid.ULID, err error) {
+func (c *LeveledCompactor) Compact(dest string, dirs []string, open []*Block) ([]ulid.ULID, error) {
 	return c.CompactWithBlockPopulator(dest, dirs, open, DefaultBlockPopulator{})
 }
 
-func (c *LeveledCompactor) CompactWithBlockPopulator(dest string, dirs []string, open []*Block, blockPopulator BlockPopulator) (uid ulid.ULID, err error) {
+func (c *LeveledCompactor) CompactWithBlockPopulator(dest string, dirs []string, open []*Block, blockPopulator BlockPopulator) ([]ulid.ULID, error) {
 	var (
 		blocks []BlockReader
 		bs     []*Block
@@ -457,7 +461,7 @@ func (c *LeveledCompactor) CompactWithBlockPopulator(dest string, dirs []string,
 	for _, d := range dirs {
 		meta, _, err := readMetaFile(d)
 		if err != nil {
-			return uid, err
+			return nil, err
 		}
 
 		var b *Block
@@ -475,7 +479,7 @@ func (c *LeveledCompactor) CompactWithBlockPopulator(dest string, dirs []string,
 			var err error
 			b, err = OpenBlock(c.logger, d, c.chunkPool)
 			if err != nil {
-				return uid, err
+				return nil, err
 			}
 			defer b.Close()
 		}
@@ -486,10 +490,10 @@ func (c *LeveledCompactor) CompactWithBlockPopulator(dest string, dirs []string,
 		uids = append(uids, meta.ULID.String())
 	}
 
-	uid = ulid.MustNew(ulid.Now(), rand.Reader)
+	uid := ulid.MustNew(ulid.Now(), rand.Reader)
 
 	meta := CompactBlockMetas(uid, metas...)
-	err = c.write(dest, meta, blockPopulator, blocks...)
+	err := c.write(dest, meta, blockPopulator, blocks...)
 	if err == nil {
 		if meta.Stats.NumSamples == 0 {
 			for _, b := range bs {
@@ -503,25 +507,25 @@ func (c *LeveledCompactor) CompactWithBlockPopulator(dest string, dirs []string,
 				}
 				b.numBytesMeta = n
 			}
-			uid = ulid.ULID{}
 			level.Info(c.logger).Log(
 				"msg", "compact blocks resulted in empty block",
 				"count", len(blocks),
 				"sources", fmt.Sprintf("%v", uids),
 				"duration", time.Since(start),
 			)
-		} else {
-			level.Info(c.logger).Log(
-				"msg", "compact blocks",
-				"count", len(blocks),
-				"mint", meta.MinTime,
-				"maxt", meta.MaxTime,
-				"ulid", meta.ULID,
-				"sources", fmt.Sprintf("%v", uids),
-				"duration", time.Since(start),
-			)
+			return nil, nil
 		}
-		return uid, nil
+
+		level.Info(c.logger).Log(
+			"msg", "compact blocks",
+			"count", len(blocks),
+			"mint", meta.MinTime,
+			"maxt", meta.MaxTime,
+			"ulid", meta.ULID,
+			"sources", fmt.Sprintf("%v", uids),
+			"duration", time.Since(start),
+		)
+		return []ulid.ULID{uid}, nil
 	}
 
 	errs := tsdb_errors.NewMulti(err)
@@ -533,10 +537,10 @@ func (c *LeveledCompactor) CompactWithBlockPopulator(dest string, dirs []string,
 		}
 	}
 
-	return uid, errs.Err()
+	return nil, errs.Err()
 }
 
-func (c *LeveledCompactor) Write(dest string, b BlockReader, mint, maxt int64, base *BlockMeta) (ulid.ULID, error) {
+func (c *LeveledCompactor) Write(dest string, b BlockReader, mint, maxt int64, base *BlockMeta) ([]ulid.ULID, error) {
 	start := time.Now()
 
 	uid := ulid.MustNew(ulid.Now(), rand.Reader)
@@ -560,7 +564,7 @@ func (c *LeveledCompactor) Write(dest string, b BlockReader, mint, maxt int64, b
 
 	err := c.write(dest, meta, DefaultBlockPopulator{}, b)
 	if err != nil {
-		return uid, err
+		return nil, err
 	}
 
 	if meta.Stats.NumSamples == 0 {
@@ -570,7 +574,7 @@ func (c *LeveledCompactor) Write(dest string, b BlockReader, mint, maxt int64, b
 			"maxt", meta.MaxTime,
 			"duration", time.Since(start),
 		)
-		return ulid.ULID{}, nil
+		return nil, nil
 	}
 
 	level.Info(c.logger).Log(
@@ -581,7 +585,7 @@ func (c *LeveledCompactor) Write(dest string, b BlockReader, mint, maxt int64, b
 		"duration", time.Since(start),
 		"ooo", meta.Compaction.FromOutOfOrder(),
 	)
-	return uid, nil
+	return []ulid.ULID{uid}, nil
 }
 
 // instrumentedChunkWriter is used for level 1 compactions to record statistics
@@ -652,7 +656,7 @@ func (c *LeveledCompactor) write(dest string, meta *BlockMeta, blockPopulator Bl
 	}
 	closers = append(closers, indexw)
 
-	if err := blockPopulator.PopulateBlock(c.ctx, c.metrics, c.logger, c.chunkPool, c.mergeFunc, blocks, meta, indexw, chunkw); err != nil {
+	if err := blockPopulator.PopulateBlock(c.ctx, c.metrics, c.logger, c.chunkPool, c.mergeFunc, blocks, meta, indexw, chunkw, AllSortedPostings); err != nil {
 		return fmt.Errorf("populate block: %w", err)
 	}
 
@@ -718,7 +722,20 @@ func (c *LeveledCompactor) write(dest string, meta *BlockMeta, blockPopulator Bl
 }
 
 type BlockPopulator interface {
-	PopulateBlock(ctx context.Context, metrics *CompactorMetrics, logger log.Logger, chunkPool chunkenc.Pool, mergeFunc storage.VerticalChunkSeriesMergeFunc, blocks []BlockReader, meta *BlockMeta, indexw IndexWriter, chunkw ChunkWriter) error
+	PopulateBlock(ctx context.Context, metrics *CompactorMetrics, logger log.Logger, chunkPool chunkenc.Pool, mergeFunc storage.VerticalChunkSeriesMergeFunc, blocks []BlockReader, meta *BlockMeta, indexw IndexWriter, chunkw ChunkWriter, postingsFunc IndexReaderPostingsFunc) error
+}
+
+// IndexReaderPostingsFunc is a function to get a sorted posting iterator from a given index reader.
+type IndexReaderPostingsFunc func(ctx context.Context, reader IndexReader) index.Postings
+
+// AllSortedPostings returns a sorted all posting iterator from the input index reader.
+func AllSortedPostings(ctx context.Context, reader IndexReader) index.Postings {
+	k, v := index.AllPostingsKey()
+	all, err := reader.Postings(ctx, k, v)
+	if err != nil {
+		return index.ErrPostings(err)
+	}
+	return reader.SortedPostings(all)
 }
 
 type DefaultBlockPopulator struct{}
@@ -726,7 +743,7 @@ type DefaultBlockPopulator struct{}
 // PopulateBlock fills the index and chunk writers with new data gathered as the union
 // of the provided blocks. It returns meta information for the new block.
 // It expects sorted blocks input by mint.
-func (c DefaultBlockPopulator) PopulateBlock(ctx context.Context, metrics *CompactorMetrics, logger log.Logger, chunkPool chunkenc.Pool, mergeFunc storage.VerticalChunkSeriesMergeFunc, blocks []BlockReader, meta *BlockMeta, indexw IndexWriter, chunkw ChunkWriter) (err error) {
+func (c DefaultBlockPopulator) PopulateBlock(ctx context.Context, metrics *CompactorMetrics, logger log.Logger, chunkPool chunkenc.Pool, mergeFunc storage.VerticalChunkSeriesMergeFunc, blocks []BlockReader, meta *BlockMeta, indexw IndexWriter, chunkw ChunkWriter, postingsFunc IndexReaderPostingsFunc) (err error) {
 	if len(blocks) == 0 {
 		return errors.New("cannot populate block from no readers")
 	}
@@ -784,14 +801,9 @@ func (c DefaultBlockPopulator) PopulateBlock(ctx context.Context, metrics *Compa
 		}
 		closers = append(closers, tombsr)
 
-		k, v := index.AllPostingsKey()
-		all, err := indexr.Postings(ctx, k, v)
-		if err != nil {
-			return err
-		}
-		all = indexr.SortedPostings(all)
+		postings := postingsFunc(ctx, indexr)
 		// Blocks meta is half open: [min, max), so subtract 1 to ensure we don't hold samples with exact meta.MaxTime timestamp.
-		sets = append(sets, NewBlockChunkSeriesSet(b.Meta().ULID, indexr, chunkr, tombsr, all, meta.MinTime, meta.MaxTime-1, false))
+		sets = append(sets, NewBlockChunkSeriesSet(b.Meta().ULID, indexr, chunkr, tombsr, postings, meta.MinTime, meta.MaxTime-1, false))
 		syms := indexr.Symbols()
 		if i == 0 {
 			symbols = syms
@@ -833,7 +845,7 @@ func (c DefaultBlockPopulator) PopulateBlock(ctx context.Context, metrics *Compa
 		chksIter = s.Iterator(chksIter)
 		chks = chks[:0]
 		for chksIter.Next() {
-			// We are not iterating in streaming way over chunk as
+			// We are not iterating in a streaming way over chunks as
 			// it's more efficient to do bulk write for index and
 			// chunk file purposes.
 			chks = append(chks, chksIter.At())
@@ -842,7 +854,7 @@ func (c DefaultBlockPopulator) PopulateBlock(ctx context.Context, metrics *Compa
 			return fmt.Errorf("chunk iter: %w", err)
 		}
 
-		// Skip the series with all deleted chunks.
+		// Skip series with all deleted chunks.
 		if len(chks) == 0 {
 			continue
 		}
diff --git a/tsdb/compact_test.go b/tsdb/compact_test.go
index b2d2ea6e7f..0df6ca0505 100644
--- a/tsdb/compact_test.go
+++ b/tsdb/compact_test.go
@@ -22,6 +22,7 @@ import (
 	"os"
 	"path"
 	"path/filepath"
+	"strconv"
 	"sync"
 	"testing"
 	"time"
@@ -37,6 +38,7 @@ import (
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/tsdb/chunkenc"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/tsdb/chunks"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/tsdb/fileutil"
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/tsdb/index"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/tsdb/tombstones"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/tsdb/tsdbutil"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/tsdb/wlog"
@@ -492,6 +494,7 @@ func TestCompaction_populateBlock(t *testing.T) {
 		inputSeriesSamples [][]seriesSamples
 		compactMinTime     int64
 		compactMaxTime     int64 // When not defined the test runner sets a default of math.MaxInt64.
+		irPostingsFunc     IndexReaderPostingsFunc
 		expSeriesSamples   []seriesSamples
 		expErr             error
 	}{
@@ -960,6 +963,60 @@ func TestCompaction_populateBlock(t *testing.T) {
 				},
 			},
 		},
+		{
+			title: "Populate from single block with index reader postings function selecting different series. Expect empty block.",
+			inputSeriesSamples: [][]seriesSamples{
+				{
+					{
+						lset:   map[string]string{"a": "b"},
+						chunks: [][]sample{{{t: 0}, {t: 10}}, {{t: 11}, {t: 20}}},
+					},
+				},
+			},
+			irPostingsFunc: func(ctx context.Context, reader IndexReader) index.Postings {
+				p, err := reader.Postings(ctx, "a", "c")
+				if err != nil {
+					return index.EmptyPostings()
+				}
+				return reader.SortedPostings(p)
+			},
+		},
+		{
+			title: "Populate from single block with index reader postings function selecting one series. Expect partial block.",
+			inputSeriesSamples: [][]seriesSamples{
+				{
+					{
+						lset:   map[string]string{"a": "b"},
+						chunks: [][]sample{{{t: 0}, {t: 10}}, {{t: 11}, {t: 20}}},
+					},
+					{
+						lset:   map[string]string{"a": "c"},
+						chunks: [][]sample{{{t: 0}, {t: 10}}, {{t: 11}, {t: 20}}},
+					},
+					{
+						lset:   map[string]string{"a": "d"},
+						chunks: [][]sample{{{t: 0}, {t: 10}}, {{t: 11}, {t: 20}}},
+					},
+				},
+			},
+			irPostingsFunc: func(ctx context.Context, reader IndexReader) index.Postings {
+				p, err := reader.Postings(ctx, "a", "c", "d")
+				if err != nil {
+					return index.EmptyPostings()
+				}
+				return reader.SortedPostings(p)
+			},
+			expSeriesSamples: []seriesSamples{
+				{
+					lset:   map[string]string{"a": "c"},
+					chunks: [][]sample{{{t: 0}, {t: 10}}, {{t: 11}, {t: 20}}},
+				},
+				{
+					lset:   map[string]string{"a": "d"},
+					chunks: [][]sample{{{t: 0}, {t: 10}}, {{t: 11}, {t: 20}}},
+				},
+			},
+		},
 	} {
 		t.Run(tc.title, func(t *testing.T) {
 			blocks := make([]BlockReader, 0, len(tc.inputSeriesSamples))
@@ -981,7 +1038,11 @@ func TestCompaction_populateBlock(t *testing.T) {
 
 			iw := &mockIndexWriter{}
 			blockPopulator := DefaultBlockPopulator{}
-			err = blockPopulator.PopulateBlock(c.ctx, c.metrics, c.logger, c.chunkPool, c.mergeFunc, blocks, meta, iw, nopChunkWriter{})
+			irPostingsFunc := AllSortedPostings
+			if tc.irPostingsFunc != nil {
+				irPostingsFunc = tc.irPostingsFunc
+			}
+			err = blockPopulator.PopulateBlock(c.ctx, c.metrics, c.logger, c.chunkPool, c.mergeFunc, blocks, meta, iw, nopChunkWriter{}, irPostingsFunc)
 			if tc.expErr != nil {
 				require.Error(t, err)
 				require.Equal(t, tc.expErr.Error(), err.Error())
@@ -1129,7 +1190,7 @@ func BenchmarkCompactionFromHead(b *testing.B) {
 			for ln := 0; ln < labelNames; ln++ {
 				app := h.Appender(context.Background())
 				for lv := 0; lv < labelValues; lv++ {
-					app.Append(0, labels.FromStrings(fmt.Sprintf("%d", ln), fmt.Sprintf("%d%s%d", lv, postingsBenchSuffix, ln)), 0, 0)
+					app.Append(0, labels.FromStrings(strconv.Itoa(ln), fmt.Sprintf("%d%s%d", lv, postingsBenchSuffix, ln)), 0, 0)
 				}
 				require.NoError(b, app.Commit())
 			}
@@ -1161,7 +1222,7 @@ func BenchmarkCompactionFromOOOHead(b *testing.B) {
 			for ln := 0; ln < labelNames; ln++ {
 				app := h.Appender(context.Background())
 				for lv := 0; lv < labelValues; lv++ {
-					lbls := labels.FromStrings(fmt.Sprintf("%d", ln), fmt.Sprintf("%d%s%d", lv, postingsBenchSuffix, ln))
+					lbls := labels.FromStrings(strconv.Itoa(ln), fmt.Sprintf("%d%s%d", lv, postingsBenchSuffix, ln))
 					_, err = app.Append(0, lbls, int64(totalSamples), 0)
 					require.NoError(b, err)
 					for ts := 0; ts < totalSamples; ts++ {
@@ -1297,7 +1358,7 @@ func TestCancelCompactions(t *testing.T) {
 		// This checks that the `context.Canceled` error is properly checked at all levels:
 		// - tsdb_errors.NewMulti() should have the Is() method implemented for correct checks.
 		// - callers should check with errors.Is() instead of ==.
-		readOnlyDB, err := OpenDBReadOnly(tmpdirCopy, log.NewNopLogger())
+		readOnlyDB, err := OpenDBReadOnly(tmpdirCopy, "", log.NewNopLogger())
 		require.NoError(t, err)
 		blocks, err := readOnlyDB.Blocks()
 		require.NoError(t, err)
@@ -1483,12 +1544,12 @@ func TestHeadCompactionWithHistograms(t *testing.T) {
 			maxt := head.MaxTime() + 1 // Block intervals are half-open: [b.MinTime, b.MaxTime).
 			compactor, err := NewLeveledCompactor(context.Background(), nil, nil, []int64{DefaultBlockDuration}, chunkenc.NewPool(), nil)
 			require.NoError(t, err)
-			id, err := compactor.Write(head.opts.ChunkDirRoot, head, mint, maxt, nil)
+			ids, err := compactor.Write(head.opts.ChunkDirRoot, head, mint, maxt, nil)
 			require.NoError(t, err)
-			require.NotEqual(t, ulid.ULID{}, id)
+			require.Len(t, ids, 1)
 
 			// Open the block and query it and check the histograms.
-			block, err := OpenBlock(nil, path.Join(head.opts.ChunkDirRoot, id.String()), nil)
+			block, err := OpenBlock(nil, path.Join(head.opts.ChunkDirRoot, ids[0].String()), nil)
 			require.NoError(t, err)
 			t.Cleanup(func() {
 				require.NoError(t, block.Close())
@@ -1597,8 +1658,8 @@ func TestSparseHistogramSpaceSavings(t *testing.T) {
 				sparseApp := sparseHead.Appender(context.Background())
 				numOldSeriesPerHistogram := 0
 
-				var oldULID ulid.ULID
-				var sparseULID ulid.ULID
+				var oldULIDs []ulid.ULID
+				var sparseULIDs []ulid.ULID
 
 				var wg sync.WaitGroup
 
@@ -1625,9 +1686,9 @@ func TestSparseHistogramSpaceSavings(t *testing.T) {
 					maxt := sparseHead.MaxTime() + 1 // Block intervals are half-open: [b.MinTime, b.MaxTime).
 					compactor, err := NewLeveledCompactor(context.Background(), nil, nil, []int64{DefaultBlockDuration}, chunkenc.NewPool(), nil)
 					require.NoError(t, err)
-					sparseULID, err = compactor.Write(sparseHead.opts.ChunkDirRoot, sparseHead, mint, maxt, nil)
+					sparseULIDs, err = compactor.Write(sparseHead.opts.ChunkDirRoot, sparseHead, mint, maxt, nil)
 					require.NoError(t, err)
-					require.NotEqual(t, ulid.ULID{}, sparseULID)
+					require.Len(t, sparseULIDs, 1)
 				}()
 
 				wg.Add(1)
@@ -1676,15 +1737,15 @@ func TestSparseHistogramSpaceSavings(t *testing.T) {
 					maxt := oldHead.MaxTime() + 1 // Block intervals are half-open: [b.MinTime, b.MaxTime).
 					compactor, err := NewLeveledCompactor(context.Background(), nil, nil, []int64{DefaultBlockDuration}, chunkenc.NewPool(), nil)
 					require.NoError(t, err)
-					oldULID, err = compactor.Write(oldHead.opts.ChunkDirRoot, oldHead, mint, maxt, nil)
+					oldULIDs, err = compactor.Write(oldHead.opts.ChunkDirRoot, oldHead, mint, maxt, nil)
 					require.NoError(t, err)
-					require.NotEqual(t, ulid.ULID{}, oldULID)
+					require.Len(t, oldULIDs, 1)
 				}()
 
 				wg.Wait()
 
-				oldBlockDir := filepath.Join(oldHead.opts.ChunkDirRoot, oldULID.String())
-				sparseBlockDir := filepath.Join(sparseHead.opts.ChunkDirRoot, sparseULID.String())
+				oldBlockDir := filepath.Join(oldHead.opts.ChunkDirRoot, oldULIDs[0].String())
+				sparseBlockDir := filepath.Join(sparseHead.opts.ChunkDirRoot, sparseULIDs[0].String())
 
 				oldSize, err := fileutil.DirSize(oldBlockDir)
 				require.NoError(t, err)
@@ -1845,3 +1906,22 @@ func TestCompactBlockMetas(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 	require.Equal(t, expected, output)
 }
+
+func TestCompactEmptyResultBlockWithTombstone(t *testing.T) {
+	ctx := context.Background()
+	tmpdir := t.TempDir()
+	blockDir := createBlock(t, tmpdir, genSeries(1, 1, 0, 10))
+	block, err := OpenBlock(nil, blockDir, nil)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	// Write tombstone covering the whole block.
+	err = block.Delete(ctx, 0, 10, labels.MustNewMatcher(labels.MatchEqual, defaultLabelName, "0"))
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	c, err := NewLeveledCompactor(ctx, nil, log.NewNopLogger(), []int64{0}, nil, nil)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	ulids, err := c.Compact(tmpdir, []string{blockDir}, []*Block{block})
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	require.Nil(t, ulids)
+	require.NoError(t, block.Close())
+}
diff --git a/tsdb/db.go b/tsdb/db.go
index 22292ab16e..090d6fcf0c 100644
--- a/tsdb/db.go
+++ b/tsdb/db.go
@@ -189,10 +189,25 @@ type Options struct {
 
 	// EnableSharding enables query sharding support in TSDB.
 	EnableSharding bool
+
+	// NewCompactorFunc is a function that returns a TSDB compactor.
+	NewCompactorFunc NewCompactorFunc
+
+	// BlockQuerierFunc is a function to return storage.Querier from a BlockReader.
+	BlockQuerierFunc BlockQuerierFunc
+
+	// BlockChunkQuerierFunc is a function to return storage.ChunkQuerier from a BlockReader.
+	BlockChunkQuerierFunc BlockChunkQuerierFunc
 }
 
+type NewCompactorFunc func(ctx context.Context, r prometheus.Registerer, l log.Logger, ranges []int64, pool chunkenc.Pool, opts *Options) (Compactor, error)
+
 type BlocksToDeleteFunc func(blocks []*Block) map[ulid.ULID]struct{}
 
+type BlockQuerierFunc func(b BlockReader, mint, maxt int64) (storage.Querier, error)
+
+type BlockChunkQuerierFunc func(b BlockReader, mint, maxt int64) (storage.ChunkQuerier, error)
+
 // DB handles reads and writes of time series falling into
 // a hashed partition of a seriedb.
 type DB struct {
@@ -206,7 +221,7 @@ type DB struct {
 	compactor      Compactor
 	blocksToDelete BlocksToDeleteFunc
 
-	// Mutex for that must be held when modifying the general block layout or lastGarbageCollectedMmapRef.
+	// mtx must be held when modifying the general block layout or lastGarbageCollectedMmapRef.
 	mtx    sync.RWMutex
 	blocks []*Block
 
@@ -239,6 +254,10 @@ type DB struct {
 	writeNotified wlog.WriteNotified
 
 	registerer prometheus.Registerer
+
+	blockQuerierFunc BlockQuerierFunc
+
+	blockChunkQuerierFunc BlockChunkQuerierFunc
 }
 
 type dbMetrics struct {
@@ -383,26 +402,36 @@ var ErrClosed = errors.New("db already closed")
 // Current implementation doesn't support concurrency so
 // all API calls should happen in the same go routine.
 type DBReadOnly struct {
-	logger  log.Logger
-	dir     string
-	closers []io.Closer
-	closed  chan struct{}
+	logger     log.Logger
+	dir        string
+	sandboxDir string
+	closers    []io.Closer
+	closed     chan struct{}
 }
 
 // OpenDBReadOnly opens DB in the given directory for read only operations.
-func OpenDBReadOnly(dir string, l log.Logger) (*DBReadOnly, error) {
+func OpenDBReadOnly(dir, sandboxDirRoot string, l log.Logger) (*DBReadOnly, error) {
 	if _, err := os.Stat(dir); err != nil {
 		return nil, fmt.Errorf("opening the db dir: %w", err)
 	}
 
+	if sandboxDirRoot == "" {
+		sandboxDirRoot = dir
+	}
+	sandboxDir, err := os.MkdirTemp(sandboxDirRoot, "tmp_dbro_sandbox")
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("setting up sandbox dir: %w", err)
+	}
+
 	if l == nil {
 		l = log.NewNopLogger()
 	}
 
 	return &DBReadOnly{
-		logger: l,
-		dir:    dir,
-		closed: make(chan struct{}),
+		logger:     l,
+		dir:        dir,
+		sandboxDir: sandboxDir,
+		closed:     make(chan struct{}),
 	}, nil
 }
 
@@ -491,7 +520,14 @@ func (db *DBReadOnly) loadDataAsQueryable(maxt int64) (storage.SampleAndChunkQue
 	}
 
 	opts := DefaultHeadOptions()
-	opts.ChunkDirRoot = db.dir
+	// Hard link the chunk files to a dir in db.sandboxDir in case the Head needs to truncate some of them
+	// or cut new ones while replaying the WAL.
+	// See https://github.com/prometheus/prometheus/issues/11618.
+	err = chunks.HardLinkChunkFiles(mmappedChunksDir(db.dir), mmappedChunksDir(db.sandboxDir))
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+	opts.ChunkDirRoot = db.sandboxDir
 	head, err := NewHead(nil, db.logger, nil, nil, opts, NewHeadStats())
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, err
@@ -519,7 +555,7 @@ func (db *DBReadOnly) loadDataAsQueryable(maxt int64) (storage.SampleAndChunkQue
 			}
 		}
 		opts := DefaultHeadOptions()
-		opts.ChunkDirRoot = db.dir
+		opts.ChunkDirRoot = db.sandboxDir
 		head, err = NewHead(nil, db.logger, w, wbl, opts, NewHeadStats())
 		if err != nil {
 			return nil, err
@@ -537,10 +573,12 @@ func (db *DBReadOnly) loadDataAsQueryable(maxt int64) (storage.SampleAndChunkQue
 
 	db.closers = append(db.closers, head)
 	return &DB{
-		dir:    db.dir,
-		logger: db.logger,
-		blocks: blocks,
-		head:   head,
+		dir:                   db.dir,
+		logger:                db.logger,
+		blocks:                blocks,
+		head:                  head,
+		blockQuerierFunc:      NewBlockQuerier,
+		blockChunkQuerierFunc: NewBlockChunkQuerier,
 	}, nil
 }
 
@@ -690,8 +728,14 @@ func (db *DBReadOnly) Block(blockID string) (BlockReader, error) {
 	return block, nil
 }
 
-// Close all block readers.
+// Close all block readers and delete the sandbox dir.
 func (db *DBReadOnly) Close() error {
+	defer func() {
+		// Delete the temporary sandbox directory that was created when opening the DB.
+		if err := os.RemoveAll(db.sandboxDir); err != nil {
+			level.Error(db.logger).Log("msg", "delete sandbox dir", "err", err)
+		}
+	}()
 	select {
 	case <-db.closed:
 		return ErrClosed
@@ -828,16 +872,32 @@ func open(dir string, l log.Logger, r prometheus.Registerer, opts *Options, rngs
 	}
 
 	ctx, cancel := context.WithCancel(context.Background())
-	db.compactor, err = NewLeveledCompactorWithOptions(ctx, r, l, rngs, db.chunkPool, LeveledCompactorOptions{
-		MaxBlockChunkSegmentSize:    opts.MaxBlockChunkSegmentSize,
-		EnableOverlappingCompaction: opts.EnableOverlappingCompaction,
-	})
+	if opts.NewCompactorFunc != nil {
+		db.compactor, err = opts.NewCompactorFunc(ctx, r, l, rngs, db.chunkPool, opts)
+	} else {
+		db.compactor, err = NewLeveledCompactorWithOptions(ctx, r, l, rngs, db.chunkPool, LeveledCompactorOptions{
+			MaxBlockChunkSegmentSize:    opts.MaxBlockChunkSegmentSize,
+			EnableOverlappingCompaction: opts.EnableOverlappingCompaction,
+		})
+	}
 	if err != nil {
 		cancel()
-		return nil, fmt.Errorf("create leveled compactor: %w", err)
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("create compactor: %w", err)
 	}
 	db.compactCancel = cancel
 
+	if opts.BlockQuerierFunc == nil {
+		db.blockQuerierFunc = NewBlockQuerier
+	} else {
+		db.blockQuerierFunc = opts.BlockQuerierFunc
+	}
+
+	if opts.BlockChunkQuerierFunc == nil {
+		db.blockChunkQuerierFunc = NewBlockChunkQuerier
+	} else {
+		db.blockChunkQuerierFunc = opts.BlockChunkQuerierFunc
+	}
+
 	var wal, wbl *wlog.WL
 	segmentSize := wlog.DefaultSegmentSize
 	// Wal is enabled.
@@ -1304,13 +1364,11 @@ func (db *DB) compactOOO(dest string, oooHead *OOOCompactionHead) (_ []ulid.ULID
 	for t := blockSize * (oooHeadMint / blockSize); t <= oooHeadMaxt; t += blockSize {
 		mint, maxt := t, t+blockSize
 		// Block intervals are half-open: [b.MinTime, b.MaxTime). Block intervals are always +1 than the total samples it includes.
-		uid, err := db.compactor.Write(dest, oooHead.CloneForTimeRange(mint, maxt-1), mint, maxt, meta)
+		uids, err := db.compactor.Write(dest, oooHead.CloneForTimeRange(mint, maxt-1), mint, maxt, meta)
 		if err != nil {
 			return nil, err
 		}
-		if uid.Compare(ulid.ULID{}) != 0 {
-			ulids = append(ulids, uid)
-		}
+		ulids = append(ulids, uids...)
 	}
 
 	if len(ulids) == 0 {
@@ -1332,23 +1390,26 @@ func (db *DB) compactOOO(dest string, oooHead *OOOCompactionHead) (_ []ulid.ULID
 // compactHead compacts the given RangeHead.
 // The compaction mutex should be held before calling this method.
 func (db *DB) compactHead(head *RangeHead) error {
-	uid, err := db.compactor.Write(db.dir, head, head.MinTime(), head.BlockMaxTime(), nil)
+	uids, err := db.compactor.Write(db.dir, head, head.MinTime(), head.BlockMaxTime(), nil)
 	if err != nil {
 		return fmt.Errorf("persist head block: %w", err)
 	}
 
 	if err := db.reloadBlocks(); err != nil {
-		if errRemoveAll := os.RemoveAll(filepath.Join(db.dir, uid.String())); errRemoveAll != nil {
-			return tsdb_errors.NewMulti(
-				fmt.Errorf("reloadBlocks blocks: %w", err),
-				fmt.Errorf("delete persisted head block after failed db reloadBlocks:%s: %w", uid, errRemoveAll),
-			).Err()
+		multiErr := tsdb_errors.NewMulti(fmt.Errorf("reloadBlocks blocks: %w", err))
+		for _, uid := range uids {
+			if errRemoveAll := os.RemoveAll(filepath.Join(db.dir, uid.String())); errRemoveAll != nil {
+				multiErr.Add(fmt.Errorf("delete persisted head block after failed db reloadBlocks:%s: %w", uid, errRemoveAll))
+			}
 		}
-		return fmt.Errorf("reloadBlocks blocks: %w", err)
+		return multiErr.Err()
 	}
 	if err = db.head.truncateMemory(head.BlockMaxTime()); err != nil {
 		return fmt.Errorf("head memory truncate: %w", err)
 	}
+
+	db.head.RebuildSymbolTable(db.logger)
+
 	return nil
 }
 
@@ -1379,16 +1440,19 @@ func (db *DB) compactBlocks() (err error) {
 		default:
 		}
 
-		uid, err := db.compactor.Compact(db.dir, plan, db.blocks)
+		uids, err := db.compactor.Compact(db.dir, plan, db.blocks)
 		if err != nil {
 			return fmt.Errorf("compact %s: %w", plan, err)
 		}
 
 		if err := db.reloadBlocks(); err != nil {
-			if err := os.RemoveAll(filepath.Join(db.dir, uid.String())); err != nil {
-				return fmt.Errorf("delete compacted block after failed db reloadBlocks:%s: %w", uid, err)
+			errs := tsdb_errors.NewMulti(fmt.Errorf("reloadBlocks blocks: %w", err))
+			for _, uid := range uids {
+				if errRemoveAll := os.RemoveAll(filepath.Join(db.dir, uid.String())); errRemoveAll != nil {
+					errs.Add(fmt.Errorf("delete persisted block after failed db reloadBlocks:%s: %w", uid, errRemoveAll))
+				}
 			}
-			return fmt.Errorf("reloadBlocks blocks: %w", err)
+			return errs.Err()
 		}
 	}
 
@@ -1431,7 +1495,7 @@ func (db *DB) reloadBlocks() (err error) {
 		db.metrics.reloads.Inc()
 	}()
 
-	// Now that we reload TSDB every minute, there is high chance for race condition with a reload
+	// Now that we reload TSDB every minute, there is a high chance for a race condition with a reload
 	// triggered by CleanTombstones(). We need to lock the reload to avoid the situation where
 	// a normal reload and CleanTombstones try to delete the same block.
 	db.mtx.Lock()
@@ -1509,12 +1573,15 @@ func (db *DB) reloadBlocks() (err error) {
 	oldBlocks := db.blocks
 	db.blocks = toLoad
 
-	blockMetas := make([]BlockMeta, 0, len(toLoad))
-	for _, b := range toLoad {
-		blockMetas = append(blockMetas, b.Meta())
-	}
-	if overlaps := OverlappingBlocks(blockMetas); len(overlaps) > 0 {
-		level.Warn(db.logger).Log("msg", "Overlapping blocks found during reloadBlocks", "detail", overlaps.String())
+	// Only check overlapping blocks when overlapping compaction is enabled.
+	if db.opts.EnableOverlappingCompaction {
+		blockMetas := make([]BlockMeta, 0, len(toLoad))
+		for _, b := range toLoad {
+			blockMetas = append(blockMetas, b.Meta())
+		}
+		if overlaps := OverlappingBlocks(blockMetas); len(overlaps) > 0 {
+			level.Warn(db.logger).Log("msg", "Overlapping blocks found during reloadBlocks", "detail", overlaps.String())
+		}
 	}
 
 	// Append blocks to old, deletable blocks, so we can close them.
@@ -1928,7 +1995,7 @@ func (db *DB) Querier(mint, maxt int64) (_ storage.Querier, err error) {
 	if maxt >= db.head.MinTime() {
 		rh := NewRangeHead(db.head, mint, maxt)
 		var err error
-		inOrderHeadQuerier, err := NewBlockQuerier(rh, mint, maxt)
+		inOrderHeadQuerier, err := db.blockQuerierFunc(rh, mint, maxt)
 		if err != nil {
 			return nil, fmt.Errorf("open block querier for head %s: %w", rh, err)
 		}
@@ -1945,7 +2012,7 @@ func (db *DB) Querier(mint, maxt int64) (_ storage.Querier, err error) {
 		}
 		if getNew {
 			rh := NewRangeHead(db.head, newMint, maxt)
-			inOrderHeadQuerier, err = NewBlockQuerier(rh, newMint, maxt)
+			inOrderHeadQuerier, err = db.blockQuerierFunc(rh, newMint, maxt)
 			if err != nil {
 				return nil, fmt.Errorf("open block querier for head while getting new querier %s: %w", rh, err)
 			}
@@ -1959,9 +2026,9 @@ func (db *DB) Querier(mint, maxt int64) (_ storage.Querier, err error) {
 	if overlapsClosedInterval(mint, maxt, db.head.MinOOOTime(), db.head.MaxOOOTime()) {
 		rh := NewOOORangeHead(db.head, mint, maxt, db.lastGarbageCollectedMmapRef)
 		var err error
-		outOfOrderHeadQuerier, err := NewBlockQuerier(rh, mint, maxt)
+		outOfOrderHeadQuerier, err := db.blockQuerierFunc(rh, mint, maxt)
 		if err != nil {
-			// If NewBlockQuerier() failed, make sure to clean up the pending read created by NewOOORangeHead.
+			// If BlockQuerierFunc() failed, make sure to clean up the pending read created by NewOOORangeHead.
 			rh.isoState.Close()
 
 			return nil, fmt.Errorf("open block querier for ooo head %s: %w", rh, err)
@@ -1971,7 +2038,7 @@ func (db *DB) Querier(mint, maxt int64) (_ storage.Querier, err error) {
 	}
 
 	for _, b := range blocks {
-		q, err := NewBlockQuerier(b, mint, maxt)
+		q, err := db.blockQuerierFunc(b, mint, maxt)
 		if err != nil {
 			return nil, fmt.Errorf("open querier for block %s: %w", b, err)
 		}
@@ -2009,7 +2076,7 @@ func (db *DB) blockChunkQuerierForRange(mint, maxt int64) (_ []storage.ChunkQuer
 
 	if maxt >= db.head.MinTime() {
 		rh := NewRangeHead(db.head, mint, maxt)
-		inOrderHeadQuerier, err := NewBlockChunkQuerier(rh, mint, maxt)
+		inOrderHeadQuerier, err := db.blockChunkQuerierFunc(rh, mint, maxt)
 		if err != nil {
 			return nil, fmt.Errorf("open querier for head %s: %w", rh, err)
 		}
@@ -2026,7 +2093,7 @@ func (db *DB) blockChunkQuerierForRange(mint, maxt int64) (_ []storage.ChunkQuer
 		}
 		if getNew {
 			rh := NewRangeHead(db.head, newMint, maxt)
-			inOrderHeadQuerier, err = NewBlockChunkQuerier(rh, newMint, maxt)
+			inOrderHeadQuerier, err = db.blockChunkQuerierFunc(rh, newMint, maxt)
 			if err != nil {
 				return nil, fmt.Errorf("open querier for head while getting new querier %s: %w", rh, err)
 			}
@@ -2039,8 +2106,11 @@ func (db *DB) blockChunkQuerierForRange(mint, maxt int64) (_ []storage.ChunkQuer
 
 	if overlapsClosedInterval(mint, maxt, db.head.MinOOOTime(), db.head.MaxOOOTime()) {
 		rh := NewOOORangeHead(db.head, mint, maxt, db.lastGarbageCollectedMmapRef)
-		outOfOrderHeadQuerier, err := NewBlockChunkQuerier(rh, mint, maxt)
+		outOfOrderHeadQuerier, err := db.blockChunkQuerierFunc(rh, mint, maxt)
 		if err != nil {
+			// If NewBlockQuerier() failed, make sure to clean up the pending read created by NewOOORangeHead.
+			rh.isoState.Close()
+
 			return nil, fmt.Errorf("open block chunk querier for ooo head %s: %w", rh, err)
 		}
 
@@ -2048,7 +2118,7 @@ func (db *DB) blockChunkQuerierForRange(mint, maxt int64) (_ []storage.ChunkQuer
 	}
 
 	for _, b := range blocks {
-		q, err := NewBlockChunkQuerier(b, mint, maxt)
+		q, err := db.blockChunkQuerierFunc(b, mint, maxt)
 		if err != nil {
 			return nil, fmt.Errorf("open querier for block %s: %w", b, err)
 		}
@@ -2117,7 +2187,7 @@ func (db *DB) CleanTombstones() (err error) {
 		cleanUpCompleted = true
 
 		for _, pb := range db.Blocks() {
-			uid, safeToDelete, cleanErr := pb.CleanTombstones(db.Dir(), db.compactor)
+			uids, safeToDelete, cleanErr := pb.CleanTombstones(db.Dir(), db.compactor)
 			if cleanErr != nil {
 				return fmt.Errorf("clean tombstones: %s: %w", pb.Dir(), cleanErr)
 			}
@@ -2141,7 +2211,7 @@ func (db *DB) CleanTombstones() (err error) {
 			}
 
 			// Delete new block if it was created.
-			if uid != nil && *uid != (ulid.ULID{}) {
+			for _, uid := range uids {
 				dir := filepath.Join(db.Dir(), uid.String())
 				if err := os.RemoveAll(dir); err != nil {
 					level.Error(db.logger).Log("msg", "failed to delete block after failed `CleanTombstones`", "dir", dir, "err", err)
diff --git a/tsdb/db_test.go b/tsdb/db_test.go
index 71b2f05ac7..770b1a1b48 100644
--- a/tsdb/db_test.go
+++ b/tsdb/db_test.go
@@ -25,6 +25,7 @@ import (
 	"os"
 	"path"
 	"path/filepath"
+	"runtime"
 	"sort"
 	"strconv"
 	"sync"
@@ -502,7 +503,7 @@ func TestAmendHistogramDatapointCausesError(t *testing.T) {
 	_, err = app.Append(0, labels.FromStrings("a", "b"), 0, 0)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	_, err = app.Append(0, labels.FromStrings("a", "b"), 0, 1)
-	require.Equal(t, storage.ErrDuplicateSampleForTimestamp, err)
+	require.ErrorIs(t, err, storage.ErrDuplicateSampleForTimestamp)
 	require.NoError(t, app.Rollback())
 
 	h := histogram.Histogram{
@@ -578,7 +579,7 @@ func TestNonDuplicateNaNDatapointsCausesAmendError(t *testing.T) {
 
 	app = db.Appender(ctx)
 	_, err = app.Append(0, labels.FromStrings("a", "b"), 0, math.Float64frombits(0x7ff0000000000002))
-	require.Equal(t, storage.ErrDuplicateSampleForTimestamp, err)
+	require.ErrorIs(t, err, storage.ErrDuplicateSampleForTimestamp)
 }
 
 func TestEmptyLabelsetCausesError(t *testing.T) {
@@ -1065,7 +1066,7 @@ func TestWALSegmentSizeOptions(t *testing.T) {
 
 			for i := int64(0); i < 155; i++ {
 				app := db.Appender(context.Background())
-				ref, err := app.Append(0, labels.FromStrings("wal"+fmt.Sprintf("%d", i), "size"), i, rand.Float64())
+				ref, err := app.Append(0, labels.FromStrings("wal"+strconv.Itoa(int(i)), "size"), i, rand.Float64())
 				require.NoError(t, err)
 				for j := int64(1); j <= 78; j++ {
 					_, err := app.Append(ref, labels.EmptyLabels(), i+j, rand.Float64())
@@ -1430,9 +1431,9 @@ func (*mockCompactorFailing) Plan(string) ([]string, error) {
 	return nil, nil
 }
 
-func (c *mockCompactorFailing) Write(dest string, _ BlockReader, _, _ int64, _ *BlockMeta) (ulid.ULID, error) {
+func (c *mockCompactorFailing) Write(dest string, _ BlockReader, _, _ int64, _ *BlockMeta) ([]ulid.ULID, error) {
 	if len(c.blocks) >= c.max {
-		return ulid.ULID{}, fmt.Errorf("the compactor already did the maximum allowed blocks so it is time to fail")
+		return []ulid.ULID{}, fmt.Errorf("the compactor already did the maximum allowed blocks so it is time to fail")
 	}
 
 	block, err := OpenBlock(nil, createBlock(c.t, dest, genSeries(1, 1, 0, 1)), nil)
@@ -1451,11 +1452,11 @@ func (c *mockCompactorFailing) Write(dest string, _ BlockReader, _, _ int64, _ *
 
 	require.Equal(c.t, expectedBlocks, actualBlockDirs)
 
-	return block.Meta().ULID, nil
+	return []ulid.ULID{block.Meta().ULID}, nil
 }
 
-func (*mockCompactorFailing) Compact(string, []string, []*Block) (ulid.ULID, error) {
-	return ulid.ULID{}, nil
+func (*mockCompactorFailing) Compact(string, []string, []*Block) ([]ulid.ULID, error) {
+	return []ulid.ULID{}, nil
 }
 
 func (*mockCompactorFailing) CompactOOO(string, *OOOCompactionHead) (result []ulid.ULID, err error) {
@@ -2494,7 +2495,7 @@ func TestDBReadOnly(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 
 	// Open a read only db and ensure that the API returns the same result as the normal DB.
-	dbReadOnly, err := OpenDBReadOnly(dbDir, logger)
+	dbReadOnly, err := OpenDBReadOnly(dbDir, "", logger)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	defer func() { require.NoError(t, dbReadOnly.Close()) }()
 
@@ -2548,10 +2549,14 @@ func TestDBReadOnly(t *testing.T) {
 // TestDBReadOnlyClosing ensures that after closing the db
 // all api methods return an ErrClosed.
 func TestDBReadOnlyClosing(t *testing.T) {
-	dbDir := t.TempDir()
-	db, err := OpenDBReadOnly(dbDir, log.NewLogfmtLogger(log.NewSyncWriter(os.Stderr)))
+	sandboxDir := t.TempDir()
+	db, err := OpenDBReadOnly(t.TempDir(), sandboxDir, log.NewLogfmtLogger(log.NewSyncWriter(os.Stderr)))
 	require.NoError(t, err)
+	// The sandboxDir was there.
+	require.DirExists(t, db.sandboxDir)
 	require.NoError(t, db.Close())
+	// The sandboxDir was deleted when closing.
+	require.NoDirExists(t, db.sandboxDir)
 	require.Equal(t, db.Close(), ErrClosed)
 	_, err = db.Blocks()
 	require.Equal(t, err, ErrClosed)
@@ -2587,7 +2592,7 @@ func TestDBReadOnly_FlushWAL(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 
 	// Flush WAL.
-	db, err := OpenDBReadOnly(dbDir, logger)
+	db, err := OpenDBReadOnly(dbDir, "", logger)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 
 	flush := t.TempDir()
@@ -2595,7 +2600,7 @@ func TestDBReadOnly_FlushWAL(t *testing.T) {
 	require.NoError(t, db.Close())
 
 	// Reopen the DB from the flushed WAL block.
-	db, err = OpenDBReadOnly(flush, logger)
+	db, err = OpenDBReadOnly(flush, "", logger)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	defer func() { require.NoError(t, db.Close()) }()
 	blocks, err := db.Blocks()
@@ -2624,6 +2629,80 @@ func TestDBReadOnly_FlushWAL(t *testing.T) {
 	require.Equal(t, 1000.0, sum)
 }
 
+func TestDBReadOnly_Querier_NoAlteration(t *testing.T) {
+	countChunks := func(dir string) int {
+		files, err := os.ReadDir(mmappedChunksDir(dir))
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+		return len(files)
+	}
+
+	dirHash := func(dir string) (hash []byte) {
+		// Windows requires the DB to be closed: "xxx\lock: The process cannot access the file because it is being used by another process."
+		// But closing the DB alters the directory in this case (it'll cut a new chunk).
+		if runtime.GOOS != "windows" {
+			hash = testutil.DirHash(t, dir)
+		}
+		return
+	}
+
+	spinUpQuerierAndCheck := func(dir, sandboxDir string, chunksCount int) {
+		dBDirHash := dirHash(dir)
+		// Bootsrap a RO db from the same dir and set up a querier.
+		dbReadOnly, err := OpenDBReadOnly(dir, sandboxDir, nil)
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+		require.Equal(t, chunksCount, countChunks(dir))
+		q, err := dbReadOnly.Querier(math.MinInt, math.MaxInt)
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+		require.NoError(t, q.Close())
+		require.NoError(t, dbReadOnly.Close())
+		// The RO Head doesn't alter RW db chunks_head/.
+		require.Equal(t, chunksCount, countChunks(dir))
+		require.Equal(t, dirHash(dir), dBDirHash)
+	}
+
+	t.Run("doesn't cut chunks while replaying WAL", func(t *testing.T) {
+		db := openTestDB(t, nil, nil)
+		defer func() {
+			require.NoError(t, db.Close())
+		}()
+
+		// Append until the first mmaped head chunk.
+		for i := 0; i < 121; i++ {
+			app := db.Appender(context.Background())
+			_, err := app.Append(0, labels.FromStrings("foo", "bar"), int64(i), 0)
+			require.NoError(t, err)
+			require.NoError(t, app.Commit())
+		}
+
+		spinUpQuerierAndCheck(db.dir, t.TempDir(), 0)
+
+		// The RW Head should have no problem cutting its own chunk,
+		// this also proves that a chunk needed to be cut.
+		require.NotPanics(t, func() { db.ForceHeadMMap() })
+		require.Equal(t, 1, countChunks(db.dir))
+	})
+
+	t.Run("doesn't truncate corrupted chunks", func(t *testing.T) {
+		db := openTestDB(t, nil, nil)
+		require.NoError(t, db.Close())
+
+		// Simulate a corrupted chunk: without a header.
+		_, err := os.Create(path.Join(mmappedChunksDir(db.dir), "000001"))
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+
+		spinUpQuerierAndCheck(db.dir, t.TempDir(), 1)
+
+		// The RW Head should have no problem truncating its corrupted file:
+		// this proves that the chunk needed to be truncated.
+		db, err = Open(db.dir, nil, nil, nil, nil)
+		defer func() {
+			require.NoError(t, db.Close())
+		}()
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+		require.Equal(t, 0, countChunks(db.dir))
+	})
+}
+
 func TestDBCannotSeePartialCommits(t *testing.T) {
 	if defaultIsolationDisabled {
 		t.Skip("skipping test since tsdb isolation is disabled")
@@ -4416,6 +4495,14 @@ func TestMetadataAssertInMemoryData(t *testing.T) {
 //
 //	are not included in this compaction.
 func TestOOOCompaction(t *testing.T) {
+	for name, scenario := range sampleTypeScenarios {
+		t.Run(name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			testOOOCompaction(t, scenario)
+		})
+	}
+}
+
+func testOOOCompaction(t *testing.T, scenario sampleTypeScenario) {
 	dir := t.TempDir()
 	ctx := context.Background()
 
@@ -4437,9 +4524,9 @@ func TestOOOCompaction(t *testing.T) {
 		app := db.Appender(context.Background())
 		for min := fromMins; min <= toMins; min++ {
 			ts := min * time.Minute.Milliseconds()
-			_, err := app.Append(0, series1, ts, float64(ts))
+			_, _, err := scenario.appendFunc(app, series1, ts, ts)
 			require.NoError(t, err)
-			_, err = app.Append(0, series2, ts, float64(2*ts))
+			_, _, err = scenario.appendFunc(app, series2, ts, 2*ts)
 			require.NoError(t, err)
 		}
 		require.NoError(t, app.Commit())
@@ -4472,8 +4559,8 @@ func TestOOOCompaction(t *testing.T) {
 			fromMins, toMins := r[0], r[1]
 			for min := fromMins; min <= toMins; min++ {
 				ts := min * time.Minute.Milliseconds()
-				series1Samples = append(series1Samples, sample{ts, float64(ts), nil, nil})
-				series2Samples = append(series2Samples, sample{ts, float64(2 * ts), nil, nil})
+				series1Samples = append(series1Samples, scenario.sampleFunc(ts, ts))
+				series2Samples = append(series2Samples, scenario.sampleFunc(ts, 2*ts))
 			}
 		}
 		expRes := map[string][]chunks.Sample{
@@ -4485,7 +4572,7 @@ func TestOOOCompaction(t *testing.T) {
 		require.NoError(t, err)
 
 		actRes := query(t, q, labels.MustNewMatcher(labels.MatchRegexp, "foo", "bar.*"))
-		require.Equal(t, expRes, actRes)
+		requireEqualSeries(t, expRes, actRes, true)
 	}
 
 	verifyDBSamples() // Before any compaction.
@@ -4495,7 +4582,7 @@ func TestOOOCompaction(t *testing.T) {
 		ms, created, err := db.head.getOrCreate(lbls.Hash(), lbls)
 		require.NoError(t, err)
 		require.False(t, created)
-		require.Greater(t, ms.ooo.oooHeadChunk.chunk.NumSamples(), 0)
+		require.Positive(t, ms.ooo.oooHeadChunk.chunk.NumSamples())
 		require.Len(t, ms.ooo.oooMmappedChunks, 14) // 7 original, 7 duplicate.
 	}
 	checkNonEmptyOOOChunk(series1)
@@ -4540,8 +4627,8 @@ func TestOOOCompaction(t *testing.T) {
 		series2Samples := make([]chunks.Sample, 0, toMins-fromMins+1)
 		for min := fromMins; min <= toMins; min++ {
 			ts := min * time.Minute.Milliseconds()
-			series1Samples = append(series1Samples, sample{ts, float64(ts), nil, nil})
-			series2Samples = append(series2Samples, sample{ts, float64(2 * ts), nil, nil})
+			series1Samples = append(series1Samples, scenario.sampleFunc(ts, ts))
+			series2Samples = append(series2Samples, scenario.sampleFunc(ts, 2*ts))
 		}
 		expRes := map[string][]chunks.Sample{
 			series1.String(): series1Samples,
@@ -4552,7 +4639,7 @@ func TestOOOCompaction(t *testing.T) {
 		require.NoError(t, err)
 
 		actRes := query(t, q, labels.MustNewMatcher(labels.MatchRegexp, "foo", "bar.*"))
-		require.Equal(t, expRes, actRes)
+		requireEqualSeries(t, expRes, actRes, true)
 	}
 
 	// Checking for expected data in the blocks.
@@ -4596,6 +4683,14 @@ func TestOOOCompaction(t *testing.T) {
 // TestOOOCompactionWithNormalCompaction tests if OOO compaction is performed
 // when the normal head's compaction is done.
 func TestOOOCompactionWithNormalCompaction(t *testing.T) {
+	for name, scenario := range sampleTypeScenarios {
+		t.Run(name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			testOOOCompactionWithNormalCompaction(t, scenario)
+		})
+	}
+}
+
+func testOOOCompactionWithNormalCompaction(t *testing.T, scenario sampleTypeScenario) {
 	dir := t.TempDir()
 	ctx := context.Background()
 
@@ -4617,9 +4712,9 @@ func TestOOOCompactionWithNormalCompaction(t *testing.T) {
 		app := db.Appender(context.Background())
 		for min := fromMins; min <= toMins; min++ {
 			ts := min * time.Minute.Milliseconds()
-			_, err := app.Append(0, series1, ts, float64(ts))
+			_, _, err := scenario.appendFunc(app, series1, ts, ts)
 			require.NoError(t, err)
-			_, err = app.Append(0, series2, ts, float64(2*ts))
+			_, _, err = scenario.appendFunc(app, series2, ts, 2*ts)
 			require.NoError(t, err)
 		}
 		require.NoError(t, app.Commit())
@@ -4636,7 +4731,7 @@ func TestOOOCompactionWithNormalCompaction(t *testing.T) {
 		ms, created, err := db.head.getOrCreate(lbls.Hash(), lbls)
 		require.NoError(t, err)
 		require.False(t, created)
-		require.Greater(t, ms.ooo.oooHeadChunk.chunk.NumSamples(), 0)
+		require.Positive(t, ms.ooo.oooHeadChunk.chunk.NumSamples())
 	}
 
 	// If the normal Head is not compacted, the OOO head compaction does not take place.
@@ -4672,8 +4767,8 @@ func TestOOOCompactionWithNormalCompaction(t *testing.T) {
 		series2Samples := make([]chunks.Sample, 0, toMins-fromMins+1)
 		for min := fromMins; min <= toMins; min++ {
 			ts := min * time.Minute.Milliseconds()
-			series1Samples = append(series1Samples, sample{ts, float64(ts), nil, nil})
-			series2Samples = append(series2Samples, sample{ts, float64(2 * ts), nil, nil})
+			series1Samples = append(series1Samples, scenario.sampleFunc(ts, ts))
+			series2Samples = append(series2Samples, scenario.sampleFunc(ts, 2*ts))
 		}
 		expRes := map[string][]chunks.Sample{
 			series1.String(): series1Samples,
@@ -4684,7 +4779,7 @@ func TestOOOCompactionWithNormalCompaction(t *testing.T) {
 		require.NoError(t, err)
 
 		actRes := query(t, q, labels.MustNewMatcher(labels.MatchRegexp, "foo", "bar.*"))
-		require.Equal(t, expRes, actRes)
+		requireEqualSeries(t, expRes, actRes, true)
 	}
 
 	// Checking for expected data in the blocks.
@@ -4696,6 +4791,14 @@ func TestOOOCompactionWithNormalCompaction(t *testing.T) {
 // configured to not have wal and wbl but its able to compact both the in-order
 // and out-of-order head.
 func TestOOOCompactionWithDisabledWriteLog(t *testing.T) {
+	for name, scenario := range sampleTypeScenarios {
+		t.Run(name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			testOOOCompactionWithDisabledWriteLog(t, scenario)
+		})
+	}
+}
+
+func testOOOCompactionWithDisabledWriteLog(t *testing.T, scenario sampleTypeScenario) {
 	dir := t.TempDir()
 	ctx := context.Background()
 
@@ -4718,9 +4821,9 @@ func TestOOOCompactionWithDisabledWriteLog(t *testing.T) {
 		app := db.Appender(context.Background())
 		for min := fromMins; min <= toMins; min++ {
 			ts := min * time.Minute.Milliseconds()
-			_, err := app.Append(0, series1, ts, float64(ts))
+			_, _, err := scenario.appendFunc(app, series1, ts, ts)
 			require.NoError(t, err)
-			_, err = app.Append(0, series2, ts, float64(2*ts))
+			_, _, err = scenario.appendFunc(app, series2, ts, 2*ts)
 			require.NoError(t, err)
 		}
 		require.NoError(t, app.Commit())
@@ -4737,7 +4840,7 @@ func TestOOOCompactionWithDisabledWriteLog(t *testing.T) {
 		ms, created, err := db.head.getOrCreate(lbls.Hash(), lbls)
 		require.NoError(t, err)
 		require.False(t, created)
-		require.Greater(t, ms.ooo.oooHeadChunk.chunk.NumSamples(), 0)
+		require.Positive(t, ms.ooo.oooHeadChunk.chunk.NumSamples())
 	}
 
 	// If the normal Head is not compacted, the OOO head compaction does not take place.
@@ -4773,8 +4876,8 @@ func TestOOOCompactionWithDisabledWriteLog(t *testing.T) {
 		series2Samples := make([]chunks.Sample, 0, toMins-fromMins+1)
 		for min := fromMins; min <= toMins; min++ {
 			ts := min * time.Minute.Milliseconds()
-			series1Samples = append(series1Samples, sample{ts, float64(ts), nil, nil})
-			series2Samples = append(series2Samples, sample{ts, float64(2 * ts), nil, nil})
+			series1Samples = append(series1Samples, scenario.sampleFunc(ts, ts))
+			series2Samples = append(series2Samples, scenario.sampleFunc(ts, 2*ts))
 		}
 		expRes := map[string][]chunks.Sample{
 			series1.String(): series1Samples,
@@ -4785,7 +4888,7 @@ func TestOOOCompactionWithDisabledWriteLog(t *testing.T) {
 		require.NoError(t, err)
 
 		actRes := query(t, q, labels.MustNewMatcher(labels.MatchRegexp, "foo", "bar.*"))
-		require.Equal(t, expRes, actRes)
+		requireEqualSeries(t, expRes, actRes, true)
 	}
 
 	// Checking for expected data in the blocks.
@@ -4797,6 +4900,14 @@ func TestOOOCompactionWithDisabledWriteLog(t *testing.T) {
 // missing after a restart while snapshot was enabled, but the query still returns the right
 // data from the mmap chunks.
 func TestOOOQueryAfterRestartWithSnapshotAndRemovedWBL(t *testing.T) {
+	for name, scenario := range sampleTypeScenarios {
+		t.Run(name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			testOOOQueryAfterRestartWithSnapshotAndRemovedWBL(t, scenario)
+		})
+	}
+}
+
+func testOOOQueryAfterRestartWithSnapshotAndRemovedWBL(t *testing.T, scenario sampleTypeScenario) {
 	dir := t.TempDir()
 	ctx := context.Background()
 
@@ -4819,9 +4930,9 @@ func TestOOOQueryAfterRestartWithSnapshotAndRemovedWBL(t *testing.T) {
 		app := db.Appender(context.Background())
 		for min := fromMins; min <= toMins; min++ {
 			ts := min * time.Minute.Milliseconds()
-			_, err := app.Append(0, series1, ts, float64(ts))
+			_, _, err := scenario.appendFunc(app, series1, ts, ts)
 			require.NoError(t, err)
-			_, err = app.Append(0, series2, ts, float64(2*ts))
+			_, _, err = scenario.appendFunc(app, series2, ts, 2*ts)
 			require.NoError(t, err)
 		}
 		require.NoError(t, app.Commit())
@@ -4867,8 +4978,8 @@ func TestOOOQueryAfterRestartWithSnapshotAndRemovedWBL(t *testing.T) {
 		series2Samples := make([]chunks.Sample, 0, toMins-fromMins+1)
 		for min := fromMins; min <= toMins; min++ {
 			ts := min * time.Minute.Milliseconds()
-			series1Samples = append(series1Samples, sample{ts, float64(ts), nil, nil})
-			series2Samples = append(series2Samples, sample{ts, float64(2 * ts), nil, nil})
+			series1Samples = append(series1Samples, scenario.sampleFunc(ts, ts))
+			series2Samples = append(series2Samples, scenario.sampleFunc(ts, ts*2))
 		}
 		expRes := map[string][]chunks.Sample{
 			series1.String(): series1Samples,
@@ -4879,7 +4990,7 @@ func TestOOOQueryAfterRestartWithSnapshotAndRemovedWBL(t *testing.T) {
 		require.NoError(t, err)
 
 		actRes := query(t, q, labels.MustNewMatcher(labels.MatchRegexp, "foo", "bar.*"))
-		require.Equal(t, expRes, actRes)
+		requireEqualSeries(t, expRes, actRes, true)
 	}
 
 	// Checking for expected ooo data from mmap chunks.
@@ -5080,6 +5191,14 @@ func Test_ChunkQuerier_OOOQuery(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestOOOAppendAndQuery(t *testing.T) {
+	for name, scenario := range sampleTypeScenarios {
+		t.Run(name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			testOOOAppendAndQuery(t, scenario)
+		})
+	}
+}
+
+func testOOOAppendAndQuery(t *testing.T, scenario sampleTypeScenario) {
 	opts := DefaultOptions()
 	opts.OutOfOrderCapMax = 30
 	opts.OutOfOrderTimeWindow = 4 * time.Hour.Milliseconds()
@@ -5101,13 +5220,13 @@ func TestOOOAppendAndQuery(t *testing.T) {
 		key := lbls.String()
 		from, to := minutes(fromMins), minutes(toMins)
 		for min := from; min <= to; min += time.Minute.Milliseconds() {
-			val := rand.Float64()
-			_, err := app.Append(0, lbls, min, val)
+			val := rand.Intn(1000)
+			_, s, err := scenario.appendFunc(app, lbls, min, int64(val))
 			if faceError {
 				require.Error(t, err)
 			} else {
 				require.NoError(t, err)
-				appendedSamples[key] = append(appendedSamples[key], sample{t: min, f: val})
+				appendedSamples[key] = append(appendedSamples[key], s)
 				totalSamples++
 			}
 		}
@@ -5143,7 +5262,7 @@ func TestOOOAppendAndQuery(t *testing.T) {
 				expSamples[k] = append(expSamples[k], s)
 			}
 		}
-		require.Equal(t, expSamples, seriesSet)
+		requireEqualSeries(t, expSamples, seriesSet, true)
 		requireEqualOOOSamples(t, totalSamples-2, db)
 	}
 
@@ -5205,6 +5324,14 @@ func TestOOOAppendAndQuery(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestOOODisabled(t *testing.T) {
+	for name, scenario := range sampleTypeScenarios {
+		t.Run(name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			testOOODisabled(t, scenario)
+		})
+	}
+}
+
+func testOOODisabled(t *testing.T, scenario sampleTypeScenario) {
 	opts := DefaultOptions()
 	opts.OutOfOrderTimeWindow = 0
 	db := openTestDB(t, opts, nil)
@@ -5218,19 +5345,19 @@ func TestOOODisabled(t *testing.T) {
 	expSamples := make(map[string][]chunks.Sample)
 	totalSamples := 0
 	failedSamples := 0
-	addSample := func(lbls labels.Labels, fromMins, toMins int64, faceError bool) {
+
+	addSample := func(db *DB, lbls labels.Labels, fromMins, toMins int64, faceError bool) {
 		app := db.Appender(context.Background())
 		key := lbls.String()
 		from, to := minutes(fromMins), minutes(toMins)
 		for min := from; min <= to; min += time.Minute.Milliseconds() {
-			val := rand.Float64()
-			_, err := app.Append(0, lbls, min, val)
+			_, _, err := scenario.appendFunc(app, lbls, min, min)
 			if faceError {
 				require.Error(t, err)
 				failedSamples++
 			} else {
 				require.NoError(t, err)
-				expSamples[key] = append(expSamples[key], sample{t: min, f: val})
+				expSamples[key] = append(expSamples[key], scenario.sampleFunc(min, min))
 				totalSamples++
 			}
 		}
@@ -5241,21 +5368,21 @@ func TestOOODisabled(t *testing.T) {
 		}
 	}
 
-	addSample(s1, 300, 300, false) // In-order samples.
-	addSample(s1, 250, 260, true)  // Some ooo samples.
-	addSample(s1, 59, 59, true)    // Out of time window.
-	addSample(s1, 60, 65, true)    // At the edge of time window, also it would be "out of bound" without the ooo support.
-	addSample(s1, 59, 59, true)    // Out of time window again.
-	addSample(s1, 301, 310, false) // More in-order samples.
+	addSample(db, s1, 300, 300, false) // In-order samples.
+	addSample(db, s1, 250, 260, true)  // Some ooo samples.
+	addSample(db, s1, 59, 59, true)    // Out of time window.
+	addSample(db, s1, 60, 65, true)    // At the edge of time window, also it would be "out of bound" without the ooo support.
+	addSample(db, s1, 59, 59, true)    // Out of time window again.
+	addSample(db, s1, 301, 310, false) // More in-order samples.
 
 	querier, err := db.Querier(math.MinInt64, math.MaxInt64)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 
 	seriesSet := query(t, querier, labels.MustNewMatcher(labels.MatchRegexp, "foo", "bar."))
-	require.Equal(t, expSamples, seriesSet)
+	requireEqualSeries(t, expSamples, seriesSet, true)
 	requireEqualOOOSamples(t, 0, db)
 	require.Equal(t, float64(failedSamples),
-		prom_testutil.ToFloat64(db.head.metrics.outOfOrderSamples.WithLabelValues(sampleMetricTypeFloat))+prom_testutil.ToFloat64(db.head.metrics.outOfBoundSamples.WithLabelValues(sampleMetricTypeFloat)),
+		prom_testutil.ToFloat64(db.head.metrics.outOfOrderSamples.WithLabelValues(scenario.sampleType))+prom_testutil.ToFloat64(db.head.metrics.outOfBoundSamples.WithLabelValues(scenario.sampleType)),
 		"number of ooo/oob samples mismatch")
 
 	// Verifying that no OOO artifacts were generated.
@@ -5270,6 +5397,14 @@ func TestOOODisabled(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestWBLAndMmapReplay(t *testing.T) {
+	for name, scenario := range sampleTypeScenarios {
+		t.Run(name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			testWBLAndMmapReplay(t, scenario)
+		})
+	}
+}
+
+func testWBLAndMmapReplay(t *testing.T, scenario sampleTypeScenario) {
 	opts := DefaultOptions()
 	opts.OutOfOrderCapMax = 30
 	opts.OutOfOrderTimeWindow = 4 * time.Hour.Milliseconds()
@@ -5290,10 +5425,10 @@ func TestWBLAndMmapReplay(t *testing.T) {
 		key := lbls.String()
 		from, to := minutes(fromMins), minutes(toMins)
 		for min := from; min <= to; min += time.Minute.Milliseconds() {
-			val := rand.Float64()
-			_, err := app.Append(0, lbls, min, val)
+			val := rand.Intn(1000)
+			_, s, err := scenario.appendFunc(app, lbls, min, int64(val))
 			require.NoError(t, err)
-			expSamples[key] = append(expSamples[key], sample{t: min, f: val})
+			expSamples[key] = append(expSamples[key], s)
 			totalSamples++
 		}
 		require.NoError(t, app.Commit())
@@ -5311,7 +5446,7 @@ func TestWBLAndMmapReplay(t *testing.T) {
 			})
 			exp[k] = v
 		}
-		require.Equal(t, exp, seriesSet)
+		requireEqualSeries(t, exp, seriesSet, true)
 	}
 
 	// In-order samples.
@@ -5334,10 +5469,9 @@ func TestWBLAndMmapReplay(t *testing.T) {
 		chk, err := db.head.chunkDiskMapper.Chunk(mc.ref)
 		require.NoError(t, err)
 		it := chk.Iterator(nil)
-		for it.Next() == chunkenc.ValFloat {
-			ts, val := it.At()
-			s1MmapSamples = append(s1MmapSamples, sample{t: ts, f: val})
-		}
+		smpls, err := storage.ExpandSamples(it, newSample)
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+		s1MmapSamples = append(s1MmapSamples, smpls...)
 	}
 	require.NotEmpty(t, s1MmapSamples)
 
@@ -5438,8 +5572,8 @@ func TestWBLAndMmapReplay(t *testing.T) {
 			addedRecs++
 			require.NoError(t, newWbl.Log(rec))
 		}
-		require.Greater(t, markers, 0)
-		require.Greater(t, addedRecs, 0)
+		require.Positive(t, markers)
+		require.Positive(t, addedRecs)
 		require.NoError(t, newWbl.Close())
 		require.NoError(t, sr.Close())
 		require.NoError(t, os.RemoveAll(wblDir))
@@ -5455,6 +5589,14 @@ func TestWBLAndMmapReplay(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestOOOCompactionFailure(t *testing.T) {
+	for name, scenario := range sampleTypeScenarios {
+		t.Run(name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			testOOOCompactionFailure(t, scenario)
+		})
+	}
+}
+
+func testOOOCompactionFailure(t *testing.T, scenario sampleTypeScenario) {
 	dir := t.TempDir()
 	ctx := context.Background()
 
@@ -5475,7 +5617,7 @@ func TestOOOCompactionFailure(t *testing.T) {
 		app := db.Appender(context.Background())
 		for min := fromMins; min <= toMins; min++ {
 			ts := min * time.Minute.Milliseconds()
-			_, err := app.Append(0, series1, ts, float64(ts))
+			_, _, err := scenario.appendFunc(app, series1, ts, ts)
 			require.NoError(t, err)
 		}
 		require.NoError(t, app.Commit())
@@ -5563,7 +5705,7 @@ func TestOOOCompactionFailure(t *testing.T) {
 		series1Samples := make([]chunks.Sample, 0, toMins-fromMins+1)
 		for min := fromMins; min <= toMins; min++ {
 			ts := min * time.Minute.Milliseconds()
-			series1Samples = append(series1Samples, sample{ts, float64(ts), nil, nil})
+			series1Samples = append(series1Samples, scenario.sampleFunc(ts, ts))
 		}
 		expRes := map[string][]chunks.Sample{
 			series1.String(): series1Samples,
@@ -5571,9 +5713,8 @@ func TestOOOCompactionFailure(t *testing.T) {
 
 		q, err := NewBlockQuerier(block, math.MinInt64, math.MaxInt64)
 		require.NoError(t, err)
-
 		actRes := query(t, q, labels.MustNewMatcher(labels.MatchRegexp, "foo", "bar.*"))
-		require.Equal(t, expRes, actRes)
+		requireEqualSeries(t, expRes, actRes, true)
 	}
 
 	// Checking for expected data in the blocks.
@@ -5740,6 +5881,14 @@ func TestWBLCorruption(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestOOOMmapCorruption(t *testing.T) {
+	for name, scenario := range sampleTypeScenarios {
+		t.Run(name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			testOOOMmapCorruption(t, scenario)
+		})
+	}
+}
+
+func testOOOMmapCorruption(t *testing.T, scenario sampleTypeScenario) {
 	dir := t.TempDir()
 
 	opts := DefaultOptions()
@@ -5759,11 +5908,11 @@ func TestOOOMmapCorruption(t *testing.T) {
 		app := db.Appender(context.Background())
 		for min := fromMins; min <= toMins; min++ {
 			ts := min * time.Minute.Milliseconds()
-			_, err := app.Append(0, series1, ts, float64(ts))
+			_, s, err := scenario.appendFunc(app, series1, ts, ts)
 			require.NoError(t, err)
-			allSamples = append(allSamples, sample{t: ts, f: float64(ts)})
+			allSamples = append(allSamples, s)
 			if inMmapAfterCorruption {
-				expInMmapChunks = append(expInMmapChunks, sample{t: ts, f: float64(ts)})
+				expInMmapChunks = append(expInMmapChunks, s)
 			}
 		}
 		require.NoError(t, app.Commit())
@@ -5801,7 +5950,7 @@ func TestOOOMmapCorruption(t *testing.T) {
 		require.NoError(t, err)
 
 		actRes := query(t, q, labels.MustNewMatcher(labels.MatchRegexp, "foo", "bar.*"))
-		require.Equal(t, expRes, actRes)
+		requireEqualSeries(t, expRes, actRes, true)
 	}
 
 	verifySamples(allSamples)
@@ -5863,6 +6012,14 @@ func TestOOOMmapCorruption(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestOutOfOrderRuntimeConfig(t *testing.T) {
+	for name, scenario := range sampleTypeScenarios {
+		t.Run(name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			testOutOfOrderRuntimeConfig(t, scenario)
+		})
+	}
+}
+
+func testOutOfOrderRuntimeConfig(t *testing.T, scenario sampleTypeScenario) {
 	ctx := context.Background()
 
 	getDB := func(oooTimeWindow int64) *DB {
@@ -5896,10 +6053,10 @@ func TestOutOfOrderRuntimeConfig(t *testing.T) {
 		app := db.Appender(context.Background())
 		for min := fromMins; min <= toMins; min++ {
 			ts := min * time.Minute.Milliseconds()
-			_, err := app.Append(0, series1, ts, float64(ts))
+			_, s, err := scenario.appendFunc(app, series1, ts, ts)
 			if success {
 				require.NoError(t, err)
-				allSamples = append(allSamples, sample{t: ts, f: float64(ts)})
+				allSamples = append(allSamples, s)
 			} else {
 				require.Error(t, err)
 			}
@@ -5921,7 +6078,7 @@ func TestOutOfOrderRuntimeConfig(t *testing.T) {
 		require.NoError(t, err)
 
 		actRes := query(t, q, labels.MustNewMatcher(labels.MatchRegexp, "foo", "bar.*"))
-		require.Equal(t, expRes, actRes)
+		requireEqualSeries(t, expRes, actRes, true)
 	}
 
 	doOOOCompaction := func(t *testing.T, db *DB) {
@@ -6094,12 +6251,20 @@ func TestOutOfOrderRuntimeConfig(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestNoGapAfterRestartWithOOO(t *testing.T) {
+	for name, scenario := range sampleTypeScenarios {
+		t.Run(name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			testNoGapAfterRestartWithOOO(t, scenario)
+		})
+	}
+}
+
+func testNoGapAfterRestartWithOOO(t *testing.T, scenario sampleTypeScenario) {
 	series1 := labels.FromStrings("foo", "bar1")
 	addSamples := func(t *testing.T, db *DB, fromMins, toMins int64, success bool) {
 		app := db.Appender(context.Background())
 		for min := fromMins; min <= toMins; min++ {
 			ts := min * time.Minute.Milliseconds()
-			_, err := app.Append(0, series1, ts, float64(ts))
+			_, _, err := scenario.appendFunc(app, series1, ts, ts)
 			if success {
 				require.NoError(t, err)
 			} else {
@@ -6113,7 +6278,7 @@ func TestNoGapAfterRestartWithOOO(t *testing.T) {
 		var expSamples []chunks.Sample
 		for min := fromMins; min <= toMins; min++ {
 			ts := min * time.Minute.Milliseconds()
-			expSamples = append(expSamples, sample{t: ts, f: float64(ts)})
+			expSamples = append(expSamples, scenario.sampleFunc(ts, ts))
 		}
 
 		expRes := map[string][]chunks.Sample{
@@ -6124,7 +6289,7 @@ func TestNoGapAfterRestartWithOOO(t *testing.T) {
 		require.NoError(t, err)
 
 		actRes := query(t, q, labels.MustNewMatcher(labels.MatchRegexp, "foo", "bar.*"))
-		require.Equal(t, expRes, actRes)
+		requireEqualSeries(t, expRes, actRes, true)
 	}
 
 	cases := []struct {
@@ -6201,6 +6366,14 @@ func TestNoGapAfterRestartWithOOO(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestWblReplayAfterOOODisableAndRestart(t *testing.T) {
+	for name, scenario := range sampleTypeScenarios {
+		t.Run(name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			testWblReplayAfterOOODisableAndRestart(t, scenario)
+		})
+	}
+}
+
+func testWblReplayAfterOOODisableAndRestart(t *testing.T, scenario sampleTypeScenario) {
 	dir := t.TempDir()
 
 	opts := DefaultOptions()
@@ -6219,9 +6392,9 @@ func TestWblReplayAfterOOODisableAndRestart(t *testing.T) {
 		app := db.Appender(context.Background())
 		for min := fromMins; min <= toMins; min++ {
 			ts := min * time.Minute.Milliseconds()
-			_, err := app.Append(0, series1, ts, float64(ts))
+			_, s, err := scenario.appendFunc(app, series1, ts, ts)
 			require.NoError(t, err)
-			allSamples = append(allSamples, sample{t: ts, f: float64(ts)})
+			allSamples = append(allSamples, s)
 		}
 		require.NoError(t, app.Commit())
 	}
@@ -6244,7 +6417,7 @@ func TestWblReplayAfterOOODisableAndRestart(t *testing.T) {
 		require.NoError(t, err)
 
 		actRes := query(t, q, labels.MustNewMatcher(labels.MatchRegexp, "foo", "bar.*"))
-		require.Equal(t, expRes, actRes)
+		requireEqualSeries(t, expRes, actRes, true)
 	}
 
 	verifySamples(allSamples)
@@ -6260,6 +6433,14 @@ func TestWblReplayAfterOOODisableAndRestart(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestPanicOnApplyConfig(t *testing.T) {
+	for name, scenario := range sampleTypeScenarios {
+		t.Run(name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			testPanicOnApplyConfig(t, scenario)
+		})
+	}
+}
+
+func testPanicOnApplyConfig(t *testing.T, scenario sampleTypeScenario) {
 	dir := t.TempDir()
 
 	opts := DefaultOptions()
@@ -6278,9 +6459,9 @@ func TestPanicOnApplyConfig(t *testing.T) {
 		app := db.Appender(context.Background())
 		for min := fromMins; min <= toMins; min++ {
 			ts := min * time.Minute.Milliseconds()
-			_, err := app.Append(0, series1, ts, float64(ts))
+			_, s, err := scenario.appendFunc(app, series1, ts, ts)
 			require.NoError(t, err)
-			allSamples = append(allSamples, sample{t: ts, f: float64(ts)})
+			allSamples = append(allSamples, s)
 		}
 		require.NoError(t, app.Commit())
 	}
@@ -6308,6 +6489,14 @@ func TestPanicOnApplyConfig(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestDiskFillingUpAfterDisablingOOO(t *testing.T) {
+	for name, scenario := range sampleTypeScenarios {
+		t.Run(name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			testDiskFillingUpAfterDisablingOOO(t, scenario)
+		})
+	}
+}
+
+func testDiskFillingUpAfterDisablingOOO(t *testing.T, scenario sampleTypeScenario) {
 	dir := t.TempDir()
 	ctx := context.Background()
 
@@ -6327,9 +6516,9 @@ func TestDiskFillingUpAfterDisablingOOO(t *testing.T) {
 		app := db.Appender(context.Background())
 		for min := fromMins; min <= toMins; min++ {
 			ts := min * time.Minute.Milliseconds()
-			_, err := app.Append(0, series1, ts, float64(ts))
+			_, s, err := scenario.appendFunc(app, series1, ts, ts)
 			require.NoError(t, err)
-			allSamples = append(allSamples, sample{t: ts, f: float64(ts)})
+			allSamples = append(allSamples, s)
 		}
 		require.NoError(t, app.Commit())
 	}
@@ -6725,9 +6914,9 @@ func TestQueryHistogramFromBlocksWithCompaction(t *testing.T) {
 		for _, b := range blocks {
 			blockDirs = append(blockDirs, b.Dir())
 		}
-		id, err := db.compactor.Compact(db.Dir(), blockDirs, blocks)
+		ids, err := db.compactor.Compact(db.Dir(), blockDirs, blocks)
 		require.NoError(t, err)
-		require.NotEqual(t, ulid.ULID{}, id)
+		require.Len(t, ids, 1)
 		require.NoError(t, db.reload())
 		require.Len(t, db.Blocks(), 1)
 
@@ -6981,27 +7170,21 @@ Outer:
 	require.NoError(t, writerErr)
 }
 
-func requireEqualOOOSamples(t *testing.T, expectedSamples int, db *DB) {
-	require.Equal(t, float64(expectedSamples),
-		prom_testutil.ToFloat64(db.head.metrics.outOfOrderSamplesAppended.WithLabelValues(sampleMetricTypeFloat)),
-		"number of ooo appended samples mismatch")
-}
-
 type mockCompactorFn struct {
 	planFn    func() ([]string, error)
-	compactFn func() (ulid.ULID, error)
-	writeFn   func() (ulid.ULID, error)
+	compactFn func() ([]ulid.ULID, error)
+	writeFn   func() ([]ulid.ULID, error)
 }
 
 func (c *mockCompactorFn) Plan(_ string) ([]string, error) {
 	return c.planFn()
 }
 
-func (c *mockCompactorFn) Compact(_ string, _ []string, _ []*Block) (ulid.ULID, error) {
+func (c *mockCompactorFn) Compact(_ string, _ []string, _ []*Block) ([]ulid.ULID, error) {
 	return c.compactFn()
 }
 
-func (c *mockCompactorFn) Write(_ string, _ BlockReader, _, _ int64, _ *BlockMeta) (ulid.ULID, error) {
+func (c *mockCompactorFn) Write(_ string, _ BlockReader, _, _ int64, _ *BlockMeta) ([]ulid.ULID, error) {
 	return c.writeFn()
 }
 
@@ -7033,11 +7216,11 @@ func TestAbortBlockCompactions(t *testing.T) {
 			// Our custom Plan() will always return something to compact.
 			return []string{"1", "2", "3"}, nil
 		},
-		compactFn: func() (ulid.ULID, error) {
-			return ulid.ULID{}, nil
+		compactFn: func() ([]ulid.ULID, error) {
+			return []ulid.ULID{}, nil
 		},
-		writeFn: func() (ulid.ULID, error) {
-			return ulid.ULID{}, nil
+		writeFn: func() ([]ulid.ULID, error) {
+			return []ulid.ULID{}, nil
 		},
 	}
 
@@ -7046,3 +7229,112 @@ func TestAbortBlockCompactions(t *testing.T) {
 	require.True(t, db.head.compactable(), "head should be compactable")
 	require.Equal(t, 4, compactions, "expected 4 compactions to be completed")
 }
+
+func TestNewCompactorFunc(t *testing.T) {
+	opts := DefaultOptions()
+	block1 := ulid.MustNew(1, nil)
+	block2 := ulid.MustNew(2, nil)
+	opts.NewCompactorFunc = func(ctx context.Context, r prometheus.Registerer, l log.Logger, ranges []int64, pool chunkenc.Pool, opts *Options) (Compactor, error) {
+		return &mockCompactorFn{
+			planFn: func() ([]string, error) {
+				return []string{block1.String(), block2.String()}, nil
+			},
+			compactFn: func() ([]ulid.ULID, error) {
+				return []ulid.ULID{block1}, nil
+			},
+			writeFn: func() ([]ulid.ULID, error) {
+				return []ulid.ULID{block2}, nil
+			},
+		}, nil
+	}
+	db := openTestDB(t, opts, nil)
+	defer func() {
+		require.NoError(t, db.Close())
+	}()
+	plans, err := db.compactor.Plan("")
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	require.Equal(t, []string{block1.String(), block2.String()}, plans)
+	ulids, err := db.compactor.Compact("", nil, nil)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	require.Len(t, ulids, 1)
+	require.Equal(t, block1, ulids[0])
+	ulids, err = db.compactor.Write("", nil, 0, 1, nil)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	require.Len(t, ulids, 1)
+	require.Equal(t, block2, ulids[0])
+}
+
+func TestBlockQuerierAndBlockChunkQuerier(t *testing.T) {
+	opts := DefaultOptions()
+	opts.BlockQuerierFunc = func(b BlockReader, mint, maxt int64) (storage.Querier, error) {
+		// Only block with hints can be queried.
+		if len(b.Meta().Compaction.Hints) > 0 {
+			return NewBlockQuerier(b, mint, maxt)
+		}
+		return storage.NoopQuerier(), nil
+	}
+	opts.BlockChunkQuerierFunc = func(b BlockReader, mint, maxt int64) (storage.ChunkQuerier, error) {
+		// Only level 4 compaction block can be queried.
+		if b.Meta().Compaction.Level == 4 {
+			return NewBlockChunkQuerier(b, mint, maxt)
+		}
+		return storage.NoopChunkedQuerier(), nil
+	}
+
+	db := openTestDB(t, opts, nil)
+	defer func() {
+		require.NoError(t, db.Close())
+	}()
+
+	metas := []BlockMeta{
+		{Compaction: BlockMetaCompaction{Hints: []string{"test-hint"}}},
+		{Compaction: BlockMetaCompaction{Level: 4}},
+	}
+	for i := range metas {
+		// Include blockID into series to identify which block got touched.
+		serieses := []storage.Series{storage.NewListSeries(labels.FromMap(map[string]string{"block": fmt.Sprintf("block-%d", i), labels.MetricName: "test_metric"}), []chunks.Sample{sample{t: 0, f: 1}})}
+		blockDir := createBlock(t, db.Dir(), serieses)
+		b, err := OpenBlock(db.logger, blockDir, db.chunkPool)
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+
+		// Overwrite meta.json with compaction section for testing purpose.
+		b.meta.Compaction = metas[i].Compaction
+		_, err = writeMetaFile(db.logger, blockDir, &b.meta)
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+		require.NoError(t, b.Close())
+	}
+	require.NoError(t, db.reloadBlocks())
+	require.Len(t, db.Blocks(), 2)
+
+	querier, err := db.Querier(0, 500)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	defer querier.Close()
+	matcher := labels.MustNewMatcher(labels.MatchEqual, labels.MetricName, "test_metric")
+	seriesSet := querier.Select(context.Background(), false, nil, matcher)
+	count := 0
+	var lbls labels.Labels
+	for seriesSet.Next() {
+		count++
+		lbls = seriesSet.At().Labels()
+	}
+	require.NoError(t, seriesSet.Err())
+	require.Equal(t, 1, count)
+	// Make sure only block-0 is queried.
+	require.Equal(t, "block-0", lbls.Get("block"))
+
+	chunkQuerier, err := db.ChunkQuerier(0, 500)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	defer chunkQuerier.Close()
+	css := chunkQuerier.Select(context.Background(), false, nil, matcher)
+	count = 0
+	// Reset lbls variable.
+	lbls = labels.EmptyLabels()
+	for css.Next() {
+		count++
+		lbls = css.At().Labels()
+	}
+	require.NoError(t, css.Err())
+	require.Equal(t, 1, count)
+	// Make sure only block-1 is queried.
+	require.Equal(t, "block-1", lbls.Get("block"))
+}
diff --git a/tsdb/docs/format/head_chunks.md b/tsdb/docs/format/head_chunks.md
index 813d4008ca..5737f42058 100644
--- a/tsdb/docs/format/head_chunks.md
+++ b/tsdb/docs/format/head_chunks.md
@@ -27,10 +27,10 @@ in-file offset (lower 4 bytes) and segment sequence number (upper 4 bytes).
 
 # Chunk
 
-Unlike chunks in the on-disk blocks, here we additionally store series
-reference that the chunks belongs to and the mint/maxt of the chunks. This is
-because we don't have an index associated with these chunks, hence these meta
-information are used while replaying the chunks.
+Unlike chunks in the on-disk blocks, here we additionally store the series
+reference that each chunk belongs to and the mint/maxt of the chunks. This is
+because we don't have an index associated with these chunks, hence this metadata
+is used while replaying the chunks.
 
 ```
 ┌─────────────────────┬───────────────────────┬───────────────────────┬───────────────────┬───────────────┬──────────────┬────────────────┐
diff --git a/tsdb/docs/format/index.md b/tsdb/docs/format/index.md
index 53b77d9abe..e0ef21bd5b 100644
--- a/tsdb/docs/format/index.md
+++ b/tsdb/docs/format/index.md
@@ -40,7 +40,7 @@ Most of the sections described below start with a `len` field. It always specifi
 
 ### Symbol Table
 
-The symbol table holds a sorted list of deduplicated strings that occurred in label pairs of the stored series. They can be referenced from subsequent sections and significantly reduce the total index size.
+The symbol table holds a sorted list of deduplicated strings that occur in label pairs of the stored series. They can be referenced from subsequent sections and significantly reduce the total index size.
 
 The section contains a sequence of the string entries, each prefixed with the string's length in raw bytes. All strings are utf-8 encoded.
 Strings are referenced by sequential indexing. The strings are sorted in lexicographically ascending order.
diff --git a/tsdb/docs/usage.md b/tsdb/docs/usage.md
index e70b248137..7bc1ae6c5f 100644
--- a/tsdb/docs/usage.md
+++ b/tsdb/docs/usage.md
@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 # Usage
 
-TSDB can be - and is - used by other applications such as [Cortex](https://cortexmetrics.io/) and [Thanos](https://thanos.io/).
+TSDB can be - and is - used by other applications such as [Cortex](https://cortexmetrics.io/), [Thanos](https://thanos.io/), and [Grafana Mimir](https://grafana.com/oss/mimir/).
 This directory contains documentation for any developers who wish to work on or with TSDB.
 
 For a full example of instantiating a database, adding and querying data, see the [tsdb example in the docs](https://pkg.go.dev/github.com/prometheus/prometheus/tsdb).
@@ -18,7 +18,7 @@ A `DB` has the following main components:
 * [`Head`](https://pkg.go.dev/github.com/prometheus/prometheus/tsdb#DB.Head)
 * [Blocks (persistent blocks)](https://pkg.go.dev/github.com/prometheus/prometheus/tsdb#DB.Blocks)
 
-The `Head` is responsible for a lot.  Here are its main components:
+The `Head` is responsible for a lot. Here are its main components:
 
 * [WAL](https://pkg.go.dev/github.com/prometheus/prometheus/tsdb/wal#WAL) (Write Ahead Log).
 * [`stripeSeries`](https://github.com/prometheus/prometheus/blob/411021ada9ab41095923b8d2df9365b632fd40c3/tsdb/head.go#L1292):
diff --git a/tsdb/exemplar.go b/tsdb/exemplar.go
index 3dd784c623..7545ab9a60 100644
--- a/tsdb/exemplar.go
+++ b/tsdb/exemplar.go
@@ -37,7 +37,7 @@ const (
 
 type CircularExemplarStorage struct {
 	lock      sync.RWMutex
-	exemplars []*circularBufferEntry
+	exemplars []circularBufferEntry
 	nextIndex int
 	metrics   *ExemplarMetrics
 
@@ -111,7 +111,7 @@ func NewExemplarMetrics(reg prometheus.Registerer) *ExemplarMetrics {
 	return &m
 }
 
-// NewCircularExemplarStorage creates an circular in memory exemplar storage.
+// NewCircularExemplarStorage creates a circular in memory exemplar storage.
 // If we assume the average case 95 bytes per exemplar we can fit 5651272 exemplars in
 // 1GB of extra memory, accounting for the fact that this is heap allocated space.
 // If len <= 0, then the exemplar storage is essentially a noop storage but can later be
@@ -121,7 +121,7 @@ func NewCircularExemplarStorage(length int64, m *ExemplarMetrics) (ExemplarStora
 		length = 0
 	}
 	c := &CircularExemplarStorage{
-		exemplars: make([]*circularBufferEntry, length),
+		exemplars: make([]circularBufferEntry, length),
 		index:     make(map[string]*indexEntry, length/estimatedExemplarsPerSeries),
 		metrics:   m,
 	}
@@ -214,12 +214,12 @@ func (ce *CircularExemplarStorage) ValidateExemplar(l labels.Labels, e exemplar.
 	// Optimize by moving the lock to be per series (& benchmark it).
 	ce.lock.RLock()
 	defer ce.lock.RUnlock()
-	return ce.validateExemplar(seriesLabels, e, false)
+	return ce.validateExemplar(ce.index[string(seriesLabels)], e, false)
 }
 
 // Not thread safe. The appended parameters tells us whether this is an external validation, or internal
 // as a result of an AddExemplar call, in which case we should update any relevant metrics.
-func (ce *CircularExemplarStorage) validateExemplar(key []byte, e exemplar.Exemplar, appended bool) error {
+func (ce *CircularExemplarStorage) validateExemplar(idx *indexEntry, e exemplar.Exemplar, appended bool) error {
 	if len(ce.exemplars) == 0 {
 		return storage.ErrExemplarsDisabled
 	}
@@ -239,8 +239,7 @@ func (ce *CircularExemplarStorage) validateExemplar(key []byte, e exemplar.Exemp
 		return err
 	}
 
-	idx, ok := ce.index[string(key)]
-	if !ok {
+	if idx == nil {
 		return nil
 	}
 
@@ -292,7 +291,7 @@ func (ce *CircularExemplarStorage) Resize(l int64) int {
 	oldBuffer := ce.exemplars
 	oldNextIndex := int64(ce.nextIndex)
 
-	ce.exemplars = make([]*circularBufferEntry, l)
+	ce.exemplars = make([]circularBufferEntry, l)
 	ce.index = make(map[string]*indexEntry, l/estimatedExemplarsPerSeries)
 	ce.nextIndex = 0
 
@@ -311,10 +310,11 @@ func (ce *CircularExemplarStorage) Resize(l int64) int {
 		// This way we don't migrate exemplars that would just be overwritten when migrating later exemplars.
 		startIndex := (oldNextIndex - count + int64(len(oldBuffer))) % int64(len(oldBuffer))
 
+		var buf [1024]byte
 		for i := int64(0); i < count; i++ {
 			idx := (startIndex + i) % int64(len(oldBuffer))
-			if entry := oldBuffer[idx]; entry != nil {
-				ce.migrate(entry)
+			if oldBuffer[idx].ref != nil {
+				ce.migrate(&oldBuffer[idx], buf[:])
 				migrated++
 			}
 		}
@@ -328,9 +328,8 @@ func (ce *CircularExemplarStorage) Resize(l int64) int {
 
 // migrate is like AddExemplar but reuses existing structs. Expected to be called in batch and requires
 // external lock and does not compute metrics.
-func (ce *CircularExemplarStorage) migrate(entry *circularBufferEntry) {
-	var buf [1024]byte
-	seriesLabels := entry.ref.seriesLabels.Bytes(buf[:])
+func (ce *CircularExemplarStorage) migrate(entry *circularBufferEntry, buf []byte) {
+	seriesLabels := entry.ref.seriesLabels.Bytes(buf[:0])
 
 	idx, ok := ce.index[string(seriesLabels)]
 	if !ok {
@@ -344,7 +343,7 @@ func (ce *CircularExemplarStorage) migrate(entry *circularBufferEntry) {
 	idx.newest = ce.nextIndex
 
 	entry.next = noExemplar
-	ce.exemplars[ce.nextIndex] = entry
+	ce.exemplars[ce.nextIndex] = *entry
 
 	ce.nextIndex = (ce.nextIndex + 1) % len(ce.exemplars)
 }
@@ -362,7 +361,8 @@ func (ce *CircularExemplarStorage) AddExemplar(l labels.Labels, e exemplar.Exemp
 	ce.lock.Lock()
 	defer ce.lock.Unlock()
 
-	err := ce.validateExemplar(seriesLabels, e, true)
+	idx, ok := ce.index[string(seriesLabels)]
+	err := ce.validateExemplar(idx, e, true)
 	if err != nil {
 		if errors.Is(err, storage.ErrDuplicateExemplar) {
 			// Duplicate exemplar, noop.
@@ -371,25 +371,23 @@ func (ce *CircularExemplarStorage) AddExemplar(l labels.Labels, e exemplar.Exemp
 		return err
 	}
 
-	_, ok := ce.index[string(seriesLabels)]
 	if !ok {
-		ce.index[string(seriesLabels)] = &indexEntry{oldest: ce.nextIndex, seriesLabels: l}
+		idx = &indexEntry{oldest: ce.nextIndex, seriesLabels: l}
+		ce.index[string(seriesLabels)] = idx
 	} else {
-		ce.exemplars[ce.index[string(seriesLabels)].newest].next = ce.nextIndex
+		ce.exemplars[idx.newest].next = ce.nextIndex
 	}
 
-	if prev := ce.exemplars[ce.nextIndex]; prev == nil {
-		ce.exemplars[ce.nextIndex] = &circularBufferEntry{}
-	} else {
+	if prev := &ce.exemplars[ce.nextIndex]; prev.ref != nil {
 		// There exists an exemplar already on this ce.nextIndex entry,
 		// drop it, to make place for others.
-		var buf [1024]byte
-		prevLabels := prev.ref.seriesLabels.Bytes(buf[:])
 		if prev.next == noExemplar {
 			// Last item for this series, remove index entry.
+			var buf [1024]byte
+			prevLabels := prev.ref.seriesLabels.Bytes(buf[:])
 			delete(ce.index, string(prevLabels))
 		} else {
-			ce.index[string(prevLabels)].oldest = prev.next
+			prev.ref.oldest = prev.next
 		}
 	}
 
@@ -397,8 +395,8 @@ func (ce *CircularExemplarStorage) AddExemplar(l labels.Labels, e exemplar.Exemp
 	// since this is the first exemplar stored for this series.
 	ce.exemplars[ce.nextIndex].next = noExemplar
 	ce.exemplars[ce.nextIndex].exemplar = e
-	ce.exemplars[ce.nextIndex].ref = ce.index[string(seriesLabels)]
-	ce.index[string(seriesLabels)].newest = ce.nextIndex
+	ce.exemplars[ce.nextIndex].ref = idx
+	idx.newest = ce.nextIndex
 
 	ce.nextIndex = (ce.nextIndex + 1) % len(ce.exemplars)
 
@@ -416,15 +414,15 @@ func (ce *CircularExemplarStorage) computeMetrics() {
 		return
 	}
 
-	if next := ce.exemplars[ce.nextIndex]; next != nil {
+	if ce.exemplars[ce.nextIndex].ref != nil {
 		ce.metrics.exemplarsInStorage.Set(float64(len(ce.exemplars)))
-		ce.metrics.lastExemplarsTs.Set(float64(next.exemplar.Ts) / 1000)
+		ce.metrics.lastExemplarsTs.Set(float64(ce.exemplars[ce.nextIndex].exemplar.Ts) / 1000)
 		return
 	}
 
 	// We did not yet fill the buffer.
 	ce.metrics.exemplarsInStorage.Set(float64(ce.nextIndex))
-	if ce.exemplars[0] != nil {
+	if ce.exemplars[0].ref != nil {
 		ce.metrics.lastExemplarsTs.Set(float64(ce.exemplars[0].exemplar.Ts) / 1000)
 	}
 }
@@ -438,7 +436,7 @@ func (ce *CircularExemplarStorage) IterateExemplars(f func(seriesLabels labels.L
 	idx := ce.nextIndex
 	l := len(ce.exemplars)
 	for i := 0; i < l; i, idx = i+1, (idx+1)%l {
-		if ce.exemplars[idx] == nil {
+		if ce.exemplars[idx].ref == nil {
 			continue
 		}
 		err := f(ce.exemplars[idx].ref.seriesLabels, ce.exemplars[idx].exemplar)
diff --git a/tsdb/exemplar_test.go b/tsdb/exemplar_test.go
index 21030e4577..7723ec3894 100644
--- a/tsdb/exemplar_test.go
+++ b/tsdb/exemplar_test.go
@@ -415,27 +415,29 @@ func BenchmarkAddExemplar(b *testing.B) {
 	// before adding.
 	exLabels := labels.FromStrings("trace_id", "89620921")
 
-	for _, n := range []int{10000, 100000, 1000000} {
-		b.Run(fmt.Sprintf("%d", n), func(b *testing.B) {
-			for j := 0; j < b.N; j++ {
-				b.StopTimer()
-				exs, err := NewCircularExemplarStorage(int64(n), eMetrics)
-				require.NoError(b, err)
-				es := exs.(*CircularExemplarStorage)
-				var l labels.Labels
-				b.StartTimer()
+	for _, capacity := range []int{1000, 10000, 100000} {
+		for _, n := range []int{10000, 100000, 1000000} {
+			b.Run(fmt.Sprintf("%d/%d", n, capacity), func(b *testing.B) {
+				for j := 0; j < b.N; j++ {
+					b.StopTimer()
+					exs, err := NewCircularExemplarStorage(int64(capacity), eMetrics)
+					require.NoError(b, err)
+					es := exs.(*CircularExemplarStorage)
+					var l labels.Labels
+					b.StartTimer()
 
-				for i := 0; i < n; i++ {
-					if i%100 == 0 {
-						l = labels.FromStrings("service", strconv.Itoa(i))
-					}
-					err = es.AddExemplar(l, exemplar.Exemplar{Value: float64(i), Ts: int64(i), Labels: exLabels})
-					if err != nil {
-						require.NoError(b, err)
+					for i := 0; i < n; i++ {
+						if i%100 == 0 {
+							l = labels.FromStrings("service", strconv.Itoa(i))
+						}
+						err = es.AddExemplar(l, exemplar.Exemplar{Value: float64(i), Ts: int64(i), Labels: exLabels})
+						if err != nil {
+							require.NoError(b, err)
+						}
 					}
 				}
-			}
-		})
+			})
+		}
 	}
 }
 
@@ -480,8 +482,11 @@ func BenchmarkResizeExemplars(b *testing.B) {
 				require.NoError(b, err)
 				es := exs.(*CircularExemplarStorage)
 
+				var l labels.Labels
 				for i := 0; i < int(float64(tc.startSize)*float64(1.5)); i++ {
-					l := labels.FromStrings("service", strconv.Itoa(i))
+					if i%100 == 0 {
+						l = labels.FromStrings("service", strconv.Itoa(i))
+					}
 
 					err = es.AddExemplar(l, exemplar.Exemplar{Value: float64(i), Ts: int64(i)})
 					if err != nil {
diff --git a/tsdb/head.go b/tsdb/head.go
index 8b3d9787ca..30ad8139ac 100644
--- a/tsdb/head.go
+++ b/tsdb/head.go
@@ -310,12 +310,22 @@ func (h *Head) resetInMemoryState() error {
 		return err
 	}
 
+	if h.series != nil {
+		// reset the existing series to make sure we call the appropriated hooks
+		// and increment the series removed metrics
+		fs := h.series.iterForDeletion(func(_ int, _ uint64, s *memSeries, flushedForCallback map[chunks.HeadSeriesRef]labels.Labels) {
+			// All series should be flushed
+			flushedForCallback[s.ref] = s.lset
+		})
+		h.metrics.seriesRemoved.Add(float64(fs))
+	}
+
+	h.series = newStripeSeries(h.opts.StripeSize, h.opts.SeriesCallback)
 	h.iso = newIsolation(h.opts.IsolationDisabled)
 	h.oooIso = newOOOIsolation()
-
+	h.numSeries.Store(0)
 	h.exemplarMetrics = em
 	h.exemplars = es
-	h.series = newStripeSeries(h.opts.StripeSize, h.opts.SeriesCallback)
 	h.postings = index.NewUnorderedMemPostings()
 	h.tombstones = tombstones.NewMemTombstones()
 	h.deleted = map[chunks.HeadSeriesRef]int{}
@@ -1542,7 +1552,7 @@ func (h *Head) gc() (actualInOrderMint, minOOOTime int64, minMmapFile int) {
 
 	// Drop old chunks and remember series IDs and hashes if they can be
 	// deleted entirely.
-	deleted, chunksRemoved, actualInOrderMint, minOOOTime, minMmapFile := h.series.gc(mint, minOOOMmapRef)
+	deleted, affected, chunksRemoved, actualInOrderMint, minOOOTime, minMmapFile := h.series.gc(mint, minOOOMmapRef)
 	seriesRemoved := len(deleted)
 
 	h.metrics.seriesRemoved.Add(float64(seriesRemoved))
@@ -1551,7 +1561,7 @@ func (h *Head) gc() (actualInOrderMint, minOOOTime int64, minMmapFile int) {
 	h.numSeries.Sub(uint64(seriesRemoved))
 
 	// Remove deleted series IDs from the postings lists.
-	h.postings.Delete(deleted)
+	h.postings.Delete(deleted, affected)
 
 	// Remove tombstones referring to the deleted series.
 	h.tombstones.DeleteTombstones(deleted)
@@ -1749,12 +1759,12 @@ type seriesHashmap struct {
 
 func (m *seriesHashmap) get(hash uint64, lset labels.Labels) *memSeries {
 	if s, found := m.unique[hash]; found {
-		if labels.Equal(s.lset, lset) {
+		if labels.Equal(s.labels(), lset) {
 			return s
 		}
 	}
 	for _, s := range m.conflicts[hash] {
-		if labels.Equal(s.lset, lset) {
+		if labels.Equal(s.labels(), lset) {
 			return s
 		}
 	}
@@ -1762,7 +1772,7 @@ func (m *seriesHashmap) get(hash uint64, lset labels.Labels) *memSeries {
 }
 
 func (m *seriesHashmap) set(hash uint64, s *memSeries) {
-	if existing, found := m.unique[hash]; !found || labels.Equal(existing.lset, s.lset) {
+	if existing, found := m.unique[hash]; !found || labels.Equal(existing.labels(), s.labels()) {
 		m.unique[hash] = s
 		return
 	}
@@ -1771,7 +1781,7 @@ func (m *seriesHashmap) set(hash uint64, s *memSeries) {
 	}
 	l := m.conflicts[hash]
 	for i, prev := range l {
-		if labels.Equal(prev.lset, s.lset) {
+		if labels.Equal(prev.labels(), s.labels()) {
 			l[i] = s
 			return
 		}
@@ -1859,13 +1869,13 @@ func newStripeSeries(stripeSize int, seriesCallback SeriesLifecycleCallback) *st
 // but the returned map goes into postings.Delete() which expects a map[storage.SeriesRef]struct
 // and there's no easy way to cast maps.
 // minMmapFile is the min mmap file number seen in the series (in-order and out-of-order) after gc'ing the series.
-func (s *stripeSeries) gc(mint int64, minOOOMmapRef chunks.ChunkDiskMapperRef) (_ map[storage.SeriesRef]struct{}, _ int, _, _ int64, minMmapFile int) {
+func (s *stripeSeries) gc(mint int64, minOOOMmapRef chunks.ChunkDiskMapperRef) (_ map[storage.SeriesRef]struct{}, _ map[labels.Label]struct{}, _ int, _, _ int64, minMmapFile int) {
 	var (
-		deleted                     = map[storage.SeriesRef]struct{}{}
-		rmChunks                    = 0
-		actualMint            int64 = math.MaxInt64
-		minOOOTime            int64 = math.MaxInt64
-		deletedFromPrevStripe       = 0
+		deleted          = map[storage.SeriesRef]struct{}{}
+		affected         = map[labels.Label]struct{}{}
+		rmChunks         = 0
+		actualMint int64 = math.MaxInt64
+		minOOOTime int64 = math.MaxInt64
 	)
 	minMmapFile = math.MaxInt32
 
@@ -1918,38 +1928,48 @@ func (s *stripeSeries) gc(mint int64, minOOOMmapRef chunks.ChunkDiskMapperRef) (
 		}
 
 		deleted[storage.SeriesRef(series.ref)] = struct{}{}
+		series.lset.Range(func(l labels.Label) { affected[l] = struct{}{} })
 		s.hashes[hashShard].del(hash, series.ref)
 		delete(s.series[refShard], series.ref)
-		deletedForCallback[series.ref] = series.lset
+		deletedForCallback[series.ref] = series.lset // OK to access lset; series is locked at the top of this function.
 	}
 
-	// Run through all series shard by shard, checking which should be deleted.
-	for i := 0; i < s.size; i++ {
-		deletedForCallback := make(map[chunks.HeadSeriesRef]labels.Labels, deletedFromPrevStripe)
-		s.locks[i].Lock()
-
-		// Delete conflicts first so seriesHashmap.del doesn't move them to the `unique` field,
-		// after deleting `unique`.
-		for hash, all := range s.hashes[i].conflicts {
-			for _, series := range all {
-				check(i, hash, series, deletedForCallback)
-			}
-		}
-		for hash, series := range s.hashes[i].unique {
-			check(i, hash, series, deletedForCallback)
-		}
-
-		s.locks[i].Unlock()
-
-		s.seriesLifecycleCallback.PostDeletion(deletedForCallback)
-		deletedFromPrevStripe = len(deletedForCallback)
-	}
+	s.iterForDeletion(check)
 
 	if actualMint == math.MaxInt64 {
 		actualMint = mint
 	}
 
-	return deleted, rmChunks, actualMint, minOOOTime, minMmapFile
+	return deleted, affected, rmChunks, actualMint, minOOOTime, minMmapFile
+}
+
+// The iterForDeletion function iterates through all series, invoking the checkDeletedFunc for each.
+// The checkDeletedFunc takes a map as input and should add to it all series that were deleted and should be included
+// when invoking the PostDeletion hook.
+func (s *stripeSeries) iterForDeletion(checkDeletedFunc func(int, uint64, *memSeries, map[chunks.HeadSeriesRef]labels.Labels)) int {
+	seriesSetFromPrevStripe := 0
+	totalDeletedSeries := 0
+	// Run through all series shard by shard
+	for i := 0; i < s.size; i++ {
+		seriesSet := make(map[chunks.HeadSeriesRef]labels.Labels, seriesSetFromPrevStripe)
+		s.locks[i].Lock()
+		// Iterate conflicts first so f doesn't move them to the `unique` field,
+		// after deleting `unique`.
+		for hash, all := range s.hashes[i].conflicts {
+			for _, series := range all {
+				checkDeletedFunc(i, hash, series, seriesSet)
+			}
+		}
+
+		for hash, series := range s.hashes[i].unique {
+			checkDeletedFunc(i, hash, series, seriesSet)
+		}
+		s.locks[i].Unlock()
+		s.seriesLifecycleCallback.PostDeletion(seriesSet)
+		totalDeletedSeries += len(seriesSet)
+		seriesSetFromPrevStripe = len(seriesSet)
+	}
+	return totalDeletedSeries
 }
 
 func (s *stripeSeries) getByID(id chunks.HeadSeriesRef) *memSeries {
@@ -2003,7 +2023,7 @@ func (s *stripeSeries) getOrSet(hash uint64, lset labels.Labels, createSeries fu
 	}
 	// Setting the series in the s.hashes marks the creation of series
 	// as any further calls to this methods would return that series.
-	s.seriesLifecycleCallback.PostCreation(series.lset)
+	s.seriesLifecycleCallback.PostCreation(series.labels())
 
 	i = uint64(series.ref) & uint64(s.size-1)
 
@@ -2044,16 +2064,19 @@ func (s sample) Type() chunkenc.ValueType {
 // memSeries is the in-memory representation of a series. None of its methods
 // are goroutine safe and it is the caller's responsibility to lock it.
 type memSeries struct {
-	sync.Mutex
-
+	// Members up to the Mutex are not changed after construction, so can be accessed without a lock.
 	ref  chunks.HeadSeriesRef
-	lset labels.Labels
 	meta *metadata.Metadata
 
 	// Series labels hash to use for sharding purposes. The value is always 0 when sharding has not
 	// been explicitly enabled in TSDB.
 	shardHash uint64
 
+	// Everything after here should only be accessed with the lock held.
+	sync.Mutex
+
+	lset labels.Labels // Locking required with -tags dedupelabels, not otherwise.
+
 	// Immutable chunks on disk that have not yet gone into a block, in order of ascending time stamps.
 	// When compaction runs, chunks get moved into a block and all pointers are shifted like so:
 	//
diff --git a/tsdb/head_append.go b/tsdb/head_append.go
index efd573b410..f45ab606ba 100644
--- a/tsdb/head_append.go
+++ b/tsdb/head_append.go
@@ -467,7 +467,7 @@ func (s *memSeries) appendable(t int64, v float64, headMaxt, minValidTime, oooTi
 			// This only checks against the latest in-order sample.
 			// The OOO headchunk has its own method to detect these duplicates.
 			if math.Float64bits(s.lastValue) != math.Float64bits(v) {
-				return false, 0, storage.ErrDuplicateSampleForTimestamp
+				return false, 0, storage.NewDuplicateFloatErr(t, s.lastValue, v)
 			}
 			// Sample is identical (ts + value) with most current (highest ts) sample in sampleBuf.
 			return false, 0, nil
@@ -554,7 +554,7 @@ func (a *headAppender) AppendExemplar(ref storage.SeriesRef, lset labels.Labels,
 	// Ensure no empty labels have gotten through.
 	e.Labels = e.Labels.WithoutEmpty()
 
-	err := a.head.exemplars.ValidateExemplar(s.lset, e)
+	err := a.head.exemplars.ValidateExemplar(s.labels(), e)
 	if err != nil {
 		if errors.Is(err, storage.ErrDuplicateExemplar) || errors.Is(err, storage.ErrExemplarsDisabled) {
 			// Duplicate, don't return an error but don't accept the exemplar.
@@ -708,7 +708,7 @@ func (a *headAppender) GetRef(lset labels.Labels, hash uint64) (storage.SeriesRe
 		return 0, labels.EmptyLabels()
 	}
 	// returned labels must be suitable to pass to Append()
-	return storage.SeriesRef(s.ref), s.lset
+	return storage.SeriesRef(s.ref), s.labels()
 }
 
 // log writes all headAppender's data to the WAL.
@@ -816,7 +816,7 @@ func (a *headAppender) Commit() (err error) {
 			continue
 		}
 		// We don't instrument exemplar appends here, all is instrumented by storage.
-		if err := a.head.exemplars.AddExemplar(s.lset, e.exemplar); err != nil {
+		if err := a.head.exemplars.AddExemplar(s.labels(), e.exemplar); err != nil {
 			if errors.Is(err, storage.ErrOutOfOrderExemplar) {
 				continue
 			}
@@ -1467,8 +1467,8 @@ func (s *memSeries) mmapChunks(chunkDiskMapper *chunks.ChunkDiskMapper) (count i
 		return
 	}
 
-	// Write chunks starting from the oldest one and stop before we get to current s.headChunk.
-	// If we have this chain: s.headChunk{t4} -> t3 -> t2 -> t1 -> t0
+	// Write chunks starting from the oldest one and stop before we get to current s.headChunks.
+	// If we have this chain: s.headChunks{t4} -> t3 -> t2 -> t1 -> t0
 	// then we need to write chunks t0 to t3, but skip s.headChunks.
 	for i := s.headChunks.len() - 1; i > 0; i-- {
 		chk := s.headChunks.atOffset(i)
diff --git a/tsdb/head_dedupelabels.go b/tsdb/head_dedupelabels.go
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..a16d907261
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tsdb/head_dedupelabels.go
@@ -0,0 +1,95 @@
+// Copyright 2024 The Prometheus Authors
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+//
+// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+
+//go:build dedupelabels
+
+package tsdb
+
+import (
+	"github.com/go-kit/log"
+	"github.com/go-kit/log/level"
+
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/labels"
+)
+
+// Helper method to access labels under lock.
+func (s *memSeries) labels() labels.Labels {
+	s.Lock()
+	defer s.Unlock()
+	return s.lset
+}
+
+// RebuildSymbolTable goes through all the series in h, build a SymbolTable with all names and values,
+// replace each series' Labels with one using that SymbolTable.
+func (h *Head) RebuildSymbolTable(logger log.Logger) *labels.SymbolTable {
+	level.Info(logger).Log("msg", "RebuildSymbolTable starting")
+	st := labels.NewSymbolTable()
+	builder := labels.NewScratchBuilderWithSymbolTable(st, 0)
+	rebuildLabels := func(lbls labels.Labels) labels.Labels {
+		builder.Reset()
+		lbls.Range(func(l labels.Label) {
+			builder.Add(l.Name, l.Value)
+		})
+		return builder.Labels()
+	}
+
+	for i := 0; i < h.series.size; i++ {
+		h.series.locks[i].Lock()
+
+		for _, s := range h.series.hashes[i].unique {
+			s.Lock()
+			s.lset = rebuildLabels(s.lset)
+			s.Unlock()
+		}
+
+		for _, all := range h.series.hashes[i].conflicts {
+			for _, s := range all {
+				s.Lock()
+				s.lset = rebuildLabels(s.lset)
+				s.Unlock()
+			}
+		}
+
+		h.series.locks[i].Unlock()
+	}
+	type withReset interface{ ResetSymbolTable(*labels.SymbolTable) }
+	if e, ok := h.exemplars.(withReset); ok {
+		e.ResetSymbolTable(st)
+	}
+	level.Info(logger).Log("msg", "RebuildSymbolTable finished", "size", st.Len())
+	return st
+}
+
+func (ce *CircularExemplarStorage) ResetSymbolTable(st *labels.SymbolTable) {
+	builder := labels.NewScratchBuilderWithSymbolTable(st, 0)
+	rebuildLabels := func(lbls labels.Labels) labels.Labels {
+		builder.Reset()
+		lbls.Range(func(l labels.Label) {
+			builder.Add(l.Name, l.Value)
+		})
+		return builder.Labels()
+	}
+
+	ce.lock.RLock()
+	defer ce.lock.RUnlock()
+
+	for _, v := range ce.index {
+		v.seriesLabels = rebuildLabels(v.seriesLabels)
+	}
+	for i := range ce.exemplars {
+		if ce.exemplars[i].ref == nil {
+			continue
+		}
+		ce.exemplars[i].exemplar.Labels = rebuildLabels(ce.exemplars[i].exemplar.Labels)
+	}
+}
diff --git a/tsdb/head_other.go b/tsdb/head_other.go
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..eb1b93a3e5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tsdb/head_other.go
@@ -0,0 +1,32 @@
+// Copyright 2024 The Prometheus Authors
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+//
+// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+
+//go:build !dedupelabels
+
+package tsdb
+
+import (
+	"github.com/go-kit/log"
+
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/labels"
+)
+
+// Helper method to access labels; trivial when not using dedupelabels.
+func (s *memSeries) labels() labels.Labels {
+	return s.lset
+}
+
+// No-op when not using dedupelabels.
+func (h *Head) RebuildSymbolTable(logger log.Logger) *labels.SymbolTable {
+	return nil
+}
diff --git a/tsdb/head_read.go b/tsdb/head_read.go
index 45bbc81f18..9ba8785ad2 100644
--- a/tsdb/head_read.go
+++ b/tsdb/head_read.go
@@ -121,6 +121,10 @@ func (h *headIndexReader) Postings(ctx context.Context, name string, values ...s
 	}
 }
 
+func (h *headIndexReader) PostingsForLabelMatching(ctx context.Context, name string, match func(string) bool) index.Postings {
+	return h.head.postings.PostingsForLabelMatching(ctx, name, match)
+}
+
 func (h *headIndexReader) SortedPostings(p index.Postings) index.Postings {
 	series := make([]*memSeries, 0, 128)
 
@@ -138,7 +142,7 @@ func (h *headIndexReader) SortedPostings(p index.Postings) index.Postings {
 	}
 
 	slices.SortFunc(series, func(a, b *memSeries) int {
-		return labels.Compare(a.lset, b.lset)
+		return labels.Compare(a.labels(), b.labels())
 	})
 
 	// Convert back to list.
@@ -185,7 +189,7 @@ func (h *headIndexReader) Series(ref storage.SeriesRef, builder *labels.ScratchB
 		h.head.metrics.seriesNotFound.Inc()
 		return storage.ErrNotFound
 	}
-	builder.Assign(s.lset)
+	builder.Assign(s.labels())
 
 	if chks == nil {
 		return nil
@@ -255,7 +259,7 @@ func (h *headIndexReader) LabelValueFor(_ context.Context, id storage.SeriesRef,
 		return "", storage.ErrNotFound
 	}
 
-	value := memSeries.lset.Get(label)
+	value := memSeries.labels().Get(label)
 	if value == "" {
 		return "", storage.ErrNotFound
 	}
@@ -263,22 +267,29 @@ func (h *headIndexReader) LabelValueFor(_ context.Context, id storage.SeriesRef,
 	return value, nil
 }
 
-// LabelNamesFor returns all the label names for the series referred to by IDs.
+// LabelNamesFor returns all the label names for the series referred to by the postings.
 // The names returned are sorted.
-func (h *headIndexReader) LabelNamesFor(ctx context.Context, ids ...storage.SeriesRef) ([]string, error) {
+func (h *headIndexReader) LabelNamesFor(ctx context.Context, series index.Postings) ([]string, error) {
 	namesMap := make(map[string]struct{})
-	for _, id := range ids {
-		if ctx.Err() != nil {
+	i := 0
+	for series.Next() {
+		i++
+		if i%checkContextEveryNIterations == 0 && ctx.Err() != nil {
 			return nil, ctx.Err()
 		}
-		memSeries := h.head.series.getByID(chunks.HeadSeriesRef(id))
+		memSeries := h.head.series.getByID(chunks.HeadSeriesRef(series.At()))
 		if memSeries == nil {
-			return nil, storage.ErrNotFound
+			// Series not found, this happens during compaction,
+			// when series was garbage collected after the caller got the series IDs.
+			continue
 		}
-		memSeries.lset.Range(func(lbl labels.Label) {
+		memSeries.labels().Range(func(lbl labels.Label) {
 			namesMap[lbl.Name] = struct{}{}
 		})
 	}
+	if err := series.Err(); err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
 	names := make([]string, 0, len(namesMap))
 	for name := range namesMap {
 		names = append(names, name)
@@ -476,55 +487,24 @@ func (s *memSeries) oooMergedChunks(meta chunks.Meta, cdm *chunks.ChunkDiskMappe
 
 	// We create a temporary slice of chunk metas to hold the information of all
 	// possible chunks that may overlap with the requested chunk.
-	tmpChks := make([]chunkMetaAndChunkDiskMapperRef, 0, len(s.ooo.oooMmappedChunks))
-
-	oooHeadRef := chunks.ChunkRef(chunks.NewHeadChunkRef(s.ref, s.oooHeadChunkID(len(s.ooo.oooMmappedChunks))))
-	if s.ooo.oooHeadChunk != nil && s.ooo.oooHeadChunk.OverlapsClosedInterval(mint, maxt) {
-		// We only want to append the head chunk if this chunk existed when
-		// Series() was called. This brings consistency in case new data
-		// is added in between Series() and Chunk() calls.
-		if oooHeadRef == meta.OOOLastRef {
-			tmpChks = append(tmpChks, chunkMetaAndChunkDiskMapperRef{
-				meta: chunks.Meta{
-					// Ignoring samples added before and after the last known min and max time for this chunk.
-					MinTime: meta.OOOLastMinTime,
-					MaxTime: meta.OOOLastMaxTime,
-					Ref:     oooHeadRef,
-				},
-			})
-		}
-	}
+	tmpChks := make([]chunkMetaAndChunkDiskMapperRef, 0, len(s.ooo.oooMmappedChunks)+1)
 
 	for i, c := range s.ooo.oooMmappedChunks {
-		chunkRef := chunks.ChunkRef(chunks.NewHeadChunkRef(s.ref, s.oooHeadChunkID(i)))
-		// We can skip chunks that came in later than the last known OOOLastRef.
-		if chunkRef > meta.OOOLastRef {
-			break
-		}
-
-		switch {
-		case chunkRef == meta.OOOLastRef:
-			tmpChks = append(tmpChks, chunkMetaAndChunkDiskMapperRef{
-				meta: chunks.Meta{
-					MinTime: meta.OOOLastMinTime,
-					MaxTime: meta.OOOLastMaxTime,
-					Ref:     chunkRef,
-				},
-				ref:      c.ref,
-				origMinT: c.minTime,
-				origMaxT: c.maxTime,
-			})
-		case c.OverlapsClosedInterval(mint, maxt):
+		if c.OverlapsClosedInterval(mint, maxt) {
 			tmpChks = append(tmpChks, chunkMetaAndChunkDiskMapperRef{
 				meta: chunks.Meta{
 					MinTime: c.minTime,
 					MaxTime: c.maxTime,
-					Ref:     chunkRef,
+					Ref:     chunks.ChunkRef(chunks.NewHeadChunkRef(s.ref, s.oooHeadChunkID(i))),
 				},
 				ref: c.ref,
 			})
 		}
 	}
+	// Add in data copied from the head OOO chunk.
+	if meta.Chunk != nil {
+		tmpChks = append(tmpChks, chunkMetaAndChunkDiskMapperRef{meta: meta})
+	}
 
 	// Next we want to sort all the collected chunks by min time so we can find
 	// those that overlap and stop when we know the rest don't.
@@ -537,22 +517,8 @@ func (s *memSeries) oooMergedChunks(meta chunks.Meta, cdm *chunks.ChunkDiskMappe
 			continue
 		}
 		var iterable chunkenc.Iterable
-		if c.meta.Ref == oooHeadRef {
-			var xor *chunkenc.XORChunk
-			var err error
-			// If head chunk min and max time match the meta OOO markers
-			// that means that the chunk has not expanded so we can append
-			// it as it is.
-			if s.ooo.oooHeadChunk.minTime == meta.OOOLastMinTime && s.ooo.oooHeadChunk.maxTime == meta.OOOLastMaxTime {
-				xor, err = s.ooo.oooHeadChunk.chunk.ToXOR() // TODO(jesus.vazquez) (This is an optimization idea that has no priority and might not be that useful) See if we could use a copy of the underlying slice. That would leave the more expensive ToXOR() function only for the usecase where Bytes() is called.
-			} else {
-				// We need to remove samples that are outside of the markers
-				xor, err = s.ooo.oooHeadChunk.chunk.ToXORBetweenTimestamps(meta.OOOLastMinTime, meta.OOOLastMaxTime)
-			}
-			if err != nil {
-				return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to convert ooo head chunk to xor chunk: %w", err)
-			}
-			iterable = xor
+		if c.meta.Chunk != nil {
+			iterable = c.meta.Chunk
 		} else {
 			chk, err := cdm.Chunk(c.ref)
 			if err != nil {
@@ -562,16 +528,7 @@ func (s *memSeries) oooMergedChunks(meta chunks.Meta, cdm *chunks.ChunkDiskMappe
 				}
 				return nil, err
 			}
-			if c.meta.Ref == meta.OOOLastRef &&
-				(c.origMinT != meta.OOOLastMinTime || c.origMaxT != meta.OOOLastMaxTime) {
-				// The head expanded and was memory mapped so now we need to
-				// wrap the chunk within a chunk that doesnt allows us to iterate
-				// through samples out of the OOOLastMinT and OOOLastMaxT
-				// markers.
-				iterable = boundedIterable{chk, meta.OOOLastMinTime, meta.OOOLastMaxTime}
-			} else {
-				iterable = chk
-			}
+			iterable = chk
 		}
 		mc.chunkIterables = append(mc.chunkIterables, iterable)
 		if c.meta.MaxTime > absoluteMax {
@@ -582,74 +539,6 @@ func (s *memSeries) oooMergedChunks(meta chunks.Meta, cdm *chunks.ChunkDiskMappe
 	return mc, nil
 }
 
-var _ chunkenc.Iterable = &boundedIterable{}
-
-// boundedIterable is an implementation of chunkenc.Iterable that uses a
-// boundedIterator that only iterates through samples which timestamps are
-// >= minT and <= maxT.
-type boundedIterable struct {
-	chunk chunkenc.Chunk
-	minT  int64
-	maxT  int64
-}
-
-func (b boundedIterable) Iterator(iterator chunkenc.Iterator) chunkenc.Iterator {
-	it := b.chunk.Iterator(iterator)
-	if it == nil {
-		panic("iterator shouldn't be nil")
-	}
-	return boundedIterator{it, b.minT, b.maxT}
-}
-
-var _ chunkenc.Iterator = &boundedIterator{}
-
-// boundedIterator is an implementation of Iterator that only iterates through
-// samples which timestamps are >= minT and <= maxT.
-type boundedIterator struct {
-	chunkenc.Iterator
-	minT int64
-	maxT int64
-}
-
-// Next the first time its called it will advance as many positions as necessary
-// until its able to find a sample within the bounds minT and maxT.
-// If there are samples within bounds it will advance one by one amongst them.
-// If there are no samples within bounds it will return false.
-func (b boundedIterator) Next() chunkenc.ValueType {
-	for b.Iterator.Next() == chunkenc.ValFloat {
-		t, _ := b.Iterator.At()
-		switch {
-		case t < b.minT:
-			continue
-		case t > b.maxT:
-			return chunkenc.ValNone
-		default:
-			return chunkenc.ValFloat
-		}
-	}
-	return chunkenc.ValNone
-}
-
-func (b boundedIterator) Seek(t int64) chunkenc.ValueType {
-	if t < b.minT {
-		// We must seek at least up to b.minT if it is asked for something before that.
-		val := b.Iterator.Seek(b.minT)
-		if !(val == chunkenc.ValFloat) {
-			return chunkenc.ValNone
-		}
-		t, _ := b.Iterator.At()
-		if t <= b.maxT {
-			return chunkenc.ValFloat
-		}
-	}
-	if t > b.maxT {
-		// We seek anyway so that the subsequent Next() calls will also return false.
-		b.Iterator.Seek(t)
-		return chunkenc.ValNone
-	}
-	return b.Iterator.Seek(t)
-}
-
 // safeHeadChunk makes sure that the chunk can be accessed without a race condition.
 type safeHeadChunk struct {
 	chunkenc.Chunk
diff --git a/tsdb/head_read_test.go b/tsdb/head_read_test.go
index de97d70a56..6dd4c0ff55 100644
--- a/tsdb/head_read_test.go
+++ b/tsdb/head_read_test.go
@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@
 package tsdb
 
 import (
-	"fmt"
+	"context"
 	"sync"
 	"testing"
 
@@ -25,150 +25,6 @@ import (
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/tsdb/chunks"
 )
 
-func TestBoundedChunk(t *testing.T) {
-	tests := []struct {
-		name           string
-		inputChunk     chunkenc.Chunk
-		inputMinT      int64
-		inputMaxT      int64
-		initialSeek    int64
-		seekIsASuccess bool
-		expSamples     []sample
-	}{
-		{
-			name:       "if there are no samples it returns nothing",
-			inputChunk: newTestChunk(0),
-			expSamples: nil,
-		},
-		{
-			name:       "bounds represent a single sample",
-			inputChunk: newTestChunk(10),
-			expSamples: []sample{
-				{0, 0, nil, nil},
-			},
-		},
-		{
-			name:       "if there are bounds set only samples within them are returned",
-			inputChunk: newTestChunk(10),
-			inputMinT:  1,
-			inputMaxT:  8,
-			expSamples: []sample{
-				{1, 1, nil, nil},
-				{2, 2, nil, nil},
-				{3, 3, nil, nil},
-				{4, 4, nil, nil},
-				{5, 5, nil, nil},
-				{6, 6, nil, nil},
-				{7, 7, nil, nil},
-				{8, 8, nil, nil},
-			},
-		},
-		{
-			name:       "if bounds set and only maxt is less than actual maxt",
-			inputChunk: newTestChunk(10),
-			inputMinT:  0,
-			inputMaxT:  5,
-			expSamples: []sample{
-				{0, 0, nil, nil},
-				{1, 1, nil, nil},
-				{2, 2, nil, nil},
-				{3, 3, nil, nil},
-				{4, 4, nil, nil},
-				{5, 5, nil, nil},
-			},
-		},
-		{
-			name:       "if bounds set and only mint is more than actual mint",
-			inputChunk: newTestChunk(10),
-			inputMinT:  5,
-			inputMaxT:  9,
-			expSamples: []sample{
-				{5, 5, nil, nil},
-				{6, 6, nil, nil},
-				{7, 7, nil, nil},
-				{8, 8, nil, nil},
-				{9, 9, nil, nil},
-			},
-		},
-		{
-			name:           "if there are bounds set with seek before mint",
-			inputChunk:     newTestChunk(10),
-			inputMinT:      3,
-			inputMaxT:      7,
-			initialSeek:    1,
-			seekIsASuccess: true,
-			expSamples: []sample{
-				{3, 3, nil, nil},
-				{4, 4, nil, nil},
-				{5, 5, nil, nil},
-				{6, 6, nil, nil},
-				{7, 7, nil, nil},
-			},
-		},
-		{
-			name:           "if there are bounds set with seek between mint and maxt",
-			inputChunk:     newTestChunk(10),
-			inputMinT:      3,
-			inputMaxT:      7,
-			initialSeek:    5,
-			seekIsASuccess: true,
-			expSamples: []sample{
-				{5, 5, nil, nil},
-				{6, 6, nil, nil},
-				{7, 7, nil, nil},
-			},
-		},
-		{
-			name:           "if there are bounds set with seek after maxt",
-			inputChunk:     newTestChunk(10),
-			inputMinT:      3,
-			inputMaxT:      7,
-			initialSeek:    8,
-			seekIsASuccess: false,
-		},
-	}
-	for _, tc := range tests {
-		t.Run(fmt.Sprintf("name=%s", tc.name), func(t *testing.T) {
-			iterable := boundedIterable{tc.inputChunk, tc.inputMinT, tc.inputMaxT}
-
-			var samples []sample
-			it := iterable.Iterator(nil)
-
-			if tc.initialSeek != 0 {
-				// Testing Seek()
-				val := it.Seek(tc.initialSeek)
-				require.Equal(t, tc.seekIsASuccess, val == chunkenc.ValFloat)
-				if val == chunkenc.ValFloat {
-					t, v := it.At()
-					samples = append(samples, sample{t, v, nil, nil})
-				}
-			}
-
-			// Testing Next()
-			for it.Next() == chunkenc.ValFloat {
-				t, v := it.At()
-				samples = append(samples, sample{t, v, nil, nil})
-			}
-
-			// it.Next() should keep returning no  value.
-			for i := 0; i < 10; i++ {
-				require.Equal(t, chunkenc.ValNone, it.Next())
-			}
-
-			require.Equal(t, tc.expSamples, samples)
-		})
-	}
-}
-
-func newTestChunk(numSamples int) chunkenc.Chunk {
-	xor := chunkenc.NewXORChunk()
-	a, _ := xor.Appender()
-	for i := 0; i < numSamples; i++ {
-		a.Append(int64(i), float64(i))
-	}
-	return xor
-}
-
 // TestMemSeries_chunk runs a series of tests on memSeries.chunk() calls.
 // It will simulate various conditions to ensure all code paths in that function are covered.
 func TestMemSeries_chunk(t *testing.T) {
@@ -552,3 +408,25 @@ func TestMemSeries_chunk(t *testing.T) {
 		})
 	}
 }
+
+func TestHeadIndexReader_PostingsForLabelMatching(t *testing.T) {
+	testPostingsForLabelMatching(t, 0, func(t *testing.T, series []labels.Labels) IndexReader {
+		opts := DefaultHeadOptions()
+		opts.ChunkRange = 1000
+		opts.ChunkDirRoot = t.TempDir()
+		h, err := NewHead(nil, nil, nil, nil, opts, nil)
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+		t.Cleanup(func() {
+			require.NoError(t, h.Close())
+		})
+		app := h.Appender(context.Background())
+		for _, s := range series {
+			app.Append(0, s, 0, 0)
+		}
+		require.NoError(t, app.Commit())
+
+		ir, err := h.Index()
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+		return ir
+	})
+}
diff --git a/tsdb/head_test.go b/tsdb/head_test.go
index d9631b3b91..fa48345165 100644
--- a/tsdb/head_test.go
+++ b/tsdb/head_test.go
@@ -814,6 +814,80 @@ func TestHead_UnknownWALRecord(t *testing.T) {
 	require.NoError(t, head.Close())
 }
 
+// BenchmarkHead_Truncate is quite heavy, so consider running it with
+// -benchtime=10x or similar to get more stable and comparable results.
+func BenchmarkHead_Truncate(b *testing.B) {
+	const total = 1e6
+
+	prepare := func(b *testing.B, churn int) *Head {
+		h, _ := newTestHead(b, 1000, wlog.CompressionNone, false)
+		b.Cleanup(func() {
+			require.NoError(b, h.Close())
+		})
+
+		h.initTime(0)
+
+		internedItoa := map[int]string{}
+		var mtx sync.RWMutex
+		itoa := func(i int) string {
+			mtx.RLock()
+			s, ok := internedItoa[i]
+			mtx.RUnlock()
+			if ok {
+				return s
+			}
+			mtx.Lock()
+			s = strconv.Itoa(i)
+			internedItoa[i] = s
+			mtx.Unlock()
+			return s
+		}
+
+		allSeries := [total]labels.Labels{}
+		nameValues := make([]string, 0, 100)
+		for i := 0; i < total; i++ {
+			nameValues = nameValues[:0]
+
+			// A thousand labels like lbl_x_of_1000, each with total/1000 values
+			thousand := "lbl_" + itoa(i%1000) + "_of_1000"
+			nameValues = append(nameValues, thousand, itoa(i/1000))
+			// A hundred labels like lbl_x_of_100, each with total/100 values.
+			hundred := "lbl_" + itoa(i%100) + "_of_100"
+			nameValues = append(nameValues, hundred, itoa(i/100))
+
+			if i%13 == 0 {
+				ten := "lbl_" + itoa(i%10) + "_of_10"
+				nameValues = append(nameValues, ten, itoa(i%10))
+			}
+
+			allSeries[i] = labels.FromStrings(append(nameValues, "first", "a", "second", "a", "third", "a")...)
+			s, _, _ := h.getOrCreate(allSeries[i].Hash(), allSeries[i])
+			s.mmappedChunks = []*mmappedChunk{
+				{minTime: 1000 * int64(i/churn), maxTime: 999 + 1000*int64(i/churn)},
+			}
+		}
+
+		return h
+	}
+
+	for _, churn := range []int{10, 100, 1000} {
+		b.Run(fmt.Sprintf("churn=%d", churn), func(b *testing.B) {
+			if b.N > total/churn {
+				// Just to make sure that benchmark still makes sense.
+				panic("benchmark not prepared")
+			}
+			h := prepare(b, churn)
+			b.ResetTimer()
+
+			for i := 0; i < b.N; i++ {
+				require.NoError(b, h.Truncate(1000*int64(i)))
+				// Make sure the benchmark is meaningful and it's actually truncating the expected amount of series.
+				require.Equal(b, total-churn*i, int(h.NumSeries()))
+			}
+		})
+	}
+}
+
 func TestHead_Truncate(t *testing.T) {
 	h, _ := newTestHead(t, 1000, wlog.CompressionNone, false)
 	defer func() {
@@ -2591,6 +2665,14 @@ func TestIsolationWithoutAdd(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestOutOfOrderSamplesMetric(t *testing.T) {
+	for name, scenario := range sampleTypeScenarios {
+		t.Run(name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			testOutOfOrderSamplesMetric(t, scenario)
+		})
+	}
+}
+
+func testOutOfOrderSamplesMetric(t *testing.T, scenario sampleTypeScenario) {
 	dir := t.TempDir()
 
 	db, err := Open(dir, nil, nil, DefaultOptions(), nil)
@@ -2600,33 +2682,38 @@ func TestOutOfOrderSamplesMetric(t *testing.T) {
 	}()
 	db.DisableCompactions()
 
+	appendSample := func(appender storage.Appender, ts int64) (storage.SeriesRef, error) {
+		ref, _, err := scenario.appendFunc(appender, labels.FromStrings("a", "b"), ts, 99)
+		return ref, err
+	}
+
 	ctx := context.Background()
 	app := db.Appender(ctx)
 	for i := 1; i <= 5; i++ {
-		_, err = app.Append(0, labels.FromStrings("a", "b"), int64(i), 99)
+		_, err = appendSample(app, int64(i))
 		require.NoError(t, err)
 	}
 	require.NoError(t, app.Commit())
 
 	// Test out of order metric.
-	require.Equal(t, 0.0, prom_testutil.ToFloat64(db.head.metrics.outOfOrderSamples.WithLabelValues(sampleMetricTypeFloat)))
+	require.Equal(t, 0.0, prom_testutil.ToFloat64(db.head.metrics.outOfOrderSamples.WithLabelValues(scenario.sampleType)))
 	app = db.Appender(ctx)
-	_, err = app.Append(0, labels.FromStrings("a", "b"), 2, 99)
+	_, err = appendSample(app, 2)
 	require.Equal(t, storage.ErrOutOfOrderSample, err)
-	require.Equal(t, 1.0, prom_testutil.ToFloat64(db.head.metrics.outOfOrderSamples.WithLabelValues(sampleMetricTypeFloat)))
+	require.Equal(t, 1.0, prom_testutil.ToFloat64(db.head.metrics.outOfOrderSamples.WithLabelValues(scenario.sampleType)))
 
-	_, err = app.Append(0, labels.FromStrings("a", "b"), 3, 99)
+	_, err = appendSample(app, 3)
 	require.Equal(t, storage.ErrOutOfOrderSample, err)
-	require.Equal(t, 2.0, prom_testutil.ToFloat64(db.head.metrics.outOfOrderSamples.WithLabelValues(sampleMetricTypeFloat)))
+	require.Equal(t, 2.0, prom_testutil.ToFloat64(db.head.metrics.outOfOrderSamples.WithLabelValues(scenario.sampleType)))
 
-	_, err = app.Append(0, labels.FromStrings("a", "b"), 4, 99)
+	_, err = appendSample(app, 4)
 	require.Equal(t, storage.ErrOutOfOrderSample, err)
-	require.Equal(t, 3.0, prom_testutil.ToFloat64(db.head.metrics.outOfOrderSamples.WithLabelValues(sampleMetricTypeFloat)))
+	require.Equal(t, 3.0, prom_testutil.ToFloat64(db.head.metrics.outOfOrderSamples.WithLabelValues(scenario.sampleType)))
 	require.NoError(t, app.Commit())
 
 	// Compact Head to test out of bound metric.
 	app = db.Appender(ctx)
-	_, err = app.Append(0, labels.FromStrings("a", "b"), DefaultBlockDuration*2, 99)
+	_, err = appendSample(app, DefaultBlockDuration*2)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	require.NoError(t, app.Commit())
 
@@ -2635,36 +2722,36 @@ func TestOutOfOrderSamplesMetric(t *testing.T) {
 	require.Greater(t, db.head.minValidTime.Load(), int64(0))
 
 	app = db.Appender(ctx)
-	_, err = app.Append(0, labels.FromStrings("a", "b"), db.head.minValidTime.Load()-2, 99)
+	_, err = appendSample(app, db.head.minValidTime.Load()-2)
 	require.Equal(t, storage.ErrOutOfBounds, err)
-	require.Equal(t, 1.0, prom_testutil.ToFloat64(db.head.metrics.outOfBoundSamples.WithLabelValues(sampleMetricTypeFloat)))
+	require.Equal(t, 1.0, prom_testutil.ToFloat64(db.head.metrics.outOfBoundSamples.WithLabelValues(scenario.sampleType)))
 
-	_, err = app.Append(0, labels.FromStrings("a", "b"), db.head.minValidTime.Load()-1, 99)
+	_, err = appendSample(app, db.head.minValidTime.Load()-1)
 	require.Equal(t, storage.ErrOutOfBounds, err)
-	require.Equal(t, 2.0, prom_testutil.ToFloat64(db.head.metrics.outOfBoundSamples.WithLabelValues(sampleMetricTypeFloat)))
+	require.Equal(t, 2.0, prom_testutil.ToFloat64(db.head.metrics.outOfBoundSamples.WithLabelValues(scenario.sampleType)))
 	require.NoError(t, app.Commit())
 
 	// Some more valid samples for out of order.
 	app = db.Appender(ctx)
 	for i := 1; i <= 5; i++ {
-		_, err = app.Append(0, labels.FromStrings("a", "b"), db.head.minValidTime.Load()+DefaultBlockDuration+int64(i), 99)
+		_, err = appendSample(app, db.head.minValidTime.Load()+DefaultBlockDuration+int64(i))
 		require.NoError(t, err)
 	}
 	require.NoError(t, app.Commit())
 
 	// Test out of order metric.
 	app = db.Appender(ctx)
-	_, err = app.Append(0, labels.FromStrings("a", "b"), db.head.minValidTime.Load()+DefaultBlockDuration+2, 99)
+	_, err = appendSample(app, db.head.minValidTime.Load()+DefaultBlockDuration+2)
 	require.Equal(t, storage.ErrOutOfOrderSample, err)
-	require.Equal(t, 4.0, prom_testutil.ToFloat64(db.head.metrics.outOfOrderSamples.WithLabelValues(sampleMetricTypeFloat)))
+	require.Equal(t, 4.0, prom_testutil.ToFloat64(db.head.metrics.outOfOrderSamples.WithLabelValues(scenario.sampleType)))
 
-	_, err = app.Append(0, labels.FromStrings("a", "b"), db.head.minValidTime.Load()+DefaultBlockDuration+3, 99)
+	_, err = appendSample(app, db.head.minValidTime.Load()+DefaultBlockDuration+3)
 	require.Equal(t, storage.ErrOutOfOrderSample, err)
-	require.Equal(t, 5.0, prom_testutil.ToFloat64(db.head.metrics.outOfOrderSamples.WithLabelValues(sampleMetricTypeFloat)))
+	require.Equal(t, 5.0, prom_testutil.ToFloat64(db.head.metrics.outOfOrderSamples.WithLabelValues(scenario.sampleType)))
 
-	_, err = app.Append(0, labels.FromStrings("a", "b"), db.head.minValidTime.Load()+DefaultBlockDuration+4, 99)
+	_, err = appendSample(app, db.head.minValidTime.Load()+DefaultBlockDuration+4)
 	require.Equal(t, storage.ErrOutOfOrderSample, err)
-	require.Equal(t, 6.0, prom_testutil.ToFloat64(db.head.metrics.outOfOrderSamples.WithLabelValues(sampleMetricTypeFloat)))
+	require.Equal(t, 6.0, prom_testutil.ToFloat64(db.head.metrics.outOfOrderSamples.WithLabelValues(scenario.sampleType)))
 	require.NoError(t, app.Commit())
 }
 
@@ -3383,7 +3470,7 @@ func TestWaitForPendingReadersInTimeRange(t *testing.T) {
 func TestAppendHistogram(t *testing.T) {
 	l := labels.FromStrings("a", "b")
 	for _, numHistograms := range []int{1, 10, 150, 200, 250, 300} {
-		t.Run(fmt.Sprintf("%d", numHistograms), func(t *testing.T) {
+		t.Run(strconv.Itoa(numHistograms), func(t *testing.T) {
 			head, _ := newTestHead(t, 1000, wlog.CompressionNone, false)
 			t.Cleanup(func() {
 				require.NoError(t, head.Close())
@@ -3557,7 +3644,7 @@ func TestHistogramInWALAndMmapChunk(t *testing.T) {
 		expMmapChunks = append(expMmapChunks, &cpy)
 	}
 	expHeadChunkSamples := ms.headChunks.chunk.NumSamples()
-	require.Greater(t, expHeadChunkSamples, 0)
+	require.Positive(t, expHeadChunkSamples)
 
 	// Series with mix of histograms and float.
 	s2 := labels.FromStrings("a", "b2")
@@ -3692,7 +3779,7 @@ func TestChunkSnapshot(t *testing.T) {
 		e := ex{
 			seriesLabels: lbls,
 			e: exemplar.Exemplar{
-				Labels: labels.FromStrings("trace_id", fmt.Sprintf("%d", rand.Int())),
+				Labels: labels.FromStrings("trace_id", strconv.Itoa(rand.Int())),
 				Value:  rand.Float64(),
 				Ts:     ts,
 			},
@@ -4007,6 +4094,9 @@ func TestSnapshotError(t *testing.T) {
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	f, err := os.OpenFile(path.Join(snapDir, files[0].Name()), os.O_RDWR, 0)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
+	// Create snapshot backup to be restored on future test cases.
+	snapshotBackup, err := io.ReadAll(f)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
 	_, err = f.WriteAt([]byte{0b11111111}, 18)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	require.NoError(t, f.Close())
@@ -4021,10 +4111,44 @@ func TestSnapshotError(t *testing.T) {
 
 	// There should be no series in the memory after snapshot error since WAL was removed.
 	require.Equal(t, 1.0, prom_testutil.ToFloat64(head.metrics.snapshotReplayErrorTotal))
+	require.Equal(t, uint64(0), head.NumSeries())
 	require.Nil(t, head.series.getByHash(lbls.Hash(), lbls))
 	tm, err = head.tombstones.Get(1)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	require.Empty(t, tm)
+	require.NoError(t, head.Close())
+
+	// Test corruption in the middle of the snapshot.
+	f, err = os.OpenFile(path.Join(snapDir, files[0].Name()), os.O_RDWR, 0)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	_, err = f.WriteAt(snapshotBackup, 0)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	_, err = f.WriteAt([]byte{0b11111111}, 300)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	require.NoError(t, f.Close())
+
+	c := &countSeriesLifecycleCallback{}
+	opts := head.opts
+	opts.SeriesCallback = c
+
+	w, err = wlog.NewSize(nil, nil, head.wal.Dir(), 32768, wlog.CompressionNone)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	head, err = NewHead(prometheus.NewRegistry(), nil, w, nil, head.opts, nil)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	require.NoError(t, head.Init(math.MinInt64))
+
+	// There should be no series in the memory after snapshot error since WAL was removed.
+	require.Equal(t, 1.0, prom_testutil.ToFloat64(head.metrics.snapshotReplayErrorTotal))
+	require.Nil(t, head.series.getByHash(lbls.Hash(), lbls))
+	require.Equal(t, uint64(0), head.NumSeries())
+
+	// Since the snapshot could replay certain series, we continue invoking the create hooks.
+	// In such instances, we need to ensure that we also trigger the delete hooks when resetting the memory.
+	require.Equal(t, int64(2), c.created.Load())
+	require.Equal(t, int64(2), c.deleted.Load())
+
+	require.Equal(t, 2.0, prom_testutil.ToFloat64(head.metrics.seriesRemoved))
+	require.Equal(t, 2.0, prom_testutil.ToFloat64(head.metrics.seriesCreated))
 }
 
 func TestHistogramMetrics(t *testing.T) {
@@ -4601,7 +4725,7 @@ func TestChunkSnapshotTakenAfterIncompleteSnapshot(t *testing.T) {
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	require.NotEqual(t, "", name)
 	require.Equal(t, 0, idx)
-	require.Greater(t, offset, 0)
+	require.Positive(t, offset)
 }
 
 // TestWBLReplay checks the replay at a low level.
@@ -4690,6 +4814,14 @@ func TestWBLReplay(t *testing.T) {
 
 // TestOOOMmapReplay checks the replay at a low level.
 func TestOOOMmapReplay(t *testing.T) {
+	for name, scenario := range sampleTypeScenarios {
+		t.Run(name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			testOOOMmapReplay(t, scenario)
+		})
+	}
+}
+
+func testOOOMmapReplay(t *testing.T, scenario sampleTypeScenario) {
 	dir := t.TempDir()
 	wal, err := wlog.NewSize(nil, nil, filepath.Join(dir, "wal"), 32768, wlog.CompressionSnappy)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
@@ -4709,8 +4841,7 @@ func TestOOOMmapReplay(t *testing.T) {
 	l := labels.FromStrings("foo", "bar")
 	appendSample := func(mins int64) {
 		app := h.Appender(context.Background())
-		ts, v := mins*time.Minute.Milliseconds(), float64(mins)
-		_, err := app.Append(0, l, ts, v)
+		_, _, err := scenario.appendFunc(app, l, mins*time.Minute.Milliseconds(), mins)
 		require.NoError(t, err)
 		require.NoError(t, app.Commit())
 	}
@@ -4985,6 +5116,14 @@ func TestReplayAfterMmapReplayError(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestOOOAppendWithNoSeries(t *testing.T) {
+	for name, scenario := range sampleTypeScenarios {
+		t.Run(name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			testOOOAppendWithNoSeries(t, scenario.appendFunc)
+		})
+	}
+}
+
+func testOOOAppendWithNoSeries(t *testing.T, appendFunc func(appender storage.Appender, lbls labels.Labels, ts, value int64) (storage.SeriesRef, sample, error)) {
 	dir := t.TempDir()
 	wal, err := wlog.NewSize(nil, nil, filepath.Join(dir, "wal"), 32768, wlog.CompressionSnappy)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
@@ -5005,7 +5144,7 @@ func TestOOOAppendWithNoSeries(t *testing.T) {
 
 	appendSample := func(lbls labels.Labels, ts int64) {
 		app := h.Appender(context.Background())
-		_, err := app.Append(0, lbls, ts*time.Minute.Milliseconds(), float64(ts))
+		_, _, err := appendFunc(app, lbls, ts*time.Minute.Milliseconds(), ts)
 		require.NoError(t, err)
 		require.NoError(t, app.Commit())
 	}
@@ -5032,7 +5171,7 @@ func TestOOOAppendWithNoSeries(t *testing.T) {
 		require.Equal(t, expSamples, ms.headChunks.chunk.NumSamples())
 	}
 
-	newLabels := func(idx int) labels.Labels { return labels.FromStrings("foo", fmt.Sprintf("%d", idx)) }
+	newLabels := func(idx int) labels.Labels { return labels.FromStrings("foo", strconv.Itoa(idx)) }
 
 	s1 := newLabels(1)
 	appendSample(s1, 300) // At 300m.
@@ -5053,7 +5192,7 @@ func TestOOOAppendWithNoSeries(t *testing.T) {
 	// Now 179m is too old.
 	s4 := newLabels(4)
 	app := h.Appender(context.Background())
-	_, err = app.Append(0, s4, 179*time.Minute.Milliseconds(), float64(179))
+	_, _, err = appendFunc(app, s4, 179*time.Minute.Milliseconds(), 179)
 	require.Equal(t, storage.ErrTooOldSample, err)
 	require.NoError(t, app.Rollback())
 	verifyOOOSamples(s3, 1)
@@ -5066,6 +5205,14 @@ func TestOOOAppendWithNoSeries(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestHeadMinOOOTimeUpdate(t *testing.T) {
+	for name, scenario := range sampleTypeScenarios {
+		t.Run(name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			testHeadMinOOOTimeUpdate(t, scenario)
+		})
+	}
+}
+
+func testHeadMinOOOTimeUpdate(t *testing.T, scenario sampleTypeScenario) {
 	dir := t.TempDir()
 	wal, err := wlog.NewSize(nil, nil, filepath.Join(dir, "wal"), 32768, wlog.CompressionSnappy)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
@@ -5084,15 +5231,13 @@ func TestHeadMinOOOTimeUpdate(t *testing.T) {
 	require.NoError(t, h.Init(0))
 
 	appendSample := func(ts int64) {
-		lbls := labels.FromStrings("foo", "bar")
 		app := h.Appender(context.Background())
-		_, err := app.Append(0, lbls, ts*time.Minute.Milliseconds(), float64(ts))
+		_, _, err = scenario.appendFunc(app, labels.FromStrings("a", "b"), ts*time.Minute.Milliseconds(), ts)
 		require.NoError(t, err)
 		require.NoError(t, app.Commit())
 	}
 
 	appendSample(300) // In-order sample.
-
 	require.Equal(t, int64(math.MaxInt64), h.MinOOOTime())
 
 	appendSample(295) // OOO sample.
@@ -5829,3 +5974,14 @@ func TestHeadCompactableDoesNotCompactEmptyHead(t *testing.T) {
 
 	require.False(t, head.compactable())
 }
+
+type countSeriesLifecycleCallback struct {
+	created atomic.Int64
+	deleted atomic.Int64
+}
+
+func (c *countSeriesLifecycleCallback) PreCreation(labels.Labels) error { return nil }
+func (c *countSeriesLifecycleCallback) PostCreation(labels.Labels)      { c.created.Inc() }
+func (c *countSeriesLifecycleCallback) PostDeletion(s map[chunks.HeadSeriesRef]labels.Labels) {
+	c.deleted.Add(int64(len(s)))
+}
diff --git a/tsdb/head_wal.go b/tsdb/head_wal.go
index 076768f4ef..787cb7c267 100644
--- a/tsdb/head_wal.go
+++ b/tsdb/head_wal.go
@@ -126,7 +126,7 @@ func (h *Head) loadWAL(r *wlog.Reader, syms *labels.SymbolTable, multiRef map[ch
 			}
 			// At the moment the only possible error here is out of order exemplars, which we shouldn't see when
 			// replaying the WAL, so lets just log the error if it's not that type.
-			err = h.exemplars.AddExemplar(ms.lset, exemplar.Exemplar{Ts: e.T, Value: e.V, Labels: e.Labels})
+			err = h.exemplars.AddExemplar(ms.labels(), exemplar.Exemplar{Ts: e.T, Value: e.V, Labels: e.Labels})
 			if err != nil && errors.Is(err, storage.ErrOutOfOrderExemplar) {
 				level.Warn(h.logger).Log("msg", "Unexpected error when replaying WAL on exemplar record", "err", err)
 			}
@@ -448,7 +448,7 @@ func (h *Head) resetSeriesWithMMappedChunks(mSeries *memSeries, mmc, oooMmc []*m
 			) {
 				level.Debug(h.logger).Log(
 					"msg", "M-mapped chunks overlap on a duplicate series record",
-					"series", mSeries.lset.String(),
+					"series", mSeries.labels().String(),
 					"oldref", mSeries.ref,
 					"oldmint", mSeries.mmappedChunks[0].minTime,
 					"oldmaxt", mSeries.mmappedChunks[len(mSeries.mmappedChunks)-1].maxTime,
@@ -932,7 +932,7 @@ func (s *memSeries) encodeToSnapshotRecord(b []byte) []byte {
 
 	buf.PutByte(chunkSnapshotRecordTypeSeries)
 	buf.PutBE64(uint64(s.ref))
-	record.EncodeLabels(&buf, s.lset)
+	record.EncodeLabels(&buf, s.labels())
 	buf.PutBE64int64(0) // Backwards-compatibility; was chunkRange but now unused.
 
 	s.Lock()
@@ -1485,7 +1485,7 @@ Outer:
 					continue
 				}
 
-				if err := h.exemplars.AddExemplar(ms.lset, exemplar.Exemplar{
+				if err := h.exemplars.AddExemplar(ms.labels(), exemplar.Exemplar{
 					Labels: e.Labels,
 					Value:  e.V,
 					Ts:     e.T,
@@ -1496,7 +1496,7 @@ Outer:
 			}
 
 		default:
-			// This is a record type we don't understand. It is either and old format from earlier versions,
+			// This is a record type we don't understand. It is either an old format from earlier versions,
 			// or a new format and the code was rolled back to old version.
 			loopErr = fmt.Errorf("unsupported snapshot record type 0b%b", rec[0])
 			break Outer
diff --git a/tsdb/index/index.go b/tsdb/index/index.go
index 89c2041a76..3621054598 100644
--- a/tsdb/index/index.go
+++ b/tsdb/index/index.go
@@ -51,6 +51,9 @@ const (
 	indexFilename = "index"
 
 	seriesByteAlign = 16
+
+	// checkContextEveryNIterations is used in some tight loops to check if the context is done.
+	checkContextEveryNIterations = 128
 )
 
 type indexWriterSeries struct {
@@ -158,7 +161,7 @@ type Writer struct {
 	postingsEncoder PostingsEncoder
 }
 
-// TOC represents index Table Of Content that states where each section of index starts.
+// TOC represents the index Table Of Contents that states where each section of the index starts.
 type TOC struct {
 	Symbols           uint64
 	Series            uint64
@@ -168,7 +171,7 @@ type TOC struct {
 	PostingsTable     uint64
 }
 
-// NewTOCFromByteSlice return parsed TOC from given index byte slice.
+// NewTOCFromByteSlice returns a parsed TOC from the given index byte slice.
 func NewTOCFromByteSlice(bs ByteSlice) (*TOC, error) {
 	if bs.Len() < indexTOCLen {
 		return nil, encoding.ErrInvalidSize
@@ -1536,46 +1539,30 @@ func (r *Reader) LabelValues(ctx context.Context, name string, matchers ...*labe
 	if len(e) == 0 {
 		return nil, nil
 	}
+
 	values := make([]string, 0, len(e)*symbolFactor)
-
-	d := encoding.NewDecbufAt(r.b, int(r.toc.PostingsTable), nil)
-	d.Skip(e[0].off)
 	lastVal := e[len(e)-1].value
-
-	skip := 0
-	for d.Err() == nil && ctx.Err() == nil {
-		if skip == 0 {
-			// These are always the same number of bytes,
-			// and it's faster to skip than parse.
-			skip = d.Len()
-			d.Uvarint()      // Keycount.
-			d.UvarintBytes() // Label name.
-			skip -= d.Len()
-		} else {
-			d.Skip(skip)
-		}
-		s := yoloString(d.UvarintBytes()) // Label value.
-		values = append(values, s)
-		if s == lastVal {
-			break
-		}
-		d.Uvarint64() // Offset.
-	}
-	if d.Err() != nil {
-		return nil, fmt.Errorf("get postings offset entry: %w", d.Err())
-	}
-
-	return values, ctx.Err()
+	err := r.traversePostingOffsets(ctx, e[0].off, func(val string, _ uint64) (bool, error) {
+		values = append(values, val)
+		return val != lastVal, nil
+	})
+	return values, err
 }
 
 // LabelNamesFor returns all the label names for the series referred to by IDs.
 // The names returned are sorted.
-func (r *Reader) LabelNamesFor(ctx context.Context, ids ...storage.SeriesRef) ([]string, error) {
+func (r *Reader) LabelNamesFor(ctx context.Context, postings Postings) ([]string, error) {
 	// Gather offsetsMap the name offsetsMap in the symbol table first
 	offsetsMap := make(map[uint32]struct{})
-	for _, id := range ids {
-		if ctx.Err() != nil {
-			return nil, ctx.Err()
+	i := 0
+	for postings.Next() {
+		id := postings.At()
+		i++
+
+		if i%checkContextEveryNIterations == 0 {
+			if ctxErr := ctx.Err(); ctxErr != nil {
+				return nil, ctxErr
+			}
 		}
 
 		offset := id
@@ -1662,6 +1649,44 @@ func (r *Reader) Series(id storage.SeriesRef, builder *labels.ScratchBuilder, ch
 	return nil
 }
 
+// traversePostingOffsets traverses r's posting offsets table, starting at off, and calls cb with every label value and postings offset.
+// If cb returns false (or an error), the traversing is interrupted.
+func (r *Reader) traversePostingOffsets(ctx context.Context, off int, cb func(string, uint64) (bool, error)) error {
+	// Don't Crc32 the entire postings offset table, this is very slow
+	// so hope any issues were caught at startup.
+	d := encoding.NewDecbufAt(r.b, int(r.toc.PostingsTable), nil)
+	d.Skip(off)
+	skip := 0
+	ctxErr := ctx.Err()
+	for d.Err() == nil && ctxErr == nil {
+		if skip == 0 {
+			// These are always the same number of bytes,
+			// and it's faster to skip than to parse.
+			skip = d.Len()
+			d.Uvarint()      // Keycount.
+			d.UvarintBytes() // Label name.
+			skip -= d.Len()
+		} else {
+			d.Skip(skip)
+		}
+		v := yoloString(d.UvarintBytes()) // Label value.
+		postingsOff := d.Uvarint64()      // Offset.
+		if ok, err := cb(v, postingsOff); err != nil {
+			return err
+		} else if !ok {
+			break
+		}
+		ctxErr = ctx.Err()
+	}
+	if d.Err() != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("get postings offset entry: %w", d.Err())
+	}
+	if ctxErr != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("get postings offset entry: %w", ctxErr)
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+
 func (r *Reader) Postings(ctx context.Context, name string, values ...string) (Postings, error) {
 	if r.version == FormatV1 {
 		e, ok := r.postingsV1[name]
@@ -1696,7 +1721,6 @@ func (r *Reader) Postings(ctx context.Context, name string, values ...string) (P
 
 	slices.Sort(values) // Values must be in order so we can step through the table on disk.
 	res := make([]Postings, 0, len(values))
-	skip := 0
 	valueIndex := 0
 	for valueIndex < len(values) && values[valueIndex] < e[0].value {
 		// Discard values before the start.
@@ -1714,33 +1738,15 @@ func (r *Reader) Postings(ctx context.Context, name string, values ...string) (P
 			// Need to look from previous entry.
 			i--
 		}
-		// Don't Crc32 the entire postings offset table, this is very slow
-		// so hope any issues were caught at startup.
-		d := encoding.NewDecbufAt(r.b, int(r.toc.PostingsTable), nil)
-		d.Skip(e[i].off)
 
-		// Iterate on the offset table.
-		var postingsOff uint64 // The offset into the postings table.
-		for d.Err() == nil && ctx.Err() == nil {
-			if skip == 0 {
-				// These are always the same number of bytes,
-				// and it's faster to skip than parse.
-				skip = d.Len()
-				d.Uvarint()      // Keycount.
-				d.UvarintBytes() // Label name.
-				skip -= d.Len()
-			} else {
-				d.Skip(skip)
-			}
-			v := d.UvarintBytes()       // Label value.
-			postingsOff = d.Uvarint64() // Offset.
-			for string(v) >= value {
-				if string(v) == value {
+		if err := r.traversePostingOffsets(ctx, e[i].off, func(val string, postingsOff uint64) (bool, error) {
+			for val >= value {
+				if val == value {
 					// Read from the postings table.
 					d2 := encoding.NewDecbufAt(r.b, int(postingsOff), castagnoliTable)
 					_, p, err := r.dec.Postings(d2.Get())
 					if err != nil {
-						return nil, fmt.Errorf("decode postings: %w", err)
+						return false, fmt.Errorf("decode postings: %w", err)
 					}
 					res = append(res, p)
 				}
@@ -1752,20 +1758,77 @@ func (r *Reader) Postings(ctx context.Context, name string, values ...string) (P
 			}
 			if i+1 == len(e) || value >= e[i+1].value || valueIndex == len(values) {
 				// Need to go to a later postings offset entry, if there is one.
-				break
+				return false, nil
 			}
-		}
-		if d.Err() != nil {
-			return nil, fmt.Errorf("get postings offset entry: %w", d.Err())
-		}
-		if ctx.Err() != nil {
-			return nil, fmt.Errorf("get postings offset entry: %w", ctx.Err())
+			return true, nil
+		}); err != nil {
+			return nil, err
 		}
 	}
 
 	return Merge(ctx, res...), nil
 }
 
+func (r *Reader) PostingsForLabelMatching(ctx context.Context, name string, match func(string) bool) Postings {
+	if r.version == FormatV1 {
+		return r.postingsForLabelMatchingV1(ctx, name, match)
+	}
+
+	e := r.postings[name]
+	if len(e) == 0 {
+		return EmptyPostings()
+	}
+
+	lastVal := e[len(e)-1].value
+	var its []Postings
+	if err := r.traversePostingOffsets(ctx, e[0].off, func(val string, postingsOff uint64) (bool, error) {
+		if match(val) {
+			// We want this postings iterator since the value is a match
+			postingsDec := encoding.NewDecbufAt(r.b, int(postingsOff), castagnoliTable)
+			_, p, err := r.dec.PostingsFromDecbuf(postingsDec)
+			if err != nil {
+				return false, fmt.Errorf("decode postings: %w", err)
+			}
+			its = append(its, p)
+		}
+		return val != lastVal, nil
+	}); err != nil {
+		return ErrPostings(err)
+	}
+
+	return Merge(ctx, its...)
+}
+
+func (r *Reader) postingsForLabelMatchingV1(ctx context.Context, name string, match func(string) bool) Postings {
+	e := r.postingsV1[name]
+	if len(e) == 0 {
+		return EmptyPostings()
+	}
+
+	var its []Postings
+	count := 1
+	for val, offset := range e {
+		if count%checkContextEveryNIterations == 0 && ctx.Err() != nil {
+			return ErrPostings(ctx.Err())
+		}
+		count++
+		if !match(val) {
+			continue
+		}
+
+		// Read from the postings table.
+		d := encoding.NewDecbufAt(r.b, int(offset), castagnoliTable)
+		_, p, err := r.dec.PostingsFromDecbuf(d)
+		if err != nil {
+			return ErrPostings(fmt.Errorf("decode postings: %w", err))
+		}
+
+		its = append(its, p)
+	}
+
+	return Merge(ctx, its...)
+}
+
 // SortedPostings returns the given postings list reordered so that the backing series
 // are sorted.
 func (r *Reader) SortedPostings(p Postings) Postings {
@@ -1856,6 +1919,11 @@ type Decoder struct {
 // Postings returns a postings list for b and its number of elements.
 func (dec *Decoder) Postings(b []byte) (int, Postings, error) {
 	d := encoding.Decbuf{B: b}
+	return dec.PostingsFromDecbuf(d)
+}
+
+// PostingsFromDecbuf returns a postings list for d and its number of elements.
+func (dec *Decoder) PostingsFromDecbuf(d encoding.Decbuf) (int, Postings, error) {
 	n := d.Be32int()
 	l := d.Get()
 	if d.Err() != nil {
diff --git a/tsdb/index/index_test.go b/tsdb/index/index_test.go
index c451c38dd2..d81dd8696c 100644
--- a/tsdb/index/index_test.go
+++ b/tsdb/index/index_test.go
@@ -20,7 +20,9 @@ import (
 	"hash/crc32"
 	"os"
 	"path/filepath"
+	"slices"
 	"sort"
+	"strconv"
 	"testing"
 
 	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
@@ -160,39 +162,14 @@ func TestIndexRW_Create_Open(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestIndexRW_Postings(t *testing.T) {
-	dir := t.TempDir()
 	ctx := context.Background()
-
-	fn := filepath.Join(dir, indexFilename)
-
-	iw, err := NewWriter(context.Background(), fn)
-	require.NoError(t, err)
-
-	series := []labels.Labels{
-		labels.FromStrings("a", "1", "b", "1"),
-		labels.FromStrings("a", "1", "b", "2"),
-		labels.FromStrings("a", "1", "b", "3"),
-		labels.FromStrings("a", "1", "b", "4"),
+	var input indexWriterSeriesSlice
+	for i := 1; i < 5; i++ {
+		input = append(input, &indexWriterSeries{
+			labels: labels.FromStrings("a", "1", "b", strconv.Itoa(i)),
+		})
 	}
-
-	require.NoError(t, iw.AddSymbol("1"))
-	require.NoError(t, iw.AddSymbol("2"))
-	require.NoError(t, iw.AddSymbol("3"))
-	require.NoError(t, iw.AddSymbol("4"))
-	require.NoError(t, iw.AddSymbol("a"))
-	require.NoError(t, iw.AddSymbol("b"))
-
-	// Postings lists are only written if a series with the respective
-	// reference was added before.
-	require.NoError(t, iw.AddSeries(1, series[0]))
-	require.NoError(t, iw.AddSeries(2, series[1]))
-	require.NoError(t, iw.AddSeries(3, series[2]))
-	require.NoError(t, iw.AddSeries(4, series[3]))
-
-	require.NoError(t, iw.Close())
-
-	ir, err := NewFileReader(fn)
-	require.NoError(t, err)
+	ir, fn, _ := createFileReader(ctx, t, input)
 
 	p, err := ir.Postings(ctx, "a", "1")
 	require.NoError(t, err)
@@ -205,7 +182,7 @@ func TestIndexRW_Postings(t *testing.T) {
 
 		require.NoError(t, err)
 		require.Empty(t, c)
-		testutil.RequireEqual(t, series[i], builder.Labels())
+		testutil.RequireEqual(t, input[i].labels, builder.Labels())
 	}
 	require.NoError(t, p.Err())
 
@@ -240,8 +217,6 @@ func TestIndexRW_Postings(t *testing.T) {
 		"b": {"1", "2", "3", "4"},
 	}, labelIndices)
 
-	require.NoError(t, ir.Close())
-
 	t.Run("ShardedPostings()", func(t *testing.T) {
 		ir, err := NewFileReader(fn)
 		require.NoError(t, err)
@@ -296,42 +271,16 @@ func TestIndexRW_Postings(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestPostingsMany(t *testing.T) {
-	dir := t.TempDir()
 	ctx := context.Background()
-
-	fn := filepath.Join(dir, indexFilename)
-
-	iw, err := NewWriter(context.Background(), fn)
-	require.NoError(t, err)
-
 	// Create a label in the index which has 999 values.
-	symbols := map[string]struct{}{}
-	series := []labels.Labels{}
+	var input indexWriterSeriesSlice
 	for i := 1; i < 1000; i++ {
 		v := fmt.Sprintf("%03d", i)
-		series = append(series, labels.FromStrings("i", v, "foo", "bar"))
-		symbols[v] = struct{}{}
+		input = append(input, &indexWriterSeries{
+			labels: labels.FromStrings("i", v, "foo", "bar"),
+		})
 	}
-	symbols["i"] = struct{}{}
-	symbols["foo"] = struct{}{}
-	symbols["bar"] = struct{}{}
-	syms := []string{}
-	for s := range symbols {
-		syms = append(syms, s)
-	}
-	sort.Strings(syms)
-	for _, s := range syms {
-		require.NoError(t, iw.AddSymbol(s))
-	}
-
-	for i, s := range series {
-		require.NoError(t, iw.AddSeries(storage.SeriesRef(i), s))
-	}
-	require.NoError(t, iw.Close())
-
-	ir, err := NewFileReader(fn)
-	require.NoError(t, err)
-	defer func() { require.NoError(t, ir.Close()) }()
+	ir, _, symbols := createFileReader(ctx, t, input)
 
 	cases := []struct {
 		in []string
@@ -387,25 +336,13 @@ func TestPostingsMany(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestPersistence_index_e2e(t *testing.T) {
-	dir := t.TempDir()
 	ctx := context.Background()
-
 	lbls, err := labels.ReadLabels(filepath.Join("..", "testdata", "20kseries.json"), 20000)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
-
 	// Sort labels as the index writer expects series in sorted order.
 	sort.Sort(labels.Slice(lbls))
 
-	symbols := map[string]struct{}{}
-	for _, lset := range lbls {
-		lset.Range(func(l labels.Label) {
-			symbols[l.Name] = struct{}{}
-			symbols[l.Value] = struct{}{}
-		})
-	}
-
 	var input indexWriterSeriesSlice
-
 	ref := uint64(0)
 	// Generate ChunkMetas for every label set.
 	for i, lset := range lbls {
@@ -426,17 +363,7 @@ func TestPersistence_index_e2e(t *testing.T) {
 		})
 	}
 
-	iw, err := NewWriter(context.Background(), filepath.Join(dir, indexFilename))
-	require.NoError(t, err)
-
-	syms := []string{}
-	for s := range symbols {
-		syms = append(syms, s)
-	}
-	sort.Strings(syms)
-	for _, s := range syms {
-		require.NoError(t, iw.AddSymbol(s))
-	}
+	ir, _, _ := createFileReader(ctx, t, input)
 
 	// Population procedure as done by compaction.
 	var (
@@ -447,8 +374,6 @@ func TestPersistence_index_e2e(t *testing.T) {
 	mi := newMockIndex()
 
 	for i, s := range input {
-		err = iw.AddSeries(storage.SeriesRef(i), s.labels, s.chunks...)
-		require.NoError(t, err)
 		require.NoError(t, mi.AddSeries(storage.SeriesRef(i), s.labels, s.chunks...))
 
 		s.labels.Range(func(l labels.Label) {
@@ -462,12 +387,6 @@ func TestPersistence_index_e2e(t *testing.T) {
 		postings.Add(storage.SeriesRef(i), s.labels)
 	}
 
-	err = iw.Close()
-	require.NoError(t, err)
-
-	ir, err := NewFileReader(filepath.Join(dir, indexFilename))
-	require.NoError(t, err)
-
 	for p := range mi.postings {
 		gotp, err := ir.Postings(ctx, p.Name, p.Value)
 		require.NoError(t, err)
@@ -523,8 +442,6 @@ func TestPersistence_index_e2e(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 	sort.Strings(expSymbols)
 	require.Equal(t, expSymbols, gotSymbols)
-
-	require.NoError(t, ir.Close())
 }
 
 func TestWriter_ShouldReturnErrorOnSeriesWithDuplicatedLabelNames(t *testing.T) {
@@ -624,39 +541,14 @@ func BenchmarkReader_ShardedPostings(b *testing.B) {
 		numShards = 16
 	)
 
-	dir, err := os.MkdirTemp("", "benchmark_reader_sharded_postings")
-	require.NoError(b, err)
-	defer func() {
-		require.NoError(b, os.RemoveAll(dir))
-	}()
-
 	ctx := context.Background()
-
-	// Generate an index.
-	fn := filepath.Join(dir, indexFilename)
-
-	iw, err := NewWriter(ctx, fn)
-	require.NoError(b, err)
-
+	var input indexWriterSeriesSlice
 	for i := 1; i <= numSeries; i++ {
-		require.NoError(b, iw.AddSymbol(fmt.Sprintf("%10d", i)))
+		input = append(input, &indexWriterSeries{
+			labels: labels.FromStrings("const", fmt.Sprintf("%10d", 1), "unique", fmt.Sprintf("%10d", i)),
+		})
 	}
-	require.NoError(b, iw.AddSymbol("const"))
-	require.NoError(b, iw.AddSymbol("unique"))
-
-	for i := 1; i <= numSeries; i++ {
-		require.NoError(b, iw.AddSeries(storage.SeriesRef(i),
-			labels.FromStrings("const", fmt.Sprintf("%10d", 1), "unique", fmt.Sprintf("%10d", i))))
-	}
-
-	require.NoError(b, iw.Close())
-
-	b.ResetTimer()
-
-	// Create a reader to read back all postings from the index.
-	ir, err := NewFileReader(fn)
-	require.NoError(b, err)
-
+	ir, _, _ := createFileReader(ctx, b, input)
 	b.ResetTimer()
 
 	for n := 0; n < b.N; n++ {
@@ -719,3 +611,89 @@ func TestChunksTimeOrdering(t *testing.T) {
 
 	require.NoError(t, idx.Close())
 }
+
+func TestReader_PostingsForLabelMatchingHonorsContextCancel(t *testing.T) {
+	const seriesCount = 1000
+	var input indexWriterSeriesSlice
+	for i := 1; i <= seriesCount; i++ {
+		input = append(input, &indexWriterSeries{
+			labels: labels.FromStrings("__name__", fmt.Sprintf("%4d", i)),
+			chunks: []chunks.Meta{
+				{Ref: 1, MinTime: 0, MaxTime: 10},
+			},
+		})
+	}
+	ir, _, _ := createFileReader(context.Background(), t, input)
+
+	failAfter := uint64(seriesCount / 2) // Fail after processing half of the series.
+	ctx := &testutil.MockContextErrAfter{FailAfter: failAfter}
+	p := ir.PostingsForLabelMatching(ctx, "__name__", func(string) bool {
+		return true
+	})
+	require.Error(t, p.Err())
+	require.Equal(t, failAfter, ctx.Count())
+}
+
+func TestReader_LabelNamesForHonorsContextCancel(t *testing.T) {
+	const seriesCount = 1000
+	var input indexWriterSeriesSlice
+	for i := 1; i <= seriesCount; i++ {
+		input = append(input, &indexWriterSeries{
+			labels: labels.FromStrings(labels.MetricName, fmt.Sprintf("%4d", i)),
+			chunks: []chunks.Meta{
+				{Ref: 1, MinTime: 0, MaxTime: 10},
+			},
+		})
+	}
+	ir, _, _ := createFileReader(context.Background(), t, input)
+
+	name, value := AllPostingsKey()
+	p, err := ir.Postings(context.Background(), name, value)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	// We check context cancellation every 128 iterations so 3 will fail after
+	// iterating 3 * 128 series.
+	failAfter := uint64(3)
+	ctx := &testutil.MockContextErrAfter{FailAfter: failAfter}
+	_, err = ir.LabelNamesFor(ctx, p)
+	require.Error(t, err)
+	require.Equal(t, failAfter, ctx.Count())
+}
+
+// createFileReader creates a temporary index file. It writes the provided input to this file.
+// It returns a Reader for this file, the file's name, and the symbol map.
+func createFileReader(ctx context.Context, tb testing.TB, input indexWriterSeriesSlice) (*Reader, string, map[string]struct{}) {
+	tb.Helper()
+
+	fn := filepath.Join(tb.TempDir(), indexFilename)
+
+	iw, err := NewWriter(ctx, fn)
+	require.NoError(tb, err)
+
+	symbols := map[string]struct{}{}
+	for _, s := range input {
+		s.labels.Range(func(l labels.Label) {
+			symbols[l.Name] = struct{}{}
+			symbols[l.Value] = struct{}{}
+		})
+	}
+
+	syms := []string{}
+	for s := range symbols {
+		syms = append(syms, s)
+	}
+	slices.Sort(syms)
+	for _, s := range syms {
+		require.NoError(tb, iw.AddSymbol(s))
+	}
+	for i, s := range input {
+		require.NoError(tb, iw.AddSeries(storage.SeriesRef(i), s.labels, s.chunks...))
+	}
+	require.NoError(tb, iw.Close())
+
+	ir, err := NewFileReader(fn)
+	require.NoError(tb, err)
+	tb.Cleanup(func() {
+		require.NoError(tb, ir.Close())
+	})
+	return ir, fn, symbols
+}
diff --git a/tsdb/index/postings.go b/tsdb/index/postings.go
index 61a5560ee4..bfe74c323d 100644
--- a/tsdb/index/postings.go
+++ b/tsdb/index/postings.go
@@ -288,62 +288,34 @@ func (p *MemPostings) EnsureOrder(numberOfConcurrentProcesses int) {
 }
 
 // Delete removes all ids in the given map from the postings lists.
-func (p *MemPostings) Delete(deleted map[storage.SeriesRef]struct{}) {
-	var keys, vals []string
+// affectedLabels contains all the labels that are affected by the deletion, there's no need to check other labels.
+func (p *MemPostings) Delete(deleted map[storage.SeriesRef]struct{}, affected map[labels.Label]struct{}) {
+	p.mtx.Lock()
+	defer p.mtx.Unlock()
 
-	// Collect all keys relevant for deletion once. New keys added afterwards
-	// can by definition not be affected by any of the given deletes.
-	p.mtx.RLock()
-	for n := range p.m {
-		keys = append(keys, n)
+	process := func(l labels.Label) {
+		orig := p.m[l.Name][l.Value]
+		repl := make([]storage.SeriesRef, 0, len(orig))
+		for _, id := range orig {
+			if _, ok := deleted[id]; !ok {
+				repl = append(repl, id)
+			}
+		}
+		if len(repl) > 0 {
+			p.m[l.Name][l.Value] = repl
+		} else {
+			delete(p.m[l.Name], l.Value)
+			// Delete the key if we removed all values.
+			if len(p.m[l.Name]) == 0 {
+				delete(p.m, l.Name)
+			}
+		}
 	}
-	p.mtx.RUnlock()
 
-	for _, n := range keys {
-		p.mtx.RLock()
-		vals = vals[:0]
-		for v := range p.m[n] {
-			vals = append(vals, v)
-		}
-		p.mtx.RUnlock()
-
-		// For each posting we first analyse whether the postings list is affected by the deletes.
-		// If yes, we actually reallocate a new postings list.
-		for _, l := range vals {
-			// Only lock for processing one postings list so we don't block reads for too long.
-			p.mtx.Lock()
-
-			found := false
-			for _, id := range p.m[n][l] {
-				if _, ok := deleted[id]; ok {
-					found = true
-					break
-				}
-			}
-			if !found {
-				p.mtx.Unlock()
-				continue
-			}
-			repl := make([]storage.SeriesRef, 0, len(p.m[n][l]))
-
-			for _, id := range p.m[n][l] {
-				if _, ok := deleted[id]; !ok {
-					repl = append(repl, id)
-				}
-			}
-			if len(repl) > 0 {
-				p.m[n][l] = repl
-			} else {
-				delete(p.m[n], l)
-			}
-			p.mtx.Unlock()
-		}
-		p.mtx.Lock()
-		if len(p.m[n]) == 0 {
-			delete(p.m, n)
-		}
-		p.mtx.Unlock()
+	for l := range affected {
+		process(l)
 	}
+	process(allPostingsKey)
 }
 
 // Iter calls f for each postings list. It aborts if f returns an error and returns it.
@@ -397,6 +369,73 @@ func (p *MemPostings) addFor(id storage.SeriesRef, l labels.Label) {
 	}
 }
 
+func (p *MemPostings) PostingsForLabelMatching(ctx context.Context, name string, match func(string) bool) Postings {
+	// We'll copy the values into a slice and then match over that,
+	// this way we don't need to hold the mutex while we're matching,
+	// which can be slow (seconds) if the match function is a huge regex.
+	// Holding this lock prevents new series from being added (slows down the write path)
+	// and blocks the compaction process.
+	vals := p.labelValues(name)
+	for i, count := 0, 1; i < len(vals); count++ {
+		if count%checkContextEveryNIterations == 0 && ctx.Err() != nil {
+			return ErrPostings(ctx.Err())
+		}
+
+		if match(vals[i]) {
+			i++
+			continue
+		}
+
+		// Didn't match, bring the last value to this position, make the slice shorter and check again.
+		// The order of the slice doesn't matter as it comes from a map iteration.
+		vals[i], vals = vals[len(vals)-1], vals[:len(vals)-1]
+	}
+
+	// If none matched (or this label had no values), no need to grab the lock again.
+	if len(vals) == 0 {
+		return EmptyPostings()
+	}
+
+	// Now `vals` only contains the values that matched, get their postings.
+	its := make([]Postings, 0, len(vals))
+	p.mtx.RLock()
+	e := p.m[name]
+	for _, v := range vals {
+		if refs, ok := e[v]; ok {
+			// Some of the values may have been garbage-collected in the meantime this is fine, we'll just skip them.
+			// If we didn't let the mutex go, we'd have these postings here, but they would be pointing nowhere
+			// because there would be a `MemPostings.Delete()` call waiting for the lock to delete these labels,
+			// because the series were deleted already.
+			its = append(its, NewListPostings(refs))
+		}
+	}
+	// Let the mutex go before merging.
+	p.mtx.RUnlock()
+
+	return Merge(ctx, its...)
+}
+
+// labelValues returns a slice of label values for the given label name.
+// It will take the read lock.
+func (p *MemPostings) labelValues(name string) []string {
+	p.mtx.RLock()
+	defer p.mtx.RUnlock()
+
+	e := p.m[name]
+	if len(e) == 0 {
+		return nil
+	}
+
+	vals := make([]string, 0, len(e))
+	for v, srs := range e {
+		if len(srs) > 0 {
+			vals = append(vals, v)
+		}
+	}
+
+	return vals
+}
+
 // ExpandPostings returns the postings expanded as a slice.
 func ExpandPostings(p Postings) (res []storage.SeriesRef, err error) {
 	for p.Next() {
@@ -716,9 +755,7 @@ func (it *ListPostings) Seek(x storage.SeriesRef) bool {
 	}
 
 	// Do binary search between current position and end.
-	i := sort.Search(len(it.list), func(i int) bool {
-		return it.list[i] >= x
-	})
+	i, _ := slices.BinarySearch(it.list, x)
 	if i < len(it.list) {
 		it.cur = it.list[i]
 		it.list = it.list[i+1:]
diff --git a/tsdb/index/postings_test.go b/tsdb/index/postings_test.go
index 9e6bd23f8c..96c9ed124b 100644
--- a/tsdb/index/postings_test.go
+++ b/tsdb/index/postings_test.go
@@ -22,12 +22,16 @@ import (
 	"math/rand"
 	"sort"
 	"strconv"
+	"strings"
+	"sync"
 	"testing"
 
+	"github.com/grafana/regexp"
 	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
 
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/labels"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/storage"
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/util/testutil"
 )
 
 func TestMemPostings_addFor(t *testing.T) {
@@ -49,7 +53,7 @@ func TestMemPostings_ensureOrder(t *testing.T) {
 		for j := range l {
 			l[j] = storage.SeriesRef(rand.Uint64())
 		}
-		v := fmt.Sprintf("%d", i)
+		v := strconv.Itoa(i)
 
 		p.m["a"][v] = l
 	}
@@ -390,7 +394,7 @@ func BenchmarkMerge(t *testing.B) {
 
 	its := make([]Postings, len(refs))
 	for _, nSeries := range []int{1, 10, 100, 1000, 10000, 100000} {
-		t.Run(fmt.Sprint(nSeries), func(bench *testing.B) {
+		t.Run(strconv.Itoa(nSeries), func(bench *testing.B) {
 			ctx := context.Background()
 			for i := 0; i < bench.N; i++ {
 				// Reset the ListPostings to their original values each time round the loop.
@@ -975,9 +979,13 @@ func TestMemPostings_Delete(t *testing.T) {
 	p.Add(3, labels.FromStrings("lbl2", "a"))
 
 	before := p.Get(allPostingsKey.Name, allPostingsKey.Value)
-	p.Delete(map[storage.SeriesRef]struct{}{
+	deletedRefs := map[storage.SeriesRef]struct{}{
 		2: {},
-	})
+	}
+	affectedLabels := map[labels.Label]struct{}{
+		{Name: "lbl1", Value: "b"}: {},
+	}
+	p.Delete(deletedRefs, affectedLabels)
 	after := p.Get(allPostingsKey.Name, allPostingsKey.Value)
 
 	// Make sure postings gotten before the delete have the old data when
@@ -998,6 +1006,101 @@ func TestMemPostings_Delete(t *testing.T) {
 	require.Empty(t, expanded, "expected empty postings, got %v", expanded)
 }
 
+// BenchmarkMemPostings_Delete is quite heavy, so consider running it with
+// -benchtime=10x or similar to get more stable and comparable results.
+func BenchmarkMemPostings_Delete(b *testing.B) {
+	internedItoa := map[int]string{}
+	var mtx sync.RWMutex
+	itoa := func(i int) string {
+		mtx.RLock()
+		s, ok := internedItoa[i]
+		mtx.RUnlock()
+		if ok {
+			return s
+		}
+		mtx.Lock()
+		s = strconv.Itoa(i)
+		internedItoa[i] = s
+		mtx.Unlock()
+		return s
+	}
+
+	const total = 1e6
+	allSeries := [total]labels.Labels{}
+	nameValues := make([]string, 0, 100)
+	for i := 0; i < total; i++ {
+		nameValues = nameValues[:0]
+
+		// A thousand labels like lbl_x_of_1000, each with total/1000 values
+		thousand := "lbl_" + itoa(i%1000) + "_of_1000"
+		nameValues = append(nameValues, thousand, itoa(i/1000))
+		// A hundred labels like lbl_x_of_100, each with total/100 values.
+		hundred := "lbl_" + itoa(i%100) + "_of_100"
+		nameValues = append(nameValues, hundred, itoa(i/100))
+
+		if i < 100 {
+			ten := "lbl_" + itoa(i%10) + "_of_10"
+			nameValues = append(nameValues, ten, itoa(i%10))
+		}
+		allSeries[i] = labels.FromStrings(append(nameValues, "first", "a", "second", "a", "third", "a")...)
+	}
+
+	for _, refs := range []int{1, 100, 10_000} {
+		b.Run(fmt.Sprintf("refs=%d", refs), func(b *testing.B) {
+			for _, reads := range []int{0, 1, 10} {
+				b.Run(fmt.Sprintf("readers=%d", reads), func(b *testing.B) {
+					if b.N > total/refs {
+						// Just to make sure that benchmark still makes sense.
+						panic("benchmark not prepared")
+					}
+
+					p := NewMemPostings()
+					for i := range allSeries {
+						p.Add(storage.SeriesRef(i), allSeries[i])
+					}
+
+					stop := make(chan struct{})
+					wg := sync.WaitGroup{}
+					for i := 0; i < reads; i++ {
+						wg.Add(1)
+						go func(i int) {
+							lbl := "lbl_" + itoa(i) + "_of_100"
+							defer wg.Done()
+							for {
+								select {
+								case <-stop:
+									return
+								default:
+									// Get a random value of this label.
+									p.Get(lbl, itoa(rand.Intn(10000))).Next()
+								}
+							}
+						}(i)
+					}
+					b.Cleanup(func() {
+						close(stop)
+						wg.Wait()
+					})
+
+					b.ResetTimer()
+					for n := 0; n < b.N; n++ {
+						deleted := make(map[storage.SeriesRef]struct{}, refs)
+						affected := make(map[labels.Label]struct{}, refs)
+						for i := 0; i < refs; i++ {
+							ref := storage.SeriesRef(n*refs + i)
+							deleted[ref] = struct{}{}
+							allSeries[ref].Range(func(l labels.Label) {
+								affected[l] = struct{}{}
+							})
+						}
+						p.Delete(deleted, affected)
+					}
+				})
+			}
+		})
+	}
+}
+
 func TestFindIntersectingPostings(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Run("multiple intersections", func(t *testing.T) {
 		p := NewListPostings([]storage.SeriesRef{10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50})
@@ -1282,3 +1385,93 @@ func BenchmarkListPostings(b *testing.B) {
 		})
 	}
 }
+
+func slowRegexpString() string {
+	nums := map[int]struct{}{}
+	for i := 10_000; i < 20_000; i++ {
+		if i%3 == 0 {
+			nums[i] = struct{}{}
+		}
+	}
+
+	var sb strings.Builder
+	sb.WriteString(".*(9999")
+	for i := range nums {
+		sb.WriteString("|")
+		sb.WriteString(strconv.Itoa(i))
+	}
+	sb.WriteString(").*")
+	return sb.String()
+}
+
+func BenchmarkMemPostings_PostingsForLabelMatching(b *testing.B) {
+	fast := regexp.MustCompile("^(100|200)$")
+	slowRegexp := "^" + slowRegexpString() + "$"
+	b.Logf("Slow regexp length = %d", len(slowRegexp))
+	slow := regexp.MustCompile(slowRegexp)
+
+	for _, labelValueCount := range []int{1_000, 10_000, 100_000} {
+		b.Run(fmt.Sprintf("labels=%d", labelValueCount), func(b *testing.B) {
+			mp := NewMemPostings()
+			for i := 0; i < labelValueCount; i++ {
+				mp.Add(storage.SeriesRef(i), labels.FromStrings("label", strconv.Itoa(i)))
+			}
+
+			fp, err := ExpandPostings(mp.PostingsForLabelMatching(context.Background(), "label", fast.MatchString))
+			require.NoError(b, err)
+			b.Logf("Fast matcher matches %d series", len(fp))
+			b.Run("matcher=fast", func(b *testing.B) {
+				for i := 0; i < b.N; i++ {
+					mp.PostingsForLabelMatching(context.Background(), "label", fast.MatchString).Next()
+				}
+			})
+
+			sp, err := ExpandPostings(mp.PostingsForLabelMatching(context.Background(), "label", slow.MatchString))
+			require.NoError(b, err)
+			b.Logf("Slow matcher matches %d series", len(sp))
+			b.Run("matcher=slow", func(b *testing.B) {
+				for i := 0; i < b.N; i++ {
+					mp.PostingsForLabelMatching(context.Background(), "label", slow.MatchString).Next()
+				}
+			})
+		})
+	}
+}
+
+func TestMemPostings_PostingsForLabelMatching(t *testing.T) {
+	mp := NewMemPostings()
+	mp.Add(1, labels.FromStrings("foo", "1"))
+	mp.Add(2, labels.FromStrings("foo", "2"))
+	mp.Add(3, labels.FromStrings("foo", "3"))
+	mp.Add(4, labels.FromStrings("foo", "4"))
+
+	isEven := func(v string) bool {
+		iv, err := strconv.Atoi(v)
+		if err != nil {
+			panic(err)
+		}
+		return iv%2 == 0
+	}
+
+	p := mp.PostingsForLabelMatching(context.Background(), "foo", isEven)
+	require.NoError(t, p.Err())
+	refs, err := ExpandPostings(p)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	require.Equal(t, []storage.SeriesRef{2, 4}, refs)
+}
+
+func TestMemPostings_PostingsForLabelMatchingHonorsContextCancel(t *testing.T) {
+	memP := NewMemPostings()
+	seriesCount := 10 * checkContextEveryNIterations
+	for i := 1; i <= seriesCount; i++ {
+		memP.Add(storage.SeriesRef(i), labels.FromStrings("__name__", fmt.Sprintf("%4d", i)))
+	}
+
+	failAfter := uint64(seriesCount / 2 / checkContextEveryNIterations)
+	ctx := &testutil.MockContextErrAfter{FailAfter: failAfter}
+	p := memP.PostingsForLabelMatching(ctx, "__name__", func(string) bool {
+		return true
+	})
+	require.Error(t, p.Err())
+	require.Equal(t, failAfter+1, ctx.Count()) // Plus one for the Err() call that puts the error in the result.
+}
diff --git a/tsdb/ooo_head_read.go b/tsdb/ooo_head_read.go
index ed0b3fd227..4e8329c99b 100644
--- a/tsdb/ooo_head_read.go
+++ b/tsdb/ooo_head_read.go
@@ -78,7 +78,7 @@ func (oh *OOOHeadIndexReader) series(ref storage.SeriesRef, builder *labels.Scra
 		oh.head.metrics.seriesNotFound.Inc()
 		return storage.ErrNotFound
 	}
-	builder.Assign(s.lset)
+	builder.Assign(s.labels())
 
 	if chks == nil {
 		return nil
@@ -94,48 +94,32 @@ func (oh *OOOHeadIndexReader) series(ref storage.SeriesRef, builder *labels.Scra
 
 	tmpChks := make([]chunks.Meta, 0, len(s.ooo.oooMmappedChunks))
 
-	// We define these markers to track the last chunk reference while we
-	// fill the chunk meta.
-	// These markers are useful to give consistent responses to repeated queries
-	// even if new chunks that might be overlapping or not are added afterwards.
-	// Also, lastMinT and lastMaxT are initialized to the max int as a sentinel
-	// value to know they are unset.
-	var lastChunkRef chunks.ChunkRef
-	lastMinT, lastMaxT := int64(math.MaxInt64), int64(math.MaxInt64)
-
-	addChunk := func(minT, maxT int64, ref chunks.ChunkRef) {
-		// the first time we get called is for the last included chunk.
-		// set the markers accordingly
-		if lastMinT == int64(math.MaxInt64) {
-			lastChunkRef = ref
-			lastMinT = minT
-			lastMaxT = maxT
-		}
-
+	addChunk := func(minT, maxT int64, ref chunks.ChunkRef, chunk chunkenc.Chunk) {
 		tmpChks = append(tmpChks, chunks.Meta{
-			MinTime:        minT,
-			MaxTime:        maxT,
-			Ref:            ref,
-			OOOLastRef:     lastChunkRef,
-			OOOLastMinTime: lastMinT,
-			OOOLastMaxTime: lastMaxT,
+			MinTime: minT,
+			MaxTime: maxT,
+			Ref:     ref,
+			Chunk:   chunk,
 		})
 	}
 
-	// Collect all chunks that overlap the query range, in order from most recent to most old,
-	// so we can set the correct markers.
+	// Collect all chunks that overlap the query range.
 	if s.ooo.oooHeadChunk != nil {
 		c := s.ooo.oooHeadChunk
 		if c.OverlapsClosedInterval(oh.mint, oh.maxt) && maxMmapRef == 0 {
 			ref := chunks.ChunkRef(chunks.NewHeadChunkRef(s.ref, s.oooHeadChunkID(len(s.ooo.oooMmappedChunks))))
-			addChunk(c.minTime, c.maxTime, ref)
+			var xor chunkenc.Chunk
+			if len(c.chunk.samples) > 0 { // Empty samples happens in tests, at least.
+				xor, _ = c.chunk.ToXOR() // Ignoring error because it can't fail.
+			}
+			addChunk(c.minTime, c.maxTime, ref, xor)
 		}
 	}
 	for i := len(s.ooo.oooMmappedChunks) - 1; i >= 0; i-- {
 		c := s.ooo.oooMmappedChunks[i]
 		if c.OverlapsClosedInterval(oh.mint, oh.maxt) && (maxMmapRef == 0 || maxMmapRef.GreaterThanOrEqualTo(c.ref)) && (lastGarbageCollectedMmapRef == 0 || c.ref.GreaterThan(lastGarbageCollectedMmapRef)) {
 			ref := chunks.ChunkRef(chunks.NewHeadChunkRef(s.ref, s.oooHeadChunkID(i)))
-			addChunk(c.minTime, c.maxTime, ref)
+			addChunk(c.minTime, c.maxTime, ref, nil)
 		}
 	}
 
@@ -163,6 +147,12 @@ func (oh *OOOHeadIndexReader) series(ref storage.SeriesRef, builder *labels.Scra
 		case c.MaxTime > maxTime:
 			maxTime = c.MaxTime
 			(*chks)[len(*chks)-1].MaxTime = c.MaxTime
+			fallthrough
+		default:
+			// If the head OOO chunk is part of an output chunk, copy the chunk pointer.
+			if c.Chunk != nil {
+				(*chks)[len(*chks)-1].Chunk = c.Chunk
+			}
 		}
 	}
 
@@ -185,10 +175,8 @@ func (oh *OOOHeadIndexReader) LabelValues(ctx context.Context, name string, matc
 }
 
 type chunkMetaAndChunkDiskMapperRef struct {
-	meta     chunks.Meta
-	ref      chunks.ChunkDiskMapperRef
-	origMinT int64
-	origMaxT int64
+	meta chunks.Meta
+	ref  chunks.ChunkDiskMapperRef
 }
 
 func refLessByMinTimeAndMinRef(a, b chunkMetaAndChunkDiskMapperRef) int {
@@ -446,6 +434,10 @@ func (ir *OOOCompactionHeadIndexReader) Postings(_ context.Context, name string,
 	return index.NewListPostings(ir.ch.postings), nil
 }
 
+func (ir *OOOCompactionHeadIndexReader) PostingsForLabelMatching(context.Context, string, func(string) bool) index.Postings {
+	return index.ErrPostings(errors.New("not supported"))
+}
+
 func (ir *OOOCompactionHeadIndexReader) SortedPostings(p index.Postings) index.Postings {
 	// This will already be sorted from the Postings() call above.
 	return p
@@ -479,7 +471,7 @@ func (ir *OOOCompactionHeadIndexReader) LabelValueFor(context.Context, storage.S
 	return "", errors.New("not implemented")
 }
 
-func (ir *OOOCompactionHeadIndexReader) LabelNamesFor(ctx context.Context, ids ...storage.SeriesRef) ([]string, error) {
+func (ir *OOOCompactionHeadIndexReader) LabelNamesFor(ctx context.Context, postings index.Postings) ([]string, error) {
 	return nil, errors.New("not implemented")
 }
 
diff --git a/tsdb/ooo_head_read_test.go b/tsdb/ooo_head_read_test.go
index 1716f29b55..7ecd355b55 100644
--- a/tsdb/ooo_head_read_test.go
+++ b/tsdb/ooo_head_read_test.go
@@ -304,18 +304,6 @@ func TestOOOHeadIndexReader_Series(t *testing.T) {
 					s1, _, _ := h.getOrCreate(s1ID, s1Lset)
 					s1.ooo = &memSeriesOOOFields{}
 
-					var lastChunk chunkInterval
-					var lastChunkPos int
-
-					// the marker should be set based on whichever is the last chunk/interval that overlaps with the query range
-					for i, interv := range intervals {
-						if overlapsClosedInterval(interv.mint, interv.maxt, tc.queryMinT, tc.queryMaxT) {
-							lastChunk = interv
-							lastChunkPos = i
-						}
-					}
-					lastChunkRef := chunks.ChunkRef(chunks.NewHeadChunkRef(1, chunks.HeadChunkID(uint64(lastChunkPos))))
-
 					// define our expected chunks, by looking at the expected ChunkIntervals and setting...
 					var expChunks []chunks.Meta
 					for _, e := range tc.expChunks {
@@ -323,10 +311,6 @@ func TestOOOHeadIndexReader_Series(t *testing.T) {
 							Chunk:   chunkenc.Chunk(nil),
 							MinTime: e.mint,
 							MaxTime: e.maxt,
-							// markers based on the last chunk we found above
-							OOOLastMinTime: lastChunk.mint,
-							OOOLastMaxTime: lastChunk.maxt,
-							OOOLastRef:     lastChunkRef,
 						}
 
 						// Ref to whatever Ref the chunk has, that we refer to by ID
@@ -343,6 +327,7 @@ func TestOOOHeadIndexReader_Series(t *testing.T) {
 					if headChunk && len(intervals) > 0 {
 						// Put the last interval in the head chunk
 						s1.ooo.oooHeadChunk = &oooHeadChunk{
+							chunk:   NewOOOChunk(),
 							minTime: intervals[len(intervals)-1].mint,
 							maxTime: intervals[len(intervals)-1].maxt,
 						}
@@ -374,6 +359,15 @@ func TestOOOHeadIndexReader_Series(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestOOOHeadChunkReader_LabelValues(t *testing.T) {
+	for name, scenario := range sampleTypeScenarios {
+		t.Run(name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			testOOOHeadChunkReader_LabelValues(t, scenario)
+		})
+	}
+}
+
+//nolint:revive // unexported-return.
+func testOOOHeadChunkReader_LabelValues(t *testing.T, scenario sampleTypeScenario) {
 	chunkRange := int64(2000)
 	head, _ := newTestHead(t, chunkRange, wlog.CompressionNone, true)
 	t.Cleanup(func() { require.NoError(t, head.Close()) })
@@ -383,15 +377,15 @@ func TestOOOHeadChunkReader_LabelValues(t *testing.T) {
 	app := head.Appender(context.Background())
 
 	// Add in-order samples
-	_, err := app.Append(0, labels.FromStrings("foo", "bar1"), 100, 1)
+	_, _, err := scenario.appendFunc(app, labels.FromStrings("foo", "bar1"), 100, int64(1))
 	require.NoError(t, err)
-	_, err = app.Append(0, labels.FromStrings("foo", "bar2"), 100, 2)
+	_, _, err = scenario.appendFunc(app, labels.FromStrings("foo", "bar2"), 100, int64(2))
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 
 	// Add ooo samples for those series
-	_, err = app.Append(0, labels.FromStrings("foo", "bar1"), 90, 1)
+	_, _, err = scenario.appendFunc(app, labels.FromStrings("foo", "bar1"), 90, int64(1))
 	require.NoError(t, err)
-	_, err = app.Append(0, labels.FromStrings("foo", "bar2"), 90, 2)
+	_, _, err = scenario.appendFunc(app, labels.FromStrings("foo", "bar2"), 90, int64(2))
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 
 	require.NoError(t, app.Commit())
@@ -468,6 +462,15 @@ func TestOOOHeadChunkReader_LabelValues(t *testing.T) {
 // It does so by appending out of order samples to the db and then initializing
 // an OOOHeadChunkReader to read chunks from it.
 func TestOOOHeadChunkReader_Chunk(t *testing.T) {
+	for name, scenario := range sampleTypeScenarios {
+		t.Run(name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			testOOOHeadChunkReader_Chunk(t, scenario)
+		})
+	}
+}
+
+//nolint:revive // unexported-return.
+func testOOOHeadChunkReader_Chunk(t *testing.T, scenario sampleTypeScenario) {
 	opts := DefaultOptions()
 	opts.OutOfOrderCapMax = 5
 	opts.OutOfOrderTimeWindow = 120 * time.Minute.Milliseconds()
@@ -475,12 +478,6 @@ func TestOOOHeadChunkReader_Chunk(t *testing.T) {
 	s1 := labels.FromStrings("l", "v1")
 	minutes := func(m int64) int64 { return m * time.Minute.Milliseconds() }
 
-	appendSample := func(app storage.Appender, l labels.Labels, timestamp int64, value float64) storage.SeriesRef {
-		ref, err := app.Append(0, l, timestamp, value)
-		require.NoError(t, err)
-		return ref
-	}
-
 	t.Run("Getting a non existing chunk fails with not found error", func(t *testing.T) {
 		db := newTestDBWithOpts(t, opts)
 
@@ -499,7 +496,7 @@ func TestOOOHeadChunkReader_Chunk(t *testing.T) {
 		queryMinT            int64
 		queryMaxT            int64
 		firstInOrderSampleAt int64
-		inputSamples         chunks.SampleSlice
+		inputSamples         []testValue
 		expChunkError        bool
 		expChunksSamples     []chunks.SampleSlice
 	}{
@@ -508,9 +505,9 @@ func TestOOOHeadChunkReader_Chunk(t *testing.T) {
 			queryMinT:            minutes(0),
 			queryMaxT:            minutes(100),
 			firstInOrderSampleAt: minutes(120),
-			inputSamples: chunks.SampleSlice{
-				sample{t: minutes(30), f: float64(0)},
-				sample{t: minutes(40), f: float64(0)},
+			inputSamples: []testValue{
+				{Ts: minutes(30), V: 0},
+				{Ts: minutes(40), V: 0},
 			},
 			expChunkError: false,
 			// ts (in minutes)         0       10       20       30       40       50       60       70       80       90       100
@@ -519,8 +516,8 @@ func TestOOOHeadChunkReader_Chunk(t *testing.T) {
 			// Output Graphically                                 [--------] (With 2 samples)
 			expChunksSamples: []chunks.SampleSlice{
 				{
-					sample{t: minutes(30), f: float64(0)},
-					sample{t: minutes(40), f: float64(0)},
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(30), 0),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(40), 0),
 				},
 			},
 		},
@@ -529,19 +526,8 @@ func TestOOOHeadChunkReader_Chunk(t *testing.T) {
 			queryMinT:            minutes(0),
 			queryMaxT:            minutes(100),
 			firstInOrderSampleAt: minutes(120),
-			inputSamples: chunks.SampleSlice{
-				// opts.OOOCapMax is 5 so these will be mmapped to the first mmapped chunk
-				sample{t: minutes(41), f: float64(0)},
-				sample{t: minutes(42), f: float64(0)},
-				sample{t: minutes(43), f: float64(0)},
-				sample{t: minutes(44), f: float64(0)},
-				sample{t: minutes(45), f: float64(0)},
-				// The following samples will go to the head chunk, and we want it
-				// to overlap with the previous chunk
-				sample{t: minutes(30), f: float64(1)},
-				sample{t: minutes(50), f: float64(1)},
-			},
-			expChunkError: false,
+			inputSamples:         []testValue{{Ts: minutes(41), V: 0}, {Ts: minutes(42), V: 0}, {Ts: minutes(43), V: 0}, {Ts: minutes(44), V: 0}, {Ts: minutes(45), V: 0}, {Ts: minutes(30), V: 1}, {Ts: minutes(50), V: 1}},
+			expChunkError:        false,
 			// ts (in minutes)         0       10       20       30       40       50       60       70       80       90       100
 			// Query Interval          [------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------]
 			// Chunk 0                                                     [---] (With 5 samples)
@@ -549,13 +535,13 @@ func TestOOOHeadChunkReader_Chunk(t *testing.T) {
 			// Output Graphically                                 [-----------------] (With 7 samples)
 			expChunksSamples: []chunks.SampleSlice{
 				{
-					sample{t: minutes(30), f: float64(1)},
-					sample{t: minutes(41), f: float64(0)},
-					sample{t: minutes(42), f: float64(0)},
-					sample{t: minutes(43), f: float64(0)},
-					sample{t: minutes(44), f: float64(0)},
-					sample{t: minutes(45), f: float64(0)},
-					sample{t: minutes(50), f: float64(1)},
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(30), 1),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(41), 0),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(42), 0),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(43), 0),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(44), 0),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(45), 0),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(50), 1),
 				},
 			},
 		},
@@ -564,28 +550,28 @@ func TestOOOHeadChunkReader_Chunk(t *testing.T) {
 			queryMinT:            minutes(0),
 			queryMaxT:            minutes(100),
 			firstInOrderSampleAt: minutes(120),
-			inputSamples: chunks.SampleSlice{
+			inputSamples: []testValue{
 				// Chunk 0
-				sample{t: minutes(10), f: float64(0)},
-				sample{t: minutes(12), f: float64(0)},
-				sample{t: minutes(14), f: float64(0)},
-				sample{t: minutes(16), f: float64(0)},
-				sample{t: minutes(20), f: float64(0)},
+				{Ts: minutes(10), V: 0},
+				{Ts: minutes(12), V: 0},
+				{Ts: minutes(14), V: 0},
+				{Ts: minutes(16), V: 0},
+				{Ts: minutes(20), V: 0},
 				// Chunk 1
-				sample{t: minutes(20), f: float64(1)},
-				sample{t: minutes(22), f: float64(1)},
-				sample{t: minutes(24), f: float64(1)},
-				sample{t: minutes(26), f: float64(1)},
-				sample{t: minutes(29), f: float64(1)},
-				// Chunk 2
-				sample{t: minutes(30), f: float64(2)},
-				sample{t: minutes(32), f: float64(2)},
-				sample{t: minutes(34), f: float64(2)},
-				sample{t: minutes(36), f: float64(2)},
-				sample{t: minutes(40), f: float64(2)},
+				{Ts: minutes(20), V: 1},
+				{Ts: minutes(22), V: 1},
+				{Ts: minutes(24), V: 1},
+				{Ts: minutes(26), V: 1},
+				{Ts: minutes(29), V: 1},
+				// Chunk 3
+				{Ts: minutes(30), V: 2},
+				{Ts: minutes(32), V: 2},
+				{Ts: minutes(34), V: 2},
+				{Ts: minutes(36), V: 2},
+				{Ts: minutes(40), V: 2},
 				// Head
-				sample{t: minutes(40), f: float64(3)},
-				sample{t: minutes(50), f: float64(3)},
+				{Ts: minutes(40), V: 3},
+				{Ts: minutes(50), V: 3},
 			},
 			expChunkError: false,
 			// ts (in minutes)         0       10       20       30       40       50       60       70       80       90       100
@@ -597,23 +583,23 @@ func TestOOOHeadChunkReader_Chunk(t *testing.T) {
 			// Output Graphically               [----------------][-----------------]
 			expChunksSamples: []chunks.SampleSlice{
 				{
-					sample{t: minutes(10), f: float64(0)},
-					sample{t: minutes(12), f: float64(0)},
-					sample{t: minutes(14), f: float64(0)},
-					sample{t: minutes(16), f: float64(0)},
-					sample{t: minutes(20), f: float64(1)},
-					sample{t: minutes(22), f: float64(1)},
-					sample{t: minutes(24), f: float64(1)},
-					sample{t: minutes(26), f: float64(1)},
-					sample{t: minutes(29), f: float64(1)},
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(10), 0),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(12), 0),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(14), 0),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(16), 0),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(20), 1),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(22), 1),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(24), 1),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(26), 1),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(29), 1),
 				},
 				{
-					sample{t: minutes(30), f: float64(2)},
-					sample{t: minutes(32), f: float64(2)},
-					sample{t: minutes(34), f: float64(2)},
-					sample{t: minutes(36), f: float64(2)},
-					sample{t: minutes(40), f: float64(3)},
-					sample{t: minutes(50), f: float64(3)},
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(30), 2),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(32), 2),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(34), 2),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(36), 2),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(40), 3),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(50), 3),
 				},
 			},
 		},
@@ -622,28 +608,28 @@ func TestOOOHeadChunkReader_Chunk(t *testing.T) {
 			queryMinT:            minutes(0),
 			queryMaxT:            minutes(100),
 			firstInOrderSampleAt: minutes(120),
-			inputSamples: chunks.SampleSlice{
+			inputSamples: []testValue{
 				// Chunk 0
-				sample{t: minutes(40), f: float64(0)},
-				sample{t: minutes(42), f: float64(0)},
-				sample{t: minutes(44), f: float64(0)},
-				sample{t: minutes(46), f: float64(0)},
-				sample{t: minutes(50), f: float64(0)},
+				{Ts: minutes(40), V: 0},
+				{Ts: minutes(42), V: 0},
+				{Ts: minutes(44), V: 0},
+				{Ts: minutes(46), V: 0},
+				{Ts: minutes(50), V: 0},
 				// Chunk 1
-				sample{t: minutes(30), f: float64(1)},
-				sample{t: minutes(32), f: float64(1)},
-				sample{t: minutes(34), f: float64(1)},
-				sample{t: minutes(36), f: float64(1)},
-				sample{t: minutes(40), f: float64(1)},
-				// Chunk 2
-				sample{t: minutes(20), f: float64(2)},
-				sample{t: minutes(22), f: float64(2)},
-				sample{t: minutes(24), f: float64(2)},
-				sample{t: minutes(26), f: float64(2)},
-				sample{t: minutes(29), f: float64(2)},
+				{Ts: minutes(30), V: 1},
+				{Ts: minutes(32), V: 1},
+				{Ts: minutes(34), V: 1},
+				{Ts: minutes(36), V: 1},
+				{Ts: minutes(40), V: 1},
+				// Chunk 3
+				{Ts: minutes(20), V: 2},
+				{Ts: minutes(22), V: 2},
+				{Ts: minutes(24), V: 2},
+				{Ts: minutes(26), V: 2},
+				{Ts: minutes(29), V: 2},
 				// Head
-				sample{t: minutes(10), f: float64(3)},
-				sample{t: minutes(20), f: float64(3)},
+				{Ts: minutes(10), V: 3},
+				{Ts: minutes(20), V: 3},
 			},
 			expChunkError: false,
 			// ts (in minutes)         0       10       20       30       40       50       60       70       80       90       100
@@ -655,23 +641,23 @@ func TestOOOHeadChunkReader_Chunk(t *testing.T) {
 			// Output Graphically               [----------------][-----------------]
 			expChunksSamples: []chunks.SampleSlice{
 				{
-					sample{t: minutes(10), f: float64(3)},
-					sample{t: minutes(20), f: float64(2)},
-					sample{t: minutes(22), f: float64(2)},
-					sample{t: minutes(24), f: float64(2)},
-					sample{t: minutes(26), f: float64(2)},
-					sample{t: minutes(29), f: float64(2)},
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(10), 3),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(20), 2),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(22), 2),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(24), 2),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(26), 2),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(29), 2),
 				},
 				{
-					sample{t: minutes(30), f: float64(1)},
-					sample{t: minutes(32), f: float64(1)},
-					sample{t: minutes(34), f: float64(1)},
-					sample{t: minutes(36), f: float64(1)},
-					sample{t: minutes(40), f: float64(0)},
-					sample{t: minutes(42), f: float64(0)},
-					sample{t: minutes(44), f: float64(0)},
-					sample{t: minutes(46), f: float64(0)},
-					sample{t: minutes(50), f: float64(0)},
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(30), 1),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(32), 1),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(34), 1),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(36), 1),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(40), 0),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(42), 0),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(44), 0),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(46), 0),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(50), 0),
 				},
 			},
 		},
@@ -680,28 +666,28 @@ func TestOOOHeadChunkReader_Chunk(t *testing.T) {
 			queryMinT:            minutes(0),
 			queryMaxT:            minutes(100),
 			firstInOrderSampleAt: minutes(120),
-			inputSamples: chunks.SampleSlice{
+			inputSamples: []testValue{
 				// Chunk 0
-				sample{t: minutes(10), f: float64(0)},
-				sample{t: minutes(12), f: float64(0)},
-				sample{t: minutes(14), f: float64(0)},
-				sample{t: minutes(16), f: float64(0)},
-				sample{t: minutes(18), f: float64(0)},
+				{Ts: minutes(10), V: 0},
+				{Ts: minutes(12), V: 0},
+				{Ts: minutes(14), V: 0},
+				{Ts: minutes(16), V: 0},
+				{Ts: minutes(18), V: 0},
 				// Chunk 1
-				sample{t: minutes(20), f: float64(1)},
-				sample{t: minutes(22), f: float64(1)},
-				sample{t: minutes(24), f: float64(1)},
-				sample{t: minutes(26), f: float64(1)},
-				sample{t: minutes(28), f: float64(1)},
-				// Chunk 2
-				sample{t: minutes(30), f: float64(2)},
-				sample{t: minutes(32), f: float64(2)},
-				sample{t: minutes(34), f: float64(2)},
-				sample{t: minutes(36), f: float64(2)},
-				sample{t: minutes(38), f: float64(2)},
+				{Ts: minutes(20), V: 1},
+				{Ts: minutes(22), V: 1},
+				{Ts: minutes(24), V: 1},
+				{Ts: minutes(26), V: 1},
+				{Ts: minutes(28), V: 1},
+				// Chunk 3
+				{Ts: minutes(30), V: 2},
+				{Ts: minutes(32), V: 2},
+				{Ts: minutes(34), V: 2},
+				{Ts: minutes(36), V: 2},
+				{Ts: minutes(38), V: 2},
 				// Head
-				sample{t: minutes(40), f: float64(3)},
-				sample{t: minutes(42), f: float64(3)},
+				{Ts: minutes(40), V: 3},
+				{Ts: minutes(42), V: 3},
 			},
 			expChunkError: false,
 			// ts (in minutes)         0       10       20       30       40       50       60       70       80       90       100
@@ -713,29 +699,29 @@ func TestOOOHeadChunkReader_Chunk(t *testing.T) {
 			// Output Graphically               [-------][-------][-------][--------]
 			expChunksSamples: []chunks.SampleSlice{
 				{
-					sample{t: minutes(10), f: float64(0)},
-					sample{t: minutes(12), f: float64(0)},
-					sample{t: minutes(14), f: float64(0)},
-					sample{t: minutes(16), f: float64(0)},
-					sample{t: minutes(18), f: float64(0)},
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(10), 0),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(12), 0),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(14), 0),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(16), 0),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(18), 0),
 				},
 				{
-					sample{t: minutes(20), f: float64(1)},
-					sample{t: minutes(22), f: float64(1)},
-					sample{t: minutes(24), f: float64(1)},
-					sample{t: minutes(26), f: float64(1)},
-					sample{t: minutes(28), f: float64(1)},
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(20), 1),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(22), 1),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(24), 1),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(26), 1),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(28), 1),
 				},
 				{
-					sample{t: minutes(30), f: float64(2)},
-					sample{t: minutes(32), f: float64(2)},
-					sample{t: minutes(34), f: float64(2)},
-					sample{t: minutes(36), f: float64(2)},
-					sample{t: minutes(38), f: float64(2)},
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(30), 2),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(32), 2),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(34), 2),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(36), 2),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(38), 2),
 				},
 				{
-					sample{t: minutes(40), f: float64(3)},
-					sample{t: minutes(42), f: float64(3)},
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(40), 3),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(42), 3),
 				},
 			},
 		},
@@ -744,22 +730,22 @@ func TestOOOHeadChunkReader_Chunk(t *testing.T) {
 			queryMinT:            minutes(0),
 			queryMaxT:            minutes(100),
 			firstInOrderSampleAt: minutes(120),
-			inputSamples: chunks.SampleSlice{
+			inputSamples: []testValue{
 				// Chunk 0
-				sample{t: minutes(10), f: float64(0)},
-				sample{t: minutes(15), f: float64(0)},
-				sample{t: minutes(20), f: float64(0)},
-				sample{t: minutes(25), f: float64(0)},
-				sample{t: minutes(30), f: float64(0)},
+				{Ts: minutes(10), V: 0},
+				{Ts: minutes(15), V: 0},
+				{Ts: minutes(20), V: 0},
+				{Ts: minutes(25), V: 0},
+				{Ts: minutes(30), V: 0},
 				// Chunk 1
-				sample{t: minutes(20), f: float64(1)},
-				sample{t: minutes(25), f: float64(1)},
-				sample{t: minutes(30), f: float64(1)},
-				sample{t: minutes(35), f: float64(1)},
-				sample{t: minutes(42), f: float64(1)},
+				{Ts: minutes(20), V: 1},
+				{Ts: minutes(25), V: 1},
+				{Ts: minutes(30), V: 1},
+				{Ts: minutes(35), V: 1},
+				{Ts: minutes(42), V: 1},
 				// Chunk 2 Head
-				sample{t: minutes(32), f: float64(2)},
-				sample{t: minutes(50), f: float64(2)},
+				{Ts: minutes(32), V: 2},
+				{Ts: minutes(50), V: 2},
 			},
 			expChunkError: false,
 			// ts (in minutes)         0       10       20       30       40       50       60       70       80       90       100
@@ -770,15 +756,15 @@ func TestOOOHeadChunkReader_Chunk(t *testing.T) {
 			// Output Graphically               [-----------------------------------]
 			expChunksSamples: []chunks.SampleSlice{
 				{
-					sample{t: minutes(10), f: float64(0)},
-					sample{t: minutes(15), f: float64(0)},
-					sample{t: minutes(20), f: float64(1)},
-					sample{t: minutes(25), f: float64(1)},
-					sample{t: minutes(30), f: float64(1)},
-					sample{t: minutes(32), f: float64(2)},
-					sample{t: minutes(35), f: float64(1)},
-					sample{t: minutes(42), f: float64(1)},
-					sample{t: minutes(50), f: float64(2)},
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(10), 0),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(15), 0),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(20), 1),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(25), 1),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(30), 1),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(32), 2),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(35), 1),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(42), 1),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(50), 2),
 				},
 			},
 		},
@@ -787,22 +773,22 @@ func TestOOOHeadChunkReader_Chunk(t *testing.T) {
 			queryMinT:            minutes(12),
 			queryMaxT:            minutes(33),
 			firstInOrderSampleAt: minutes(120),
-			inputSamples: chunks.SampleSlice{
+			inputSamples: []testValue{
 				// Chunk 0
-				sample{t: minutes(10), f: float64(0)},
-				sample{t: minutes(15), f: float64(0)},
-				sample{t: minutes(20), f: float64(0)},
-				sample{t: minutes(25), f: float64(0)},
-				sample{t: minutes(30), f: float64(0)},
+				{Ts: minutes(10), V: 0},
+				{Ts: minutes(15), V: 0},
+				{Ts: minutes(20), V: 0},
+				{Ts: minutes(25), V: 0},
+				{Ts: minutes(30), V: 0},
 				// Chunk 1
-				sample{t: minutes(20), f: float64(1)},
-				sample{t: minutes(25), f: float64(1)},
-				sample{t: minutes(30), f: float64(1)},
-				sample{t: minutes(35), f: float64(1)},
-				sample{t: minutes(42), f: float64(1)},
+				{Ts: minutes(20), V: 1},
+				{Ts: minutes(25), V: 1},
+				{Ts: minutes(30), V: 1},
+				{Ts: minutes(35), V: 1},
+				{Ts: minutes(42), V: 1},
 				// Chunk 2 Head
-				sample{t: minutes(32), f: float64(2)},
-				sample{t: minutes(50), f: float64(2)},
+				{Ts: minutes(32), V: 2},
+				{Ts: minutes(50), V: 2},
 			},
 			expChunkError: false,
 			// ts (in minutes)         0       10       20       30       40       50       60       70       80       90       100
@@ -813,15 +799,15 @@ func TestOOOHeadChunkReader_Chunk(t *testing.T) {
 			// Output Graphically               [-----------------------------------]
 			expChunksSamples: []chunks.SampleSlice{
 				{
-					sample{t: minutes(10), f: float64(0)},
-					sample{t: minutes(15), f: float64(0)},
-					sample{t: minutes(20), f: float64(1)},
-					sample{t: minutes(25), f: float64(1)},
-					sample{t: minutes(30), f: float64(1)},
-					sample{t: minutes(32), f: float64(2)},
-					sample{t: minutes(35), f: float64(1)},
-					sample{t: minutes(42), f: float64(1)},
-					sample{t: minutes(50), f: float64(2)},
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(10), 0),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(15), 0),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(20), 1),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(25), 1),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(30), 1),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(32), 2),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(35), 1),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(42), 1),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(50), 2),
 				},
 			},
 		},
@@ -832,22 +818,24 @@ func TestOOOHeadChunkReader_Chunk(t *testing.T) {
 			db := newTestDBWithOpts(t, opts)
 
 			app := db.Appender(context.Background())
-			s1Ref := appendSample(app, s1, tc.firstInOrderSampleAt, float64(tc.firstInOrderSampleAt/1*time.Minute.Milliseconds()))
+			s1Ref, _, err := scenario.appendFunc(app, s1, tc.firstInOrderSampleAt, tc.firstInOrderSampleAt/1*time.Minute.Milliseconds())
+			require.NoError(t, err)
 			require.NoError(t, app.Commit())
 
 			// OOO few samples for s1.
 			app = db.Appender(context.Background())
 			for _, s := range tc.inputSamples {
-				appendSample(app, s1, s.T(), s.F())
+				_, _, err := scenario.appendFunc(app, s1, s.Ts, s.V)
+				require.NoError(t, err)
 			}
 			require.NoError(t, app.Commit())
 
-			// The Series method is the one that populates the chunk meta OOO
-			// markers like OOOLastRef. These are then used by the ChunkReader.
+			// The Series method populates the chunk metas, taking a copy of the
+			// head OOO chunk if necessary. These are then used by the ChunkReader.
 			ir := NewOOOHeadIndexReader(db.head, tc.queryMinT, tc.queryMaxT, 0)
 			var chks []chunks.Meta
 			var b labels.ScratchBuilder
-			err := ir.Series(s1Ref, &b, &chks)
+			err = ir.Series(s1Ref, &b, &chks)
 			require.NoError(t, err)
 			require.Equal(t, len(tc.expChunksSamples), len(chks))
 
@@ -858,13 +846,10 @@ func TestOOOHeadChunkReader_Chunk(t *testing.T) {
 				require.NoError(t, err)
 				require.Nil(t, c)
 
-				var resultSamples chunks.SampleSlice
 				it := iterable.Iterator(nil)
-				for it.Next() == chunkenc.ValFloat {
-					t, v := it.At()
-					resultSamples = append(resultSamples, sample{t: t, f: v})
-				}
-				require.Equal(t, tc.expChunksSamples[i], resultSamples)
+				resultSamples, err := storage.ExpandSamples(it, nil)
+				require.NoError(t, err)
+				requireEqualSamples(t, s1.String(), tc.expChunksSamples[i], resultSamples, true)
 			}
 		})
 	}
@@ -879,6 +864,15 @@ func TestOOOHeadChunkReader_Chunk(t *testing.T) {
 //   - Response B comes from : Series(), in parallel new samples added to the head, then Chunk()
 //   - A == B
 func TestOOOHeadChunkReader_Chunk_ConsistentQueryResponseDespiteOfHeadExpanding(t *testing.T) {
+	for name, scenario := range sampleTypeScenarios {
+		t.Run(name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			testOOOHeadChunkReader_Chunk_ConsistentQueryResponseDespiteOfHeadExpanding(t, scenario)
+		})
+	}
+}
+
+//nolint:revive // unexported-return.
+func testOOOHeadChunkReader_Chunk_ConsistentQueryResponseDespiteOfHeadExpanding(t *testing.T, scenario sampleTypeScenario) {
 	opts := DefaultOptions()
 	opts.OutOfOrderCapMax = 5
 	opts.OutOfOrderTimeWindow = 120 * time.Minute.Milliseconds()
@@ -886,19 +880,13 @@ func TestOOOHeadChunkReader_Chunk_ConsistentQueryResponseDespiteOfHeadExpanding(
 	s1 := labels.FromStrings("l", "v1")
 	minutes := func(m int64) int64 { return m * time.Minute.Milliseconds() }
 
-	appendSample := func(app storage.Appender, l labels.Labels, timestamp int64, value float64) storage.SeriesRef {
-		ref, err := app.Append(0, l, timestamp, value)
-		require.NoError(t, err)
-		return ref
-	}
-
 	tests := []struct {
 		name                   string
 		queryMinT              int64
 		queryMaxT              int64
 		firstInOrderSampleAt   int64
-		initialSamples         chunks.SampleSlice
-		samplesAfterSeriesCall chunks.SampleSlice
+		initialSamples         []testValue
+		samplesAfterSeriesCall []testValue
 		expChunkError          bool
 		expChunksSamples       []chunks.SampleSlice
 	}{
@@ -907,21 +895,21 @@ func TestOOOHeadChunkReader_Chunk_ConsistentQueryResponseDespiteOfHeadExpanding(
 			queryMinT:            minutes(0),
 			queryMaxT:            minutes(100),
 			firstInOrderSampleAt: minutes(120),
-			initialSamples: chunks.SampleSlice{
+			initialSamples: []testValue{
 				// Chunk 0
-				sample{t: minutes(20), f: float64(0)},
-				sample{t: minutes(22), f: float64(0)},
-				sample{t: minutes(24), f: float64(0)},
-				sample{t: minutes(26), f: float64(0)},
-				sample{t: minutes(30), f: float64(0)},
+				{Ts: minutes(20), V: 0},
+				{Ts: minutes(22), V: 0},
+				{Ts: minutes(24), V: 0},
+				{Ts: minutes(26), V: 0},
+				{Ts: minutes(30), V: 0},
 				// Chunk 1 Head
-				sample{t: minutes(25), f: float64(1)},
-				sample{t: minutes(35), f: float64(1)},
+				{Ts: minutes(25), V: 1},
+				{Ts: minutes(35), V: 1},
 			},
-			samplesAfterSeriesCall: chunks.SampleSlice{
-				sample{t: minutes(10), f: float64(1)},
-				sample{t: minutes(32), f: float64(1)},
-				sample{t: minutes(50), f: float64(1)},
+			samplesAfterSeriesCall: []testValue{
+				{Ts: minutes(10), V: 1},
+				{Ts: minutes(32), V: 1},
+				{Ts: minutes(50), V: 1},
 			},
 			expChunkError: false,
 			// ts (in minutes)         0       10       20       30       40       50       60       70       80       90       100
@@ -933,40 +921,39 @@ func TestOOOHeadChunkReader_Chunk_ConsistentQueryResponseDespiteOfHeadExpanding(
 			// Output Graphically                        [------------] (With 8 samples, samples newer than lastmint or older than lastmaxt are omitted but the ones in between are kept)
 			expChunksSamples: []chunks.SampleSlice{
 				{
-					sample{t: minutes(20), f: float64(0)},
-					sample{t: minutes(22), f: float64(0)},
-					sample{t: minutes(24), f: float64(0)},
-					sample{t: minutes(25), f: float64(1)},
-					sample{t: minutes(26), f: float64(0)},
-					sample{t: minutes(30), f: float64(0)},
-					sample{t: minutes(32), f: float64(1)}, // This sample was added after Series() but before Chunk() and its in between the lastmint and maxt so it should be kept
-					sample{t: minutes(35), f: float64(1)},
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(20), 0),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(22), 0),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(24), 0),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(25), 1),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(26), 0),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(30), 0),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(35), 1),
 				},
 			},
 		},
 		{
-			name:                 "After Series() previous head gets mmapped after getting samples, new head gets new samples also overlapping, none of these should appear in the response.",
+			name:                 "After Series() prev head gets mmapped after getting samples, new head gets new samples also overlapping, none of these should appear in response.",
 			queryMinT:            minutes(0),
 			queryMaxT:            minutes(100),
 			firstInOrderSampleAt: minutes(120),
-			initialSamples: chunks.SampleSlice{
+			initialSamples: []testValue{
 				// Chunk 0
-				sample{t: minutes(20), f: float64(0)},
-				sample{t: minutes(22), f: float64(0)},
-				sample{t: minutes(24), f: float64(0)},
-				sample{t: minutes(26), f: float64(0)},
-				sample{t: minutes(30), f: float64(0)},
+				{Ts: minutes(20), V: 0},
+				{Ts: minutes(22), V: 0},
+				{Ts: minutes(24), V: 0},
+				{Ts: minutes(26), V: 0},
+				{Ts: minutes(30), V: 0},
 				// Chunk 1 Head
-				sample{t: minutes(25), f: float64(1)},
-				sample{t: minutes(35), f: float64(1)},
+				{Ts: minutes(25), V: 1},
+				{Ts: minutes(35), V: 1},
 			},
-			samplesAfterSeriesCall: chunks.SampleSlice{
-				sample{t: minutes(10), f: float64(1)},
-				sample{t: minutes(32), f: float64(1)},
-				sample{t: minutes(50), f: float64(1)},
+			samplesAfterSeriesCall: []testValue{
+				{Ts: minutes(10), V: 1},
+				{Ts: minutes(32), V: 1},
+				{Ts: minutes(50), V: 1},
 				// Chunk 1 gets mmapped and Chunk 2, the new head is born
-				sample{t: minutes(25), f: float64(2)},
-				sample{t: minutes(31), f: float64(2)},
+				{Ts: minutes(25), V: 2},
+				{Ts: minutes(31), V: 2},
 			},
 			expChunkError: false,
 			// ts (in minutes)         0       10       20       30       40       50       60       70       80       90       100
@@ -979,14 +966,13 @@ func TestOOOHeadChunkReader_Chunk_ConsistentQueryResponseDespiteOfHeadExpanding(
 			// Output Graphically                        [------------]  (8 samples) It has 5 from Chunk 0 and 3 from Chunk 1
 			expChunksSamples: []chunks.SampleSlice{
 				{
-					sample{t: minutes(20), f: float64(0)},
-					sample{t: minutes(22), f: float64(0)},
-					sample{t: minutes(24), f: float64(0)},
-					sample{t: minutes(25), f: float64(1)},
-					sample{t: minutes(26), f: float64(0)},
-					sample{t: minutes(30), f: float64(0)},
-					sample{t: minutes(32), f: float64(1)}, // This sample was added after Series() but before Chunk() and its in between the lastmint and maxt so it should be kept
-					sample{t: minutes(35), f: float64(1)},
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(20), 0),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(22), 0),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(24), 0),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(25), 1),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(26), 0),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(30), 0),
+					scenario.sampleFunc(minutes(35), 1),
 				},
 			},
 		},
@@ -997,22 +983,24 @@ func TestOOOHeadChunkReader_Chunk_ConsistentQueryResponseDespiteOfHeadExpanding(
 			db := newTestDBWithOpts(t, opts)
 
 			app := db.Appender(context.Background())
-			s1Ref := appendSample(app, s1, tc.firstInOrderSampleAt, float64(tc.firstInOrderSampleAt/1*time.Minute.Milliseconds()))
+			s1Ref, _, err := scenario.appendFunc(app, s1, tc.firstInOrderSampleAt, tc.firstInOrderSampleAt/1*time.Minute.Milliseconds())
+			require.NoError(t, err)
 			require.NoError(t, app.Commit())
 
 			// OOO few samples for s1.
 			app = db.Appender(context.Background())
 			for _, s := range tc.initialSamples {
-				appendSample(app, s1, s.T(), s.F())
+				_, _, err := scenario.appendFunc(app, s1, s.Ts, s.V)
+				require.NoError(t, err)
 			}
 			require.NoError(t, app.Commit())
 
-			// The Series method is the one that populates the chunk meta OOO
-			// markers like OOOLastRef. These are then used by the ChunkReader.
+			// The Series method populates the chunk metas, taking a copy of the
+			// head OOO chunk if necessary. These are then used by the ChunkReader.
 			ir := NewOOOHeadIndexReader(db.head, tc.queryMinT, tc.queryMaxT, 0)
 			var chks []chunks.Meta
 			var b labels.ScratchBuilder
-			err := ir.Series(s1Ref, &b, &chks)
+			err = ir.Series(s1Ref, &b, &chks)
 			require.NoError(t, err)
 			require.Equal(t, len(tc.expChunksSamples), len(chks))
 
@@ -1020,7 +1008,8 @@ func TestOOOHeadChunkReader_Chunk_ConsistentQueryResponseDespiteOfHeadExpanding(
 			// OOO few samples for s1.
 			app = db.Appender(context.Background())
 			for _, s := range tc.samplesAfterSeriesCall {
-				appendSample(app, s1, s.T(), s.F())
+				_, _, err = scenario.appendFunc(app, s1, s.Ts, s.V)
+				require.NoError(t, err)
 			}
 			require.NoError(t, app.Commit())
 
@@ -1031,13 +1020,10 @@ func TestOOOHeadChunkReader_Chunk_ConsistentQueryResponseDespiteOfHeadExpanding(
 				require.NoError(t, err)
 				require.Nil(t, c)
 
-				var resultSamples chunks.SampleSlice
 				it := iterable.Iterator(nil)
-				for it.Next() == chunkenc.ValFloat {
-					ts, v := it.At()
-					resultSamples = append(resultSamples, sample{t: ts, f: v})
-				}
-				require.Equal(t, tc.expChunksSamples[i], resultSamples)
+				resultSamples, err := storage.ExpandSamples(it, nil)
+				require.NoError(t, err)
+				requireEqualSamples(t, s1.String(), tc.expChunksSamples[i], resultSamples, true)
 			}
 		})
 	}
diff --git a/tsdb/querier.go b/tsdb/querier.go
index 8ebedfe52d..fb4a87cc8c 100644
--- a/tsdb/querier.go
+++ b/tsdb/querier.go
@@ -33,6 +33,9 @@ import (
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/util/annotations"
 )
 
+// checkContextEveryNIterations is used in some tight loops to check if the context is done.
+const checkContextEveryNIterations = 100
+
 type blockBaseQuerier struct {
 	blockID    ulid.ULID
 	index      IndexReader
@@ -326,23 +329,8 @@ func postingsForMatcher(ctx context.Context, ix IndexReader, m *labels.Matcher)
 		}
 	}
 
-	vals, err := ix.LabelValues(ctx, m.Name)
-	if err != nil {
-		return nil, err
-	}
-
-	var res []string
-	for _, val := range vals {
-		if m.Matches(val) {
-			res = append(res, val)
-		}
-	}
-
-	if len(res) == 0 {
-		return index.EmptyPostings(), nil
-	}
-
-	return ix.Postings(ctx, m.Name, res...)
+	it := ix.PostingsForLabelMatching(ctx, m.Name, m.Matches)
+	return it, it.Err()
 }
 
 // inversePostingsForMatcher returns the postings for the series with the label name set but not matching the matcher.
@@ -368,12 +356,17 @@ func inversePostingsForMatcher(ctx context.Context, ix IndexReader, m *labels.Ma
 		return nil, err
 	}
 
-	var res []string
-	// If the inverse match is ="", we just want all the values.
-	if m.Type == labels.MatchEqual && m.Value == "" {
+	res := vals[:0]
+	// If the match before inversion was !="" or !~"", we just want all the values.
+	if m.Value == "" && (m.Type == labels.MatchRegexp || m.Type == labels.MatchEqual) {
 		res = vals
 	} else {
+		count := 1
 		for _, val := range vals {
+			if count%checkContextEveryNIterations == 0 && ctx.Err() != nil {
+				return nil, ctx.Err()
+			}
+			count++
 			if !m.Matches(val) {
 				res = append(res, val)
 			}
@@ -402,7 +395,12 @@ func labelValuesWithMatchers(ctx context.Context, r IndexReader, name string, ma
 		// re-use the allValues slice to avoid allocations
 		// this is safe because the iteration is always ahead of the append
 		filteredValues := allValues[:0]
+		count := 1
 		for _, v := range allValues {
+			if count%checkContextEveryNIterations == 0 && ctx.Err() != nil {
+				return nil, ctx.Err()
+			}
+			count++
 			if m.Matches(v) {
 				filteredValues = append(filteredValues, v)
 			}
@@ -449,16 +447,7 @@ func labelNamesWithMatchers(ctx context.Context, r IndexReader, matchers ...*lab
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, err
 	}
-
-	var postings []storage.SeriesRef
-	for p.Next() {
-		postings = append(postings, p.At())
-	}
-	if err := p.Err(); err != nil {
-		return nil, fmt.Errorf("postings for label names with matchers: %w", err)
-	}
-
-	return r.LabelNamesFor(ctx, postings...)
+	return r.LabelNamesFor(ctx, p)
 }
 
 // seriesData, used inside other iterators, are updated when we move from one series to another.
diff --git a/tsdb/querier_test.go b/tsdb/querier_test.go
index a293a983da..a1af49465d 100644
--- a/tsdb/querier_test.go
+++ b/tsdb/querier_test.go
@@ -38,6 +38,7 @@ import (
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/tsdb/tombstones"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/tsdb/tsdbutil"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/util/annotations"
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/util/testutil"
 )
 
 // TODO(bwplotka): Replace those mocks with remote.concreteSeriesSet.
@@ -2291,13 +2292,16 @@ func (m mockIndex) LabelValueFor(_ context.Context, id storage.SeriesRef, label
 	return m.series[id].l.Get(label), nil
 }
 
-func (m mockIndex) LabelNamesFor(ctx context.Context, ids ...storage.SeriesRef) ([]string, error) {
+func (m mockIndex) LabelNamesFor(_ context.Context, postings index.Postings) ([]string, error) {
 	namesMap := make(map[string]bool)
-	for _, id := range ids {
-		m.series[id].l.Range(func(lbl labels.Label) {
+	for postings.Next() {
+		m.series[postings.At()].l.Range(func(lbl labels.Label) {
 			namesMap[lbl.Name] = true
 		})
 	}
+	if err := postings.Err(); err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
 	names := make([]string, 0, len(namesMap))
 	for name := range namesMap {
 		names = append(names, name)
@@ -2326,6 +2330,16 @@ func (m mockIndex) SortedPostings(p index.Postings) index.Postings {
 	return index.NewListPostings(ep)
 }
 
+func (m mockIndex) PostingsForLabelMatching(ctx context.Context, name string, match func(string) bool) index.Postings {
+	var res []index.Postings
+	for l, srs := range m.postings {
+		if l.Name == name && match(l.Value) {
+			res = append(res, index.NewListPostings(srs))
+		}
+	}
+	return index.Merge(ctx, res...)
+}
+
 func (m mockIndex) ShardedPostings(p index.Postings, shardIndex, shardCount uint64) index.Postings {
 	out := make([]storage.SeriesRef, 0, 128)
 
@@ -2797,6 +2811,13 @@ func TestPostingsForMatchers(t *testing.T) {
 			},
 		},
 		// Not regex.
+		{
+			matchers: []*labels.Matcher{labels.MustNewMatcher(labels.MatchNotRegexp, "i", "")},
+			exp: []labels.Labels{
+				labels.FromStrings("n", "1", "i", "a"),
+				labels.FromStrings("n", "1", "i", "b"),
+			},
+		},
 		{
 			matchers: []*labels.Matcher{labels.MustNewMatcher(labels.MatchNotRegexp, "n", "^1$")},
 			exp: []labels.Labels{
@@ -3214,7 +3235,7 @@ func (m mockMatcherIndex) LabelValueFor(context.Context, storage.SeriesRef, stri
 	return "", errors.New("label value for called")
 }
 
-func (m mockMatcherIndex) LabelNamesFor(ctx context.Context, ids ...storage.SeriesRef) ([]string, error) {
+func (m mockMatcherIndex) LabelNamesFor(ctx context.Context, postings index.Postings) ([]string, error) {
 	return nil, errors.New("label names for for called")
 }
 
@@ -3238,6 +3259,10 @@ func (m mockMatcherIndex) LabelNames(context.Context, ...*labels.Matcher) ([]str
 	return []string{}, nil
 }
 
+func (m mockMatcherIndex) PostingsForLabelMatching(context.Context, string, func(string) bool) index.Postings {
+	return index.ErrPostings(fmt.Errorf("PostingsForLabelMatching called"))
+}
+
 func TestPostingsForMatcher(t *testing.T) {
 	ctx := context.Background()
 
@@ -3624,3 +3649,77 @@ func TestQueryWithOneChunkCompletelyDeleted(t *testing.T) {
 	require.NoError(t, css.Err())
 	require.Equal(t, 1, seriesCount)
 }
+
+func TestReader_PostingsForLabelMatchingHonorsContextCancel(t *testing.T) {
+	ir := mockReaderOfLabels{}
+
+	failAfter := uint64(mockReaderOfLabelsSeriesCount / 2 / checkContextEveryNIterations)
+	ctx := &testutil.MockContextErrAfter{FailAfter: failAfter}
+	_, err := labelValuesWithMatchers(ctx, ir, "__name__", labels.MustNewMatcher(labels.MatchRegexp, "__name__", ".+"))
+
+	require.Error(t, err)
+	require.Equal(t, failAfter+1, ctx.Count()) // Plus one for the Err() call that puts the error in the result.
+}
+
+func TestReader_InversePostingsForMatcherHonorsContextCancel(t *testing.T) {
+	ir := mockReaderOfLabels{}
+
+	failAfter := uint64(mockReaderOfLabelsSeriesCount / 2 / checkContextEveryNIterations)
+	ctx := &testutil.MockContextErrAfter{FailAfter: failAfter}
+	_, err := inversePostingsForMatcher(ctx, ir, labels.MustNewMatcher(labels.MatchRegexp, "__name__", ".*"))
+
+	require.Error(t, err)
+	require.Equal(t, failAfter+1, ctx.Count()) // Plus one for the Err() call that puts the error in the result.
+}
+
+type mockReaderOfLabels struct{}
+
+const mockReaderOfLabelsSeriesCount = checkContextEveryNIterations * 10
+
+func (m mockReaderOfLabels) LabelValues(context.Context, string, ...*labels.Matcher) ([]string, error) {
+	return make([]string, mockReaderOfLabelsSeriesCount), nil
+}
+
+func (m mockReaderOfLabels) LabelValueFor(context.Context, storage.SeriesRef, string) (string, error) {
+	panic("LabelValueFor called")
+}
+
+func (m mockReaderOfLabels) SortedLabelValues(context.Context, string, ...*labels.Matcher) ([]string, error) {
+	panic("SortedLabelValues called")
+}
+
+func (m mockReaderOfLabels) Close() error {
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (m mockReaderOfLabels) LabelNames(context.Context, ...*labels.Matcher) ([]string, error) {
+	panic("LabelNames called")
+}
+
+func (m mockReaderOfLabels) LabelNamesFor(context.Context, index.Postings) ([]string, error) {
+	panic("LabelNamesFor called")
+}
+
+func (m mockReaderOfLabels) PostingsForLabelMatching(context.Context, string, func(string) bool) index.Postings {
+	panic("PostingsForLabelMatching called")
+}
+
+func (m mockReaderOfLabels) Postings(context.Context, string, ...string) (index.Postings, error) {
+	panic("Postings called")
+}
+
+func (m mockReaderOfLabels) ShardedPostings(index.Postings, uint64, uint64) index.Postings {
+	panic("Postings called")
+}
+
+func (m mockReaderOfLabels) SortedPostings(index.Postings) index.Postings {
+	panic("SortedPostings called")
+}
+
+func (m mockReaderOfLabels) Series(storage.SeriesRef, *labels.ScratchBuilder, *[]chunks.Meta) error {
+	panic("Series called")
+}
+
+func (m mockReaderOfLabels) Symbols() index.StringIter {
+	panic("Series called")
+}
diff --git a/tsdb/record/record.go b/tsdb/record/record.go
index 8a8409e55f..784d0b23d7 100644
--- a/tsdb/record/record.go
+++ b/tsdb/record/record.go
@@ -163,7 +163,7 @@ type RefMetadata struct {
 	Help string
 }
 
-// RefExemplar is an exemplar with it's labels, timestamp, value the exemplar was collected/observed with, and a reference to a series.
+// RefExemplar is an exemplar with the labels, timestamp, value the exemplar was collected/observed with, and a reference to a series.
 type RefExemplar struct {
 	Ref    chunks.HeadSeriesRef
 	T      int64
@@ -543,7 +543,7 @@ func (d *Decoder) FloatHistogramSamples(rec []byte, histograms []RefFloatHistogr
 	return histograms, nil
 }
 
-// Decode decodes a Histogram from a byte slice.
+// DecodeFloatHistogram decodes a Histogram from a byte slice.
 func DecodeFloatHistogram(buf *encoding.Decbuf, fh *histogram.FloatHistogram) {
 	fh.CounterResetHint = histogram.CounterResetHint(buf.Byte())
 
@@ -798,7 +798,7 @@ func (e *Encoder) FloatHistogramSamples(histograms []RefFloatHistogramSample, b
 	return buf.Get()
 }
 
-// Encode encodes the Float Histogram into a byte slice.
+// EncodeFloatHistogram encodes the Float Histogram into a byte slice.
 func EncodeFloatHistogram(buf *encoding.Encbuf, h *histogram.FloatHistogram) {
 	buf.PutByte(byte(h.CounterResetHint))
 
diff --git a/tsdb/testutil.go b/tsdb/testutil.go
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..9730e47132
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tsdb/testutil.go
@@ -0,0 +1,176 @@
+// Copyright 2017 The Prometheus Authors
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+//
+// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+
+package tsdb
+
+import (
+	"testing"
+
+	prom_testutil "github.com/prometheus/client_golang/prometheus/testutil"
+
+	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
+
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/histogram"
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/labels"
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/storage"
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/tsdb/chunks"
+)
+
+const (
+	float = "float"
+)
+
+type testValue struct {
+	Ts                 int64
+	V                  int64
+	CounterResetHeader histogram.CounterResetHint
+}
+
+type sampleTypeScenario struct {
+	sampleType string
+	appendFunc func(appender storage.Appender, lbls labels.Labels, ts, value int64) (storage.SeriesRef, sample, error)
+	sampleFunc func(ts, value int64) sample
+}
+
+// TODO: native histogram sample types will be added as part of out-of-order native histogram support; see #11220.
+var sampleTypeScenarios = map[string]sampleTypeScenario{
+	float: {
+		sampleType: sampleMetricTypeFloat,
+		appendFunc: func(appender storage.Appender, lbls labels.Labels, ts, value int64) (storage.SeriesRef, sample, error) {
+			s := sample{t: ts, f: float64(value)}
+			ref, err := appender.Append(0, lbls, ts, s.f)
+			return ref, s, err
+		},
+		sampleFunc: func(ts, value int64) sample {
+			return sample{t: ts, f: float64(value)}
+		},
+	},
+	// intHistogram: {
+	//	 sampleType: sampleMetricTypeHistogram,
+	//	 appendFunc: func(appender storage.Appender, lbls labels.Labels, ts, value int64) (storage.SeriesRef, sample, error) {
+	//		 s := sample{t: ts, h: tsdbutil.GenerateTestHistogram(int(value))}
+	//		 ref, err := appender.AppendHistogram(0, lbls, ts, s.h, nil)
+	//		 return ref, s, err
+	//	 },
+	//	 sampleFunc: func(ts, value int64) sample {
+	//		 return sample{t: ts, h: tsdbutil.GenerateTestHistogram(int(value))}
+	//	 },
+	// },
+	// floatHistogram: {
+	//	 sampleType: sampleMetricTypeHistogram,
+	//	 appendFunc: func(appender storage.Appender, lbls labels.Labels, ts, value int64) (storage.SeriesRef, sample, error) {
+	//		 s := sample{t: ts, fh: tsdbutil.GenerateTestFloatHistogram(int(value))}
+	//		 ref, err := appender.AppendHistogram(0, lbls, ts, nil, s.fh)
+	//		 return ref, s, err
+	//	 },
+	//	 sampleFunc: func(ts, value int64) sample {
+	//		 return sample{t: ts, fh: tsdbutil.GenerateTestFloatHistogram(int(value))}
+	//	 },
+	// },
+	// gaugeIntHistogram: {
+	//	 sampleType: sampleMetricTypeHistogram,
+	//	 appendFunc: func(appender storage.Appender, lbls labels.Labels, ts, value int64) (storage.SeriesRef, sample, error) {
+	//		 s := sample{t: ts, h: tsdbutil.GenerateTestGaugeHistogram(int(value))}
+	//		 ref, err := appender.AppendHistogram(0, lbls, ts, s.h, nil)
+	//		 return ref, s, err
+	//	 },
+	//	 sampleFunc: func(ts, value int64) sample {
+	//		 return sample{t: ts, h: tsdbutil.GenerateTestGaugeHistogram(int(value))}
+	//	 },
+	// },
+	// gaugeFloatHistogram: {
+	//	 sampleType: sampleMetricTypeHistogram,
+	//	 appendFunc: func(appender storage.Appender, lbls labels.Labels, ts, value int64) (storage.SeriesRef, sample, error) {
+	//		 s := sample{t: ts, fh: tsdbutil.GenerateTestGaugeFloatHistogram(int(value))}
+	//		 ref, err := appender.AppendHistogram(0, lbls, ts, nil, s.fh)
+	//		 return ref, s, err
+	//	 },
+	//	 sampleFunc: func(ts, value int64) sample {
+	//		 return sample{t: ts, fh: tsdbutil.GenerateTestGaugeFloatHistogram(int(value))}
+	//	 },
+	// },
+}
+
+// requireEqualSeries checks that the actual series are equal to the expected ones. It ignores the counter reset hints for histograms.
+func requireEqualSeries(t *testing.T, expected, actual map[string][]chunks.Sample, ignoreCounterResets bool) {
+	for name, expectedItem := range expected {
+		actualItem, ok := actual[name]
+		require.True(t, ok, "Expected series %s not found", name)
+		requireEqualSamples(t, name, expectedItem, actualItem, ignoreCounterResets)
+	}
+	for name := range actual {
+		_, ok := expected[name]
+		require.True(t, ok, "Unexpected series %s", name)
+	}
+}
+
+func requireEqualOOOSamples(t *testing.T, expectedSamples int, db *DB) {
+	require.Equal(t, float64(expectedSamples),
+		prom_testutil.ToFloat64(db.head.metrics.outOfOrderSamplesAppended.WithLabelValues(sampleMetricTypeFloat))+
+			prom_testutil.ToFloat64(db.head.metrics.outOfOrderSamplesAppended.WithLabelValues(sampleMetricTypeHistogram)),
+		"number of ooo appended samples mismatch")
+}
+
+func requireEqualSamples(t *testing.T, name string, expected, actual []chunks.Sample, ignoreCounterResets bool) {
+	require.Equal(t, len(expected), len(actual), "Length not equal to expected for %s", name)
+	for i, s := range expected {
+		expectedSample := s
+		actualSample := actual[i]
+		require.Equal(t, expectedSample.T(), actualSample.T(), "Different timestamps for %s[%d]", name, i)
+		require.Equal(t, expectedSample.Type().String(), actualSample.Type().String(), "Different types for %s[%d] at ts %d", name, i, expectedSample.T())
+		switch {
+		case s.H() != nil:
+			{
+				expectedHist := expectedSample.H()
+				actualHist := actualSample.H()
+				if ignoreCounterResets && expectedHist.CounterResetHint != histogram.GaugeType {
+					expectedHist.CounterResetHint = histogram.UnknownCounterReset
+					actualHist.CounterResetHint = histogram.UnknownCounterReset
+				} else {
+					require.Equal(t, expectedHist.CounterResetHint, actualHist.CounterResetHint, "Sample header doesn't match for %s[%d] at ts %d, expected: %s, actual: %s", name, i, expectedSample.T(), counterResetAsString(expectedHist.CounterResetHint), counterResetAsString(actualHist.CounterResetHint))
+				}
+				require.Equal(t, expectedHist, actualHist, "Sample doesn't match for %s[%d] at ts %d", name, i, expectedSample.T())
+			}
+		case s.FH() != nil:
+			{
+				expectedHist := expectedSample.FH()
+				actualHist := actualSample.FH()
+				if ignoreCounterResets {
+					expectedHist.CounterResetHint = histogram.UnknownCounterReset
+					actualHist.CounterResetHint = histogram.UnknownCounterReset
+				} else {
+					require.Equal(t, expectedHist.CounterResetHint, actualHist.CounterResetHint, "Sample header doesn't match for %s[%d] at ts %d, expected: %s, actual: %s", name, i, expectedSample.T(), counterResetAsString(expectedHist.CounterResetHint), counterResetAsString(actualHist.CounterResetHint))
+				}
+				require.Equal(t, expectedHist, actualHist, "Sample doesn't match for %s[%d] at ts %d", name, i, expectedSample.T())
+			}
+		default:
+			expectedFloat := expectedSample.F()
+			actualFloat := actualSample.F()
+			require.Equal(t, expectedFloat, actualFloat, "Sample doesn't match for %s[%d] at ts %d", name, i, expectedSample.T())
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+func counterResetAsString(h histogram.CounterResetHint) string {
+	switch h {
+	case histogram.UnknownCounterReset:
+		return "UnknownCounterReset"
+	case histogram.CounterReset:
+		return "CounterReset"
+	case histogram.NotCounterReset:
+		return "NotCounterReset"
+	case histogram.GaugeType:
+		return "GaugeType"
+	}
+	panic("Unexpected counter reset type")
+}
diff --git a/tsdb/tsdbutil/histogram.go b/tsdb/tsdbutil/histogram.go
index bb8d49b202..3c7349cf72 100644
--- a/tsdb/tsdbutil/histogram.go
+++ b/tsdb/tsdbutil/histogram.go
@@ -59,6 +59,20 @@ func GenerateTestHistogram(i int) *histogram.Histogram {
 	}
 }
 
+func GenerateTestCustomBucketsHistogram(i int) *histogram.Histogram {
+	return &histogram.Histogram{
+		Count:  5 + uint64(i*4),
+		Sum:    18.4 * float64(i+1),
+		Schema: histogram.CustomBucketsSchema,
+		PositiveSpans: []histogram.Span{
+			{Offset: 0, Length: 2},
+			{Offset: 1, Length: 2},
+		},
+		PositiveBuckets: []int64{int64(i + 1), 1, -1, 0},
+		CustomValues:    []float64{0, 1, 2, 3, 4},
+	}
+}
+
 func GenerateTestGaugeHistograms(n int) (r []*histogram.Histogram) {
 	for x := 0; x < n; x++ {
 		i := int(math.Sin(float64(x))*100) + 100
@@ -105,6 +119,20 @@ func GenerateTestFloatHistogram(i int) *histogram.FloatHistogram {
 	}
 }
 
+func GenerateTestCustomBucketsFloatHistogram(i int) *histogram.FloatHistogram {
+	return &histogram.FloatHistogram{
+		Count:  5 + float64(i*4),
+		Sum:    18.4 * float64(i+1),
+		Schema: histogram.CustomBucketsSchema,
+		PositiveSpans: []histogram.Span{
+			{Offset: 0, Length: 2},
+			{Offset: 1, Length: 2},
+		},
+		PositiveBuckets: []float64{float64(i + 1), float64(i + 2), float64(i + 1), float64(i + 1)},
+		CustomValues:    []float64{0, 1, 2, 3, 4},
+	}
+}
+
 func GenerateTestGaugeFloatHistograms(n int) (r []*histogram.FloatHistogram) {
 	for x := 0; x < n; x++ {
 		i := int(math.Sin(float64(x))*100) + 100
diff --git a/tsdb/wlog/checkpoint_test.go b/tsdb/wlog/checkpoint_test.go
index 279f7c4356..a9786454de 100644
--- a/tsdb/wlog/checkpoint_test.go
+++ b/tsdb/wlog/checkpoint_test.go
@@ -19,6 +19,7 @@ import (
 	"os"
 	"path/filepath"
 	"sort"
+	"strconv"
 	"strings"
 	"testing"
 
@@ -232,10 +233,10 @@ func TestCheckpoint(t *testing.T) {
 				// Write changing metadata for each series. In the end, only the latest
 				// version should end up in the checkpoint.
 				b = enc.Metadata([]record.RefMetadata{
-					{Ref: 0, Unit: fmt.Sprintf("%d", last), Help: fmt.Sprintf("%d", last)},
-					{Ref: 1, Unit: fmt.Sprintf("%d", last), Help: fmt.Sprintf("%d", last)},
-					{Ref: 2, Unit: fmt.Sprintf("%d", last), Help: fmt.Sprintf("%d", last)},
-					{Ref: 3, Unit: fmt.Sprintf("%d", last), Help: fmt.Sprintf("%d", last)},
+					{Ref: 0, Unit: strconv.FormatInt(last, 10), Help: strconv.FormatInt(last, 10)},
+					{Ref: 1, Unit: strconv.FormatInt(last, 10), Help: strconv.FormatInt(last, 10)},
+					{Ref: 2, Unit: strconv.FormatInt(last, 10), Help: strconv.FormatInt(last, 10)},
+					{Ref: 3, Unit: strconv.FormatInt(last, 10), Help: strconv.FormatInt(last, 10)},
 				}, nil)
 				require.NoError(t, w.Log(b))
 
@@ -250,7 +251,7 @@ func TestCheckpoint(t *testing.T) {
 			require.NoError(t, w.Truncate(107))
 			require.NoError(t, DeleteCheckpoints(w.Dir(), 106))
 			require.Equal(t, histogramsInWAL+floatHistogramsInWAL+samplesInWAL, stats.TotalSamples)
-			require.Greater(t, stats.DroppedSamples, 0)
+			require.Positive(t, stats.DroppedSamples)
 
 			// Only the new checkpoint should be left.
 			files, err := os.ReadDir(dir)
@@ -324,8 +325,8 @@ func TestCheckpoint(t *testing.T) {
 			testutil.RequireEqual(t, expectedRefSeries, series)
 
 			expectedRefMetadata := []record.RefMetadata{
-				{Ref: 0, Unit: fmt.Sprintf("%d", last-100), Help: fmt.Sprintf("%d", last-100)},
-				{Ref: 2, Unit: fmt.Sprintf("%d", last-100), Help: fmt.Sprintf("%d", last-100)},
+				{Ref: 0, Unit: strconv.FormatInt(last-100, 10), Help: strconv.FormatInt(last-100, 10)},
+				{Ref: 2, Unit: strconv.FormatInt(last-100, 10), Help: strconv.FormatInt(last-100, 10)},
 				{Ref: 4, Unit: "unit", Help: "help"},
 			}
 			sort.Slice(metadata, func(i, j int) bool { return metadata[i].Ref < metadata[j].Ref })
diff --git a/tsdb/wlog/watcher.go b/tsdb/wlog/watcher.go
index 8ebd9249aa..3d74a551db 100644
--- a/tsdb/wlog/watcher.go
+++ b/tsdb/wlog/watcher.go
@@ -57,6 +57,7 @@ type WriteTo interface {
 	AppendHistograms([]record.RefHistogramSample) bool
 	AppendFloatHistograms([]record.RefFloatHistogramSample) bool
 	StoreSeries([]record.RefSeries, int)
+	StoreMetadata([]record.RefMetadata)
 
 	// Next two methods are intended for garbage-collection: first we call
 	// UpdateSeriesSegment on all current series
@@ -88,6 +89,7 @@ type Watcher struct {
 	lastCheckpoint string
 	sendExemplars  bool
 	sendHistograms bool
+	sendMetadata   bool
 	metrics        *WatcherMetrics
 	readerMetrics  *LiveReaderMetrics
 
@@ -170,7 +172,7 @@ func NewWatcherMetrics(reg prometheus.Registerer) *WatcherMetrics {
 }
 
 // NewWatcher creates a new WAL watcher for a given WriteTo.
-func NewWatcher(metrics *WatcherMetrics, readerMetrics *LiveReaderMetrics, logger log.Logger, name string, writer WriteTo, dir string, sendExemplars, sendHistograms bool) *Watcher {
+func NewWatcher(metrics *WatcherMetrics, readerMetrics *LiveReaderMetrics, logger log.Logger, name string, writer WriteTo, dir string, sendExemplars, sendHistograms, sendMetadata bool) *Watcher {
 	if logger == nil {
 		logger = log.NewNopLogger()
 	}
@@ -183,6 +185,7 @@ func NewWatcher(metrics *WatcherMetrics, readerMetrics *LiveReaderMetrics, logge
 		name:           name,
 		sendExemplars:  sendExemplars,
 		sendHistograms: sendHistograms,
+		sendMetadata:   sendMetadata,
 
 		readNotify: make(chan struct{}),
 		quit:       make(chan struct{}),
@@ -541,6 +544,7 @@ func (w *Watcher) readSegment(r *LiveReader, segmentNum int, tail bool) error {
 		histogramsToSend      []record.RefHistogramSample
 		floatHistograms       []record.RefFloatHistogramSample
 		floatHistogramsToSend []record.RefFloatHistogramSample
+		metadata              []record.RefMetadata
 	)
 	for r.Next() && !isClosed(w.quit) {
 		rec := r.Record()
@@ -652,6 +656,17 @@ func (w *Watcher) readSegment(r *LiveReader, segmentNum int, tail bool) error {
 				w.writer.AppendFloatHistograms(floatHistogramsToSend)
 				floatHistogramsToSend = floatHistogramsToSend[:0]
 			}
+
+		case record.Metadata:
+			if !w.sendMetadata || !tail {
+				break
+			}
+			meta, err := dec.Metadata(rec, metadata[:0])
+			if err != nil {
+				w.recordDecodeFailsMetric.Inc()
+				return err
+			}
+			w.writer.StoreMetadata(meta)
 		case record.Tombstones:
 
 		default:
diff --git a/tsdb/wlog/watcher_test.go b/tsdb/wlog/watcher_test.go
index ff006cb817..824010f30e 100644
--- a/tsdb/wlog/watcher_test.go
+++ b/tsdb/wlog/watcher_test.go
@@ -92,6 +92,8 @@ func (wtm *writeToMock) StoreSeries(series []record.RefSeries, index int) {
 	wtm.UpdateSeriesSegment(series, index)
 }
 
+func (wtm *writeToMock) StoreMetadata(_ []record.RefMetadata) { /* no-op */ }
+
 func (wtm *writeToMock) UpdateSeriesSegment(series []record.RefSeries, index int) {
 	wtm.seriesLock.Lock()
 	defer wtm.seriesLock.Unlock()
@@ -219,7 +221,7 @@ func TestTailSamples(t *testing.T) {
 			require.NoError(t, err)
 
 			wt := newWriteToMock(0)
-			watcher := NewWatcher(wMetrics, nil, nil, "", wt, dir, true, true)
+			watcher := NewWatcher(wMetrics, nil, nil, "", wt, dir, true, true, true)
 			watcher.SetStartTime(now)
 
 			// Set the Watcher's metrics so they're not nil pointers.
@@ -304,7 +306,7 @@ func TestReadToEndNoCheckpoint(t *testing.T) {
 			require.NoError(t, err)
 
 			wt := newWriteToMock(0)
-			watcher := NewWatcher(wMetrics, nil, nil, "", wt, dir, false, false)
+			watcher := NewWatcher(wMetrics, nil, nil, "", wt, dir, false, false, false)
 			go watcher.Start()
 
 			expected := seriesCount
@@ -393,7 +395,7 @@ func TestReadToEndWithCheckpoint(t *testing.T) {
 			require.NoError(t, err)
 			readTimeout = time.Second
 			wt := newWriteToMock(0)
-			watcher := NewWatcher(wMetrics, nil, nil, "", wt, dir, false, false)
+			watcher := NewWatcher(wMetrics, nil, nil, "", wt, dir, false, false, false)
 			go watcher.Start()
 
 			expected := seriesCount * 2
@@ -464,7 +466,7 @@ func TestReadCheckpoint(t *testing.T) {
 			require.NoError(t, err)
 
 			wt := newWriteToMock(0)
-			watcher := NewWatcher(wMetrics, nil, nil, "", wt, dir, false, false)
+			watcher := NewWatcher(wMetrics, nil, nil, "", wt, dir, false, false, false)
 			go watcher.Start()
 
 			expectedSeries := seriesCount
@@ -533,7 +535,7 @@ func TestReadCheckpointMultipleSegments(t *testing.T) {
 			}
 
 			wt := newWriteToMock(0)
-			watcher := NewWatcher(wMetrics, nil, nil, "", wt, dir, false, false)
+			watcher := NewWatcher(wMetrics, nil, nil, "", wt, dir, false, false, false)
 			watcher.MaxSegment = -1
 
 			// Set the Watcher's metrics so they're not nil pointers.
@@ -606,7 +608,7 @@ func TestCheckpointSeriesReset(t *testing.T) {
 
 			readTimeout = time.Second
 			wt := newWriteToMock(0)
-			watcher := NewWatcher(wMetrics, nil, nil, "", wt, dir, false, false)
+			watcher := NewWatcher(wMetrics, nil, nil, "", wt, dir, false, false, false)
 			watcher.MaxSegment = -1
 			go watcher.Start()
 
@@ -685,7 +687,7 @@ func TestRun_StartupTime(t *testing.T) {
 			require.NoError(t, w.Close())
 
 			wt := newWriteToMock(0)
-			watcher := NewWatcher(wMetrics, nil, nil, "", wt, dir, false, false)
+			watcher := NewWatcher(wMetrics, nil, nil, "", wt, dir, false, false, false)
 			watcher.MaxSegment = segments
 
 			watcher.setMetrics()
@@ -774,7 +776,7 @@ func TestRun_AvoidNotifyWhenBehind(t *testing.T) {
 			}()
 
 			wt := newWriteToMock(time.Millisecond)
-			watcher := NewWatcher(wMetrics, nil, nil, "", wt, dir, false, false)
+			watcher := NewWatcher(wMetrics, nil, nil, "", wt, dir, false, false, false)
 			watcher.MaxSegment = segments
 
 			watcher.setMetrics()
diff --git a/util/almost/almost.go b/util/almost/almost.go
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..34f1290a5f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/util/almost/almost.go
@@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
+// Copyright 2024 The Prometheus Authors
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+//
+//     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+
+package almost
+
+import "math"
+
+var minNormal = math.Float64frombits(0x0010000000000000) // The smallest positive normal value of type float64.
+
+// Equal returns true if a and b differ by less than their sum
+// multiplied by epsilon.
+func Equal(a, b, epsilon float64) bool {
+	// NaN has no equality but for testing we still want to know whether both values
+	// are NaN.
+	if math.IsNaN(a) && math.IsNaN(b) {
+		return true
+	}
+
+	// Cf. http://floating-point-gui.de/errors/comparison/
+	if a == b {
+		return true
+	}
+
+	absSum := math.Abs(a) + math.Abs(b)
+	diff := math.Abs(a - b)
+
+	if a == 0 || b == 0 || absSum < minNormal {
+		return diff < epsilon*minNormal
+	}
+	return diff/math.Min(absSum, math.MaxFloat64) < epsilon
+}
diff --git a/util/annotations/annotations.go b/util/annotations/annotations.go
index 16a920d57f..bc5d76db43 100644
--- a/util/annotations/annotations.go
+++ b/util/annotations/annotations.go
@@ -71,27 +71,58 @@ func (a Annotations) AsErrors() []error {
 	return arr
 }
 
-// AsStrings is a convenience function to return the annotations map as a slice
-// of strings. The query string is used to get the line number and character offset
-// positioning info of the elements which trigger an annotation. We limit the number
-// of annotations returned here with maxAnnos (0 for no limit).
-func (a Annotations) AsStrings(query string, maxAnnos int) []string {
-	arr := make([]string, 0, len(a))
+// AsStrings is a convenience function to return the annotations map as 2 slices
+// of strings, separated into warnings and infos. The query string is used to get the
+// line number and character offset positioning info of the elements which trigger an
+// annotation. We limit the number of warnings and infos returned here with maxWarnings
+// and maxInfos respectively (0 for no limit).
+func (a Annotations) AsStrings(query string, maxWarnings, maxInfos int) (warnings, infos []string) {
+	warnings = make([]string, 0, maxWarnings+1)
+	infos = make([]string, 0, maxInfos+1)
+	warnSkipped := 0
+	infoSkipped := 0
 	for _, err := range a {
-		if maxAnnos > 0 && len(arr) >= maxAnnos {
-			break
-		}
 		var anErr annoErr
 		if errors.As(err, &anErr) {
 			anErr.Query = query
 			err = anErr
 		}
-		arr = append(arr, err.Error())
+		switch {
+		case errors.Is(err, PromQLInfo):
+			if maxInfos == 0 || len(infos) < maxInfos {
+				infos = append(infos, err.Error())
+			} else {
+				infoSkipped++
+			}
+		default:
+			if maxWarnings == 0 || len(warnings) < maxWarnings {
+				warnings = append(warnings, err.Error())
+			} else {
+				warnSkipped++
+			}
+		}
 	}
-	if maxAnnos > 0 && len(a) > maxAnnos {
-		arr = append(arr, fmt.Sprintf("%d more annotations omitted", len(a)-maxAnnos))
+	if warnSkipped > 0 {
+		warnings = append(warnings, fmt.Sprintf("%d more warning annotations omitted", warnSkipped))
 	}
-	return arr
+	if infoSkipped > 0 {
+		infos = append(infos, fmt.Sprintf("%d more info annotations omitted", infoSkipped))
+	}
+	return
+}
+
+// CountWarningsAndInfo counts and returns the number of warnings and infos in the
+// annotations wrapper.
+func (a Annotations) CountWarningsAndInfo() (countWarnings, countInfo int) {
+	for _, err := range a {
+		if errors.Is(err, PromQLWarning) {
+			countWarnings++
+		}
+		if errors.Is(err, PromQLInfo) {
+			countInfo++
+		}
+	}
+	return
 }
 
 //nolint:revive // error-naming.
@@ -103,12 +134,15 @@ var (
 	PromQLInfo    = errors.New("PromQL info")
 	PromQLWarning = errors.New("PromQL warning")
 
-	InvalidQuantileWarning              = fmt.Errorf("%w: quantile value should be between 0 and 1", PromQLWarning)
-	BadBucketLabelWarning               = fmt.Errorf("%w: bucket label %q is missing or has a malformed value", PromQLWarning, model.BucketLabel)
-	MixedFloatsHistogramsWarning        = fmt.Errorf("%w: encountered a mix of histograms and floats for", PromQLWarning)
-	MixedClassicNativeHistogramsWarning = fmt.Errorf("%w: vector contains a mix of classic and native histograms for metric name", PromQLWarning)
-	NativeHistogramNotCounterWarning    = fmt.Errorf("%w: this native histogram metric is not a counter:", PromQLWarning)
-	NativeHistogramNotGaugeWarning      = fmt.Errorf("%w: this native histogram metric is not a gauge:", PromQLWarning)
+	InvalidRatioWarning                        = fmt.Errorf("%w: ratio value should be between -1 and 1", PromQLWarning)
+	InvalidQuantileWarning                     = fmt.Errorf("%w: quantile value should be between 0 and 1", PromQLWarning)
+	BadBucketLabelWarning                      = fmt.Errorf("%w: bucket label %q is missing or has a malformed value", PromQLWarning, model.BucketLabel)
+	MixedFloatsHistogramsWarning               = fmt.Errorf("%w: encountered a mix of histograms and floats for", PromQLWarning)
+	MixedClassicNativeHistogramsWarning        = fmt.Errorf("%w: vector contains a mix of classic and native histograms for metric name", PromQLWarning)
+	NativeHistogramNotCounterWarning           = fmt.Errorf("%w: this native histogram metric is not a counter:", PromQLWarning)
+	NativeHistogramNotGaugeWarning             = fmt.Errorf("%w: this native histogram metric is not a gauge:", PromQLWarning)
+	MixedExponentialCustomHistogramsWarning    = fmt.Errorf("%w: vector contains a mix of histograms with exponential and custom buckets schemas for metric name", PromQLWarning)
+	IncompatibleCustomBucketsHistogramsWarning = fmt.Errorf("%w: vector contains histograms with incompatible custom buckets for metric name", PromQLWarning)
 
 	PossibleNonCounterInfo                  = fmt.Errorf("%w: metric might not be a counter, name does not end in _total/_sum/_count/_bucket:", PromQLInfo)
 	HistogramQuantileForcedMonotonicityInfo = fmt.Errorf("%w: input to histogram_quantile needed to be fixed for monotonicity (see https://prometheus.io/docs/prometheus/latest/querying/functions/#histogram_quantile) for metric name", PromQLInfo)
@@ -140,6 +174,15 @@ func NewInvalidQuantileWarning(q float64, pos posrange.PositionRange) error {
 	}
 }
 
+// NewInvalidQuantileWarning is used when the user specifies an invalid ratio
+// value, i.e. a float that is outside the range [-1, 1] or NaN.
+func NewInvalidRatioWarning(q, to float64, pos posrange.PositionRange) error {
+	return annoErr{
+		PositionRange: pos,
+		Err:           fmt.Errorf("%w, got %g, capping to %g", InvalidRatioWarning, q, to),
+	}
+}
+
 // NewBadBucketLabelWarning is used when there is an error parsing the bucket label
 // of a classic histogram.
 func NewBadBucketLabelWarning(metricName, label string, pos posrange.PositionRange) error {
@@ -195,6 +238,24 @@ func NewNativeHistogramNotGaugeWarning(metricName string, pos posrange.PositionR
 	}
 }
 
+// NewMixedExponentialCustomHistogramsWarning is used when the queried series includes
+// histograms with both exponential and custom buckets schemas.
+func NewMixedExponentialCustomHistogramsWarning(metricName string, pos posrange.PositionRange) error {
+	return annoErr{
+		PositionRange: pos,
+		Err:           fmt.Errorf("%w %q", MixedExponentialCustomHistogramsWarning, metricName),
+	}
+}
+
+// NewIncompatibleCustomBucketsHistogramsWarning is used when the queried series includes
+// custom buckets histograms with incompatible custom bounds.
+func NewIncompatibleCustomBucketsHistogramsWarning(metricName string, pos posrange.PositionRange) error {
+	return annoErr{
+		PositionRange: pos,
+		Err:           fmt.Errorf("%w %q", IncompatibleCustomBucketsHistogramsWarning, metricName),
+	}
+}
+
 // NewPossibleNonCounterInfo is used when a named counter metric with only float samples does not
 // have the suffixes _total, _sum, _count, or _bucket.
 func NewPossibleNonCounterInfo(metricName string, pos posrange.PositionRange) error {
diff --git a/util/testutil/context.go b/util/testutil/context.go
index 3f63b030d7..0c9e0f6f64 100644
--- a/util/testutil/context.go
+++ b/util/testutil/context.go
@@ -13,7 +13,12 @@
 
 package testutil
 
-import "time"
+import (
+	"context"
+	"time"
+
+	"go.uber.org/atomic"
+)
 
 // A MockContext provides a simple stub implementation of a Context.
 type MockContext struct {
@@ -40,3 +45,23 @@ func (c *MockContext) Err() error {
 func (c *MockContext) Value(interface{}) interface{} {
 	return nil
 }
+
+// MockContextErrAfter is a MockContext that will return an error after a certain
+// number of calls to Err().
+type MockContextErrAfter struct {
+	MockContext
+	count     atomic.Uint64
+	FailAfter uint64
+}
+
+func (c *MockContextErrAfter) Err() error {
+	c.count.Inc()
+	if c.count.Load() >= c.FailAfter {
+		return context.Canceled
+	}
+	return c.MockContext.Err()
+}
+
+func (c *MockContextErrAfter) Count() uint64 {
+	return c.count.Load()
+}
diff --git a/util/treecache/treecache.go b/util/treecache/treecache.go
index 06356bb0bb..bbbaaf3d6e 100644
--- a/util/treecache/treecache.go
+++ b/util/treecache/treecache.go
@@ -200,7 +200,7 @@ func (tc *ZookeeperTreeCache) loop(path string) {
 				failure()
 			} else {
 				tc.resyncState(tc.prefix, tc.head, previousState)
-				level.Info(tc.logger).Log("Zookeeper resync successful")
+				level.Info(tc.logger).Log("msg", "Zookeeper resync successful")
 				failureMode = false
 			}
 		case <-tc.stop:
diff --git a/web/api/v1/api.go b/web/api/v1/api.go
index dc22365073..dc43350aa2 100644
--- a/web/api/v1/api.go
+++ b/web/api/v1/api.go
@@ -116,9 +116,11 @@ type RulesRetriever interface {
 	AlertingRules() []*rules.AlertingRule
 }
 
+// StatsRenderer converts engine statistics into a format suitable for the API.
 type StatsRenderer func(context.Context, *stats.Statistics, string) stats.QueryStats
 
-func defaultStatsRenderer(_ context.Context, s *stats.Statistics, param string) stats.QueryStats {
+// DefaultStatsRenderer is the default stats renderer for the API.
+func DefaultStatsRenderer(_ context.Context, s *stats.Statistics, param string) stats.QueryStats {
 	if param != "" {
 		return stats.NewQueryStats(s)
 	}
@@ -157,6 +159,7 @@ type Response struct {
 	ErrorType errorType   `json:"errorType,omitempty"`
 	Error     string      `json:"error,omitempty"`
 	Warnings  []string    `json:"warnings,omitempty"`
+	Infos     []string    `json:"infos,omitempty"`
 }
 
 type apiFuncResult struct {
@@ -246,6 +249,7 @@ func NewAPI(
 	registerer prometheus.Registerer,
 	statsRenderer StatsRenderer,
 	rwEnabled bool,
+	acceptRemoteWriteProtoMsgs []config.RemoteWriteProtoMsg,
 	otlpEnabled bool,
 ) *API {
 	a := &API{
@@ -272,7 +276,7 @@ func NewAPI(
 		buildInfo:        buildInfo,
 		gatherer:         gatherer,
 		isAgent:          isAgent,
-		statsRenderer:    defaultStatsRenderer,
+		statsRenderer:    DefaultStatsRenderer,
 
 		remoteReadHandler: remote.NewReadHandler(logger, registerer, q, configFunc, remoteReadSampleLimit, remoteReadConcurrencyLimit, remoteReadMaxBytesInFrame),
 	}
@@ -288,7 +292,7 @@ func NewAPI(
 	}
 
 	if rwEnabled {
-		a.remoteWriteHandler = remote.NewWriteHandler(logger, registerer, ap)
+		a.remoteWriteHandler = remote.NewWriteHandler(logger, registerer, ap, acceptRemoteWriteProtoMsgs)
 	}
 	if otlpEnabled {
 		a.otlpWriteHandler = remote.NewOTLPWriteHandler(logger, ap)
@@ -461,7 +465,7 @@ func (api *API) query(r *http.Request) (result apiFuncResult) {
 	// Optional stats field in response if parameter "stats" is not empty.
 	sr := api.statsRenderer
 	if sr == nil {
-		sr = defaultStatsRenderer
+		sr = DefaultStatsRenderer
 	}
 	qs := sr(ctx, qry.Stats(), r.FormValue("stats"))
 
@@ -563,7 +567,7 @@ func (api *API) queryRange(r *http.Request) (result apiFuncResult) {
 	// Optional stats field in response if parameter "stats" is not empty.
 	sr := api.statsRenderer
 	if sr == nil {
-		sr = defaultStatsRenderer
+		sr = DefaultStatsRenderer
 	}
 	qs := sr(ctx, qry.Stats(), r.FormValue("stats"))
 
@@ -702,7 +706,7 @@ func (api *API) labelNames(r *http.Request) apiFuncResult {
 		names = []string{}
 	}
 
-	if len(names) >= limit {
+	if len(names) > limit {
 		names = names[:limit]
 		warnings = warnings.Add(errors.New("results truncated due to limit"))
 	}
@@ -791,7 +795,7 @@ func (api *API) labelValues(r *http.Request) (result apiFuncResult) {
 
 	slices.Sort(vals)
 
-	if len(vals) >= limit {
+	if len(vals) > limit {
 		vals = vals[:limit]
 		warnings = warnings.Add(errors.New("results truncated due to limit"))
 	}
@@ -887,7 +891,8 @@ func (api *API) series(r *http.Request) (result apiFuncResult) {
 		}
 		metrics = append(metrics, set.At().Labels())
 
-		if len(metrics) >= limit {
+		if len(metrics) > limit {
+			metrics = metrics[:limit]
 			warnings.Add(errors.New("results truncated due to limit"))
 			return apiFuncResult{metrics, nil, warnings, closer}
 		}
@@ -1392,6 +1397,11 @@ func (api *API) rules(r *http.Request) apiFuncResult {
 	rgSet := queryFormToSet(r.Form["rule_group[]"])
 	fSet := queryFormToSet(r.Form["file[]"])
 
+	matcherSets, err := parseMatchersParam(r.Form["match[]"])
+	if err != nil {
+		return apiFuncResult{nil, &apiError{errorBadData, err}, nil, nil}
+	}
+
 	ruleGroups := api.rulesRetriever(r.Context()).RuleGroups()
 	res := &RuleDiscovery{RuleGroups: make([]*RuleGroup, 0, len(ruleGroups))}
 	typ := strings.ToLower(r.URL.Query().Get("type"))
@@ -1431,7 +1441,8 @@ func (api *API) rules(r *http.Request) apiFuncResult {
 			EvaluationTime: grp.GetEvaluationTime().Seconds(),
 			LastEvaluation: grp.GetLastEvaluation(),
 		}
-		for _, rr := range grp.Rules() {
+
+		for _, rr := range grp.Rules(matcherSets...) {
 			var enrichedRule Rule
 
 			if len(rnSet) > 0 {
@@ -1743,11 +1754,13 @@ func (api *API) cleanTombstones(*http.Request) apiFuncResult {
 // can be empty if the position information isn't needed.
 func (api *API) respond(w http.ResponseWriter, req *http.Request, data interface{}, warnings annotations.Annotations, query string) {
 	statusMessage := statusSuccess
+	warn, info := warnings.AsStrings(query, 10, 10)
 
 	resp := &Response{
 		Status:   statusMessage,
 		Data:     data,
-		Warnings: warnings.AsStrings(query, 10),
+		Warnings: warn,
+		Infos:    info,
 	}
 
 	codec, err := api.negotiateCodec(req, resp)
@@ -1758,7 +1771,7 @@ func (api *API) respond(w http.ResponseWriter, req *http.Request, data interface
 
 	b, err := codec.Encode(resp)
 	if err != nil {
-		level.Error(api.logger).Log("msg", "error marshaling response", "err", err)
+		level.Error(api.logger).Log("msg", "error marshaling response", "url", req.URL, "err", err)
 		http.Error(w, err.Error(), http.StatusInternalServerError)
 		return
 	}
@@ -1766,7 +1779,7 @@ func (api *API) respond(w http.ResponseWriter, req *http.Request, data interface
 	w.Header().Set("Content-Type", codec.ContentType().String())
 	w.WriteHeader(http.StatusOK)
 	if n, err := w.Write(b); err != nil {
-		level.Error(api.logger).Log("msg", "error writing response", "bytesWritten", n, "err", err)
+		level.Error(api.logger).Log("msg", "error writing response", "url", req.URL, "bytesWritten", n, "err", err)
 	}
 }
 
diff --git a/web/api/v1/api_test.go b/web/api/v1/api_test.go
index c383993815..d76446f089 100644
--- a/web/api/v1/api_test.go
+++ b/web/api/v1/api_test.go
@@ -15,7 +15,6 @@ package v1
 
 import (
 	"context"
-	"encoding/json"
 	"errors"
 	"fmt"
 	"io"
@@ -26,6 +25,7 @@ import (
 	"reflect"
 	"runtime"
 	"sort"
+	"strconv"
 	"strings"
 	"testing"
 	"time"
@@ -35,6 +35,7 @@ import (
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/util/testutil"
 
 	"github.com/go-kit/log"
+	jsoniter "github.com/json-iterator/go"
 	"github.com/prometheus/client_golang/prometheus"
 	config_util "github.com/prometheus/common/config"
 	"github.com/prometheus/common/model"
@@ -49,6 +50,7 @@ import (
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/timestamp"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/promql"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/promql/parser"
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/promql/promqltest"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/rules"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/scrape"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/storage"
@@ -259,11 +261,36 @@ func (m *rulesRetrieverMock) CreateAlertingRules() {
 		false,
 		log.NewNopLogger(),
 	)
-
+	rule4 := rules.NewAlertingRule(
+		"test_metric6",
+		expr2,
+		time.Second,
+		0,
+		labels.FromStrings("testlabel", "rule"),
+		labels.Labels{},
+		labels.Labels{},
+		"",
+		true,
+		log.NewNopLogger(),
+	)
+	rule5 := rules.NewAlertingRule(
+		"test_metric7",
+		expr2,
+		time.Second,
+		0,
+		labels.FromStrings("templatedlabel", "{{ $externalURL }}"),
+		labels.Labels{},
+		labels.Labels{},
+		"",
+		true,
+		log.NewNopLogger(),
+	)
 	var r []*rules.AlertingRule
 	r = append(r, rule1)
 	r = append(r, rule2)
 	r = append(r, rule3)
+	r = append(r, rule4)
+	r = append(r, rule5)
 	m.alertingRules = r
 }
 
@@ -298,7 +325,9 @@ func (m *rulesRetrieverMock) CreateRuleGroups() {
 	recordingExpr, err := parser.ParseExpr(`vector(1)`)
 	require.NoError(m.testing, err, "unable to parse alert expression")
 	recordingRule := rules.NewRecordingRule("recording-rule-1", recordingExpr, labels.Labels{})
+	recordingRule2 := rules.NewRecordingRule("recording-rule-2", recordingExpr, labels.FromStrings("testlabel", "rule"))
 	r = append(r, recordingRule)
+	r = append(r, recordingRule2)
 
 	group := rules.NewGroup(rules.GroupOptions{
 		Name:          "grp",
@@ -338,7 +367,7 @@ var sampleFlagMap = map[string]string{
 }
 
 func TestEndpoints(t *testing.T) {
-	storage := promql.LoadedStorage(t, `
+	storage := promqltest.LoadedStorage(t, `
 		load 1m
 			test_metric1{foo="bar"} 0+100x100
 			test_metric1{foo="boo"} 1+0x100
@@ -453,7 +482,7 @@ func TestEndpoints(t *testing.T) {
 
 		remote := remote.NewStorage(promlog.New(&promlogConfig), prometheus.DefaultRegisterer, func() (int64, error) {
 			return 0, nil
-		}, dbDir, 1*time.Second, nil)
+		}, dbDir, 1*time.Second, nil, false)
 
 		err = remote.ApplyConfig(&config.Config{
 			RemoteReadConfigs: []*config.RemoteReadConfig{
@@ -502,7 +531,7 @@ func (b byLabels) Less(i, j int) bool { return labels.Compare(b[i], b[j]) < 0 }
 func TestGetSeries(t *testing.T) {
 	// TestEndpoints doesn't have enough label names to test api.labelNames
 	// endpoint properly. Hence we test it separately.
-	storage := promql.LoadedStorage(t, `
+	storage := promqltest.LoadedStorage(t, `
 		load 1m
 			test_metric1{foo1="bar", baz="abc"} 0+100x100
 			test_metric1{foo2="boo"} 1+0x100
@@ -606,7 +635,7 @@ func TestGetSeries(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestQueryExemplars(t *testing.T) {
 	start := time.Unix(0, 0)
-	storage := promql.LoadedStorage(t, `
+	storage := promqltest.LoadedStorage(t, `
 		load 1m
 			test_metric1{foo="bar"} 0+100x100
 			test_metric1{foo="boo"} 1+0x100
@@ -725,7 +754,7 @@ func TestQueryExemplars(t *testing.T) {
 func TestLabelNames(t *testing.T) {
 	// TestEndpoints doesn't have enough label names to test api.labelNames
 	// endpoint properly. Hence we test it separately.
-	storage := promql.LoadedStorage(t, `
+	storage := promqltest.LoadedStorage(t, `
 		load 1m
 			test_metric1{foo1="bar", baz="abc"} 0+100x100
 			test_metric1{foo2="boo"} 1+0x100
@@ -910,6 +939,7 @@ func TestStats(t *testing.T) {
 				require.IsType(t, &QueryData{}, i)
 				qd := i.(*QueryData)
 				require.NotNil(t, qd.Stats)
+				json := jsoniter.ConfigCompatibleWithStandardLibrary
 				j, err := json.Marshal(qd.Stats)
 				require.NoError(t, err)
 				require.JSONEq(t, `{"custom":"Custom Value"}`, string(j))
@@ -1057,6 +1087,7 @@ func testEndpoints(t *testing.T, api *API, tr *testTargetRetriever, es storage.E
 		responseLen           int // If nonzero, check only the length; `response` is ignored.
 		responseMetadataTotal int
 		responseAsJSON        string
+		warningsCount         int
 		errType               errorType
 		sorter                func(interface{})
 		metadata              []targetMetadata
@@ -1171,6 +1202,25 @@ func testEndpoints(t *testing.T, api *API, tr *testTargetRetriever, es storage.E
 				},
 			},
 		},
+		// Test empty vector result
+		{
+			endpoint: api.query,
+			query: url.Values{
+				"query": []string{"bottomk(2, notExists)"},
+			},
+			responseAsJSON: `{"resultType":"vector","result":[]}`,
+		},
+		// Test empty matrix result
+		{
+			endpoint: api.queryRange,
+			query: url.Values{
+				"query": []string{"bottomk(2, notExists)"},
+				"start": []string{"0"},
+				"end":   []string{"2"},
+				"step":  []string{"1"},
+			},
+			responseAsJSON: `{"resultType":"matrix","result":[]}`,
+		},
 		// Missing query params in range queries.
 		{
 			endpoint: api.queryRange,
@@ -1395,7 +1445,17 @@ func testEndpoints(t *testing.T, api *API, tr *testTargetRetriever, es storage.E
 				"match[]": []string{"test_metric1"},
 				"limit":   []string{"1"},
 			},
-			responseLen: 1, // API does not specify which particular value will come back.
+			responseLen:   1, // API does not specify which particular value will come back.
+			warningsCount: 1,
+		},
+		{
+			endpoint: api.series,
+			query: url.Values{
+				"match[]": []string{"test_metric1"},
+				"limit":   []string{"2"},
+			},
+			responseLen:   2, // API does not specify which particular value will come back.
+			warningsCount: 0, // No warnings if limit isn't exceeded.
 		},
 		// Missing match[] query params in series requests.
 		{
@@ -2118,6 +2178,28 @@ func testEndpoints(t *testing.T, api *API, tr *testTargetRetriever, es storage.E
 								Health: "ok",
 								Type:   "alerting",
 							},
+							AlertingRule{
+								State:       "inactive",
+								Name:        "test_metric6",
+								Query:       "up == 1",
+								Duration:    1,
+								Labels:      labels.FromStrings("testlabel", "rule"),
+								Annotations: labels.Labels{},
+								Alerts:      []*Alert{},
+								Health:      "ok",
+								Type:        "alerting",
+							},
+							AlertingRule{
+								State:       "inactive",
+								Name:        "test_metric7",
+								Query:       "up == 1",
+								Duration:    1,
+								Labels:      labels.FromStrings("templatedlabel", "{{ $externalURL }}"),
+								Annotations: labels.Labels{},
+								Alerts:      []*Alert{},
+								Health:      "ok",
+								Type:        "alerting",
+							},
 							RecordingRule{
 								Name:   "recording-rule-1",
 								Query:  "vector(1)",
@@ -2125,6 +2207,13 @@ func testEndpoints(t *testing.T, api *API, tr *testTargetRetriever, es storage.E
 								Health: "ok",
 								Type:   "recording",
 							},
+							RecordingRule{
+								Name:   "recording-rule-2",
+								Query:  "vector(1)",
+								Labels: labels.FromStrings("testlabel", "rule"),
+								Health: "ok",
+								Type:   "recording",
+							},
 						},
 					},
 				},
@@ -2177,6 +2266,28 @@ func testEndpoints(t *testing.T, api *API, tr *testTargetRetriever, es storage.E
 								Health:      "ok",
 								Type:        "alerting",
 							},
+							AlertingRule{
+								State:       "inactive",
+								Name:        "test_metric6",
+								Query:       "up == 1",
+								Duration:    1,
+								Labels:      labels.FromStrings("testlabel", "rule"),
+								Annotations: labels.Labels{},
+								Alerts:      nil,
+								Health:      "ok",
+								Type:        "alerting",
+							},
+							AlertingRule{
+								State:       "inactive",
+								Name:        "test_metric7",
+								Query:       "up == 1",
+								Duration:    1,
+								Labels:      labels.FromStrings("templatedlabel", "{{ $externalURL }}"),
+								Annotations: labels.Labels{},
+								Alerts:      nil,
+								Health:      "ok",
+								Type:        "alerting",
+							},
 							RecordingRule{
 								Name:   "recording-rule-1",
 								Query:  "vector(1)",
@@ -2184,6 +2295,13 @@ func testEndpoints(t *testing.T, api *API, tr *testTargetRetriever, es storage.E
 								Health: "ok",
 								Type:   "recording",
 							},
+							RecordingRule{
+								Name:   "recording-rule-2",
+								Query:  "vector(1)",
+								Labels: labels.FromStrings("testlabel", "rule"),
+								Health: "ok",
+								Type:   "recording",
+							},
 						},
 					},
 				},
@@ -2243,6 +2361,28 @@ func testEndpoints(t *testing.T, api *API, tr *testTargetRetriever, es storage.E
 								Health: "ok",
 								Type:   "alerting",
 							},
+							AlertingRule{
+								State:       "inactive",
+								Name:        "test_metric6",
+								Query:       "up == 1",
+								Duration:    1,
+								Labels:      labels.FromStrings("testlabel", "rule"),
+								Annotations: labels.Labels{},
+								Alerts:      []*Alert{},
+								Health:      "ok",
+								Type:        "alerting",
+							},
+							AlertingRule{
+								State:       "inactive",
+								Name:        "test_metric7",
+								Query:       "up == 1",
+								Duration:    1,
+								Labels:      labels.FromStrings("templatedlabel", "{{ $externalURL }}"),
+								Annotations: labels.Labels{},
+								Alerts:      []*Alert{},
+								Health:      "ok",
+								Type:        "alerting",
+							},
 						},
 					},
 				},
@@ -2269,6 +2409,13 @@ func testEndpoints(t *testing.T, api *API, tr *testTargetRetriever, es storage.E
 								Health: "ok",
 								Type:   "recording",
 							},
+							RecordingRule{
+								Name:   "recording-rule-2",
+								Query:  "vector(1)",
+								Labels: labels.FromStrings("testlabel", "rule"),
+								Health: "ok",
+								Type:   "recording",
+							},
 						},
 					},
 				},
@@ -2336,6 +2483,179 @@ func testEndpoints(t *testing.T, api *API, tr *testTargetRetriever, es storage.E
 			},
 			zeroFunc: rulesZeroFunc,
 		},
+		{
+			endpoint: api.rules,
+			query: url.Values{
+				"match[]": []string{`{testlabel="rule"}`},
+			},
+			response: &RuleDiscovery{
+				RuleGroups: []*RuleGroup{
+					{
+						Name:     "grp",
+						File:     "/path/to/file",
+						Interval: 1,
+						Limit:    0,
+						Rules: []Rule{
+							AlertingRule{
+								State:       "inactive",
+								Name:        "test_metric6",
+								Query:       "up == 1",
+								Duration:    1,
+								Labels:      labels.FromStrings("testlabel", "rule"),
+								Annotations: labels.Labels{},
+								Alerts:      []*Alert{},
+								Health:      "ok",
+								Type:        "alerting",
+							},
+							RecordingRule{
+								Name:   "recording-rule-2",
+								Query:  "vector(1)",
+								Labels: labels.FromStrings("testlabel", "rule"),
+								Health: "ok",
+								Type:   "recording",
+							},
+						},
+					},
+				},
+			},
+			zeroFunc: rulesZeroFunc,
+		},
+		{
+			endpoint: api.rules,
+			query: url.Values{
+				"type":    []string{"alert"},
+				"match[]": []string{`{templatedlabel="{{ $externalURL }}"}`},
+			},
+			response: &RuleDiscovery{
+				RuleGroups: []*RuleGroup{
+					{
+						Name:     "grp",
+						File:     "/path/to/file",
+						Interval: 1,
+						Limit:    0,
+						Rules: []Rule{
+							AlertingRule{
+								State:       "inactive",
+								Name:        "test_metric7",
+								Query:       "up == 1",
+								Duration:    1,
+								Labels:      labels.FromStrings("templatedlabel", "{{ $externalURL }}"),
+								Annotations: labels.Labels{},
+								Alerts:      []*Alert{},
+								Health:      "ok",
+								Type:        "alerting",
+							},
+						},
+					},
+				},
+			},
+			zeroFunc: rulesZeroFunc,
+		},
+		{
+			endpoint: api.rules,
+			query: url.Values{
+				"match[]": []string{`{testlabel="abc"}`},
+			},
+			response: &RuleDiscovery{
+				RuleGroups: []*RuleGroup{},
+			},
+		},
+		// This is testing OR condition, the api response should return rule if it matches one of the label selector
+		{
+			endpoint: api.rules,
+			query: url.Values{
+				"match[]": []string{`{testlabel="abc"}`, `{testlabel="rule"}`},
+			},
+			response: &RuleDiscovery{
+				RuleGroups: []*RuleGroup{
+					{
+						Name:     "grp",
+						File:     "/path/to/file",
+						Interval: 1,
+						Limit:    0,
+						Rules: []Rule{
+							AlertingRule{
+								State:       "inactive",
+								Name:        "test_metric6",
+								Query:       "up == 1",
+								Duration:    1,
+								Labels:      labels.FromStrings("testlabel", "rule"),
+								Annotations: labels.Labels{},
+								Alerts:      []*Alert{},
+								Health:      "ok",
+								Type:        "alerting",
+							},
+							RecordingRule{
+								Name:   "recording-rule-2",
+								Query:  "vector(1)",
+								Labels: labels.FromStrings("testlabel", "rule"),
+								Health: "ok",
+								Type:   "recording",
+							},
+						},
+					},
+				},
+			},
+			zeroFunc: rulesZeroFunc,
+		},
+		{
+			endpoint: api.rules,
+			query: url.Values{
+				"type":    []string{"record"},
+				"match[]": []string{`{testlabel="rule"}`},
+			},
+			response: &RuleDiscovery{
+				RuleGroups: []*RuleGroup{
+					{
+						Name:     "grp",
+						File:     "/path/to/file",
+						Interval: 1,
+						Limit:    0,
+						Rules: []Rule{
+							RecordingRule{
+								Name:   "recording-rule-2",
+								Query:  "vector(1)",
+								Labels: labels.FromStrings("testlabel", "rule"),
+								Health: "ok",
+								Type:   "recording",
+							},
+						},
+					},
+				},
+			},
+			zeroFunc: rulesZeroFunc,
+		},
+		{
+			endpoint: api.rules,
+			query: url.Values{
+				"type":    []string{"alert"},
+				"match[]": []string{`{testlabel="rule"}`},
+			},
+			response: &RuleDiscovery{
+				RuleGroups: []*RuleGroup{
+					{
+						Name:     "grp",
+						File:     "/path/to/file",
+						Interval: 1,
+						Limit:    0,
+						Rules: []Rule{
+							AlertingRule{
+								State:       "inactive",
+								Name:        "test_metric6",
+								Query:       "up == 1",
+								Duration:    1,
+								Labels:      labels.FromStrings("testlabel", "rule"),
+								Annotations: labels.Labels{},
+								Alerts:      []*Alert{},
+								Health:      "ok",
+								Type:        "alerting",
+							},
+						},
+					},
+				},
+			},
+			zeroFunc: rulesZeroFunc,
+		},
 		{
 			endpoint: api.queryExemplars,
 			query: url.Values{
@@ -2678,7 +2998,19 @@ func testEndpoints(t *testing.T, api *API, tr *testTargetRetriever, es storage.E
 				query: url.Values{
 					"limit": []string{"2"},
 				},
-				responseLen: 2, // API does not specify which particular values will come back.
+				responseLen:   2, // API does not specify which particular values will come back.
+				warningsCount: 1,
+			},
+			{
+				endpoint: api.labelValues,
+				params: map[string]string{
+					"name": "__name__",
+				},
+				query: url.Values{
+					"limit": []string{"4"},
+				},
+				responseLen:   4, // API does not specify which particular values will come back.
+				warningsCount: 0, // No warnings if limit isn't exceeded.
 			},
 			// Label names.
 			{
@@ -2825,7 +3157,16 @@ func testEndpoints(t *testing.T, api *API, tr *testTargetRetriever, es storage.E
 				query: url.Values{
 					"limit": []string{"2"},
 				},
-				responseLen: 2, // API does not specify which particular values will come back.
+				responseLen:   2, // API does not specify which particular values will come back.
+				warningsCount: 1,
+			},
+			{
+				endpoint: api.labelNames,
+				query: url.Values{
+					"limit": []string{"3"},
+				},
+				responseLen:   3, // API does not specify which particular values will come back.
+				warningsCount: 0, // No warnings if limit isn't exceeded.
 			},
 		}...)
 	}
@@ -2891,14 +3232,19 @@ func testEndpoints(t *testing.T, api *API, tr *testTargetRetriever, es storage.E
 						if test.zeroFunc != nil {
 							test.zeroFunc(res.data)
 						}
-						assertAPIResponse(t, res.data, test.response)
+						if test.response != nil {
+							assertAPIResponse(t, res.data, test.response)
+						}
 					}
 
 					if test.responseAsJSON != "" {
+						json := jsoniter.ConfigCompatibleWithStandardLibrary
 						s, err := json.Marshal(res.data)
 						require.NoError(t, err)
 						require.JSONEq(t, test.responseAsJSON, string(s))
 					}
+
+					require.Len(t, res.warnings, test.warningsCount)
 				})
 			}
 		})
@@ -3292,18 +3638,7 @@ func TestRespondError(t *testing.T) {
 	require.Equal(t, want, have, "Return code %d expected in error response but got %d", want, have)
 	h := resp.Header.Get("Content-Type")
 	require.Equal(t, "application/json", h, "Expected Content-Type %q but got %q", "application/json", h)
-
-	var res Response
-	err = json.Unmarshal(body, &res)
-	require.NoError(t, err, "Error unmarshaling JSON body")
-
-	exp := &Response{
-		Status:    statusError,
-		Data:      "test",
-		ErrorType: errorTimeout,
-		Error:     "message",
-	}
-	require.Equal(t, exp, &res)
+	require.JSONEq(t, `{"status": "error", "data": "test", "errorType": "timeout", "error": "message"}`, string(body))
 }
 
 func TestParseTimeParam(t *testing.T) {
@@ -3531,7 +3866,7 @@ func TestTSDBStatus(t *testing.T) {
 		},
 	} {
 		tc := tc
-		t.Run(fmt.Sprintf("%d", i), func(t *testing.T) {
+		t.Run(strconv.Itoa(i), func(t *testing.T) {
 			api := &API{db: tc.db, gatherer: prometheus.DefaultGatherer}
 			endpoint := tc.endpoint(api)
 			req, err := http.NewRequest(tc.method, fmt.Sprintf("?%s", tc.values.Encode()), nil)
@@ -3823,7 +4158,7 @@ func TestExtractQueryOpts(t *testing.T) {
 
 // Test query timeout parameter.
 func TestQueryTimeout(t *testing.T) {
-	storage := promql.LoadedStorage(t, `
+	storage := promqltest.LoadedStorage(t, `
 		load 1m
 			test_metric1{foo="bar"} 0+100x100
 	`)
diff --git a/web/api/v1/errors_test.go b/web/api/v1/errors_test.go
index e76a1a3d35..a83bfe0173 100644
--- a/web/api/v1/errors_test.go
+++ b/web/api/v1/errors_test.go
@@ -135,6 +135,7 @@ func createPrometheusAPI(q storage.SampleAndChunkQueryable) *route.Router {
 		nil,
 		nil,
 		false,
+		config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgs{config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1, config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV2},
 		false,
 	)
 
diff --git a/web/api/v1/json_codec.go b/web/api/v1/json_codec.go
index f1a8104cc4..f07e57696d 100644
--- a/web/api/v1/json_codec.go
+++ b/web/api/v1/json_codec.go
@@ -25,11 +25,13 @@ import (
 )
 
 func init() {
-	jsoniter.RegisterTypeEncoderFunc("promql.Series", marshalSeriesJSON, marshalSeriesJSONIsEmpty)
-	jsoniter.RegisterTypeEncoderFunc("promql.Sample", marshalSampleJSON, marshalSampleJSONIsEmpty)
-	jsoniter.RegisterTypeEncoderFunc("promql.FPoint", marshalFPointJSON, marshalPointJSONIsEmpty)
-	jsoniter.RegisterTypeEncoderFunc("promql.HPoint", marshalHPointJSON, marshalPointJSONIsEmpty)
-	jsoniter.RegisterTypeEncoderFunc("exemplar.Exemplar", marshalExemplarJSON, marshalExemplarJSONEmpty)
+	jsoniter.RegisterTypeEncoderFunc("promql.Vector", unsafeMarshalVectorJSON, neverEmpty)
+	jsoniter.RegisterTypeEncoderFunc("promql.Matrix", unsafeMarshalMatrixJSON, neverEmpty)
+	jsoniter.RegisterTypeEncoderFunc("promql.Series", unsafeMarshalSeriesJSON, neverEmpty)
+	jsoniter.RegisterTypeEncoderFunc("promql.Sample", unsafeMarshalSampleJSON, neverEmpty)
+	jsoniter.RegisterTypeEncoderFunc("promql.FPoint", unsafeMarshalFPointJSON, neverEmpty)
+	jsoniter.RegisterTypeEncoderFunc("promql.HPoint", unsafeMarshalHPointJSON, neverEmpty)
+	jsoniter.RegisterTypeEncoderFunc("exemplar.Exemplar", marshalExemplarJSON, neverEmpty)
 	jsoniter.RegisterTypeEncoderFunc("labels.Labels", unsafeMarshalLabelsJSON, labelsIsEmpty)
 }
 
@@ -66,8 +68,12 @@ func (j JSONCodec) Encode(resp *Response) ([]byte, error) {
 //	      < more histograms >
 //	   ],
 //	},
-func marshalSeriesJSON(ptr unsafe.Pointer, stream *jsoniter.Stream) {
+func unsafeMarshalSeriesJSON(ptr unsafe.Pointer, stream *jsoniter.Stream) {
 	s := *((*promql.Series)(ptr))
+	marshalSeriesJSON(s, stream)
+}
+
+func marshalSeriesJSON(s promql.Series, stream *jsoniter.Stream) {
 	stream.WriteObjectStart()
 	stream.WriteObjectField(`metric`)
 	marshalLabelsJSON(s.Metric, stream)
@@ -78,7 +84,7 @@ func marshalSeriesJSON(ptr unsafe.Pointer, stream *jsoniter.Stream) {
 			stream.WriteObjectField(`values`)
 			stream.WriteArrayStart()
 		}
-		marshalFPointJSON(unsafe.Pointer(&p), stream)
+		marshalFPointJSON(p, stream)
 	}
 	if len(s.Floats) > 0 {
 		stream.WriteArrayEnd()
@@ -89,7 +95,7 @@ func marshalSeriesJSON(ptr unsafe.Pointer, stream *jsoniter.Stream) {
 			stream.WriteObjectField(`histograms`)
 			stream.WriteArrayStart()
 		}
-		marshalHPointJSON(unsafe.Pointer(&p), stream)
+		marshalHPointJSON(p, stream)
 	}
 	if len(s.Histograms) > 0 {
 		stream.WriteArrayEnd()
@@ -97,7 +103,8 @@ func marshalSeriesJSON(ptr unsafe.Pointer, stream *jsoniter.Stream) {
 	stream.WriteObjectEnd()
 }
 
-func marshalSeriesJSONIsEmpty(unsafe.Pointer) bool {
+// In the Prometheus API we render an empty object as `[]` or similar.
+func neverEmpty(unsafe.Pointer) bool {
 	return false
 }
 
@@ -122,8 +129,12 @@ func marshalSeriesJSONIsEmpty(unsafe.Pointer) bool {
 //	   },
 //	   "histogram": [ 1435781451.781, { < histogram, see jsonutil.MarshalHistogram > } ]
 //	},
-func marshalSampleJSON(ptr unsafe.Pointer, stream *jsoniter.Stream) {
+func unsafeMarshalSampleJSON(ptr unsafe.Pointer, stream *jsoniter.Stream) {
 	s := *((*promql.Sample)(ptr))
+	marshalSampleJSON(s, stream)
+}
+
+func marshalSampleJSON(s promql.Sample, stream *jsoniter.Stream) {
 	stream.WriteObjectStart()
 	stream.WriteObjectField(`metric`)
 	marshalLabelsJSON(s.Metric, stream)
@@ -145,13 +156,13 @@ func marshalSampleJSON(ptr unsafe.Pointer, stream *jsoniter.Stream) {
 	stream.WriteObjectEnd()
 }
 
-func marshalSampleJSONIsEmpty(unsafe.Pointer) bool {
-	return false
+// marshalFPointJSON writes `[ts, "1.234"]`.
+func unsafeMarshalFPointJSON(ptr unsafe.Pointer, stream *jsoniter.Stream) {
+	p := *((*promql.FPoint)(ptr))
+	marshalFPointJSON(p, stream)
 }
 
-// marshalFPointJSON writes `[ts, "1.234"]`.
-func marshalFPointJSON(ptr unsafe.Pointer, stream *jsoniter.Stream) {
-	p := *((*promql.FPoint)(ptr))
+func marshalFPointJSON(p promql.FPoint, stream *jsoniter.Stream) {
 	stream.WriteArrayStart()
 	jsonutil.MarshalTimestamp(p.T, stream)
 	stream.WriteMore()
@@ -160,8 +171,12 @@ func marshalFPointJSON(ptr unsafe.Pointer, stream *jsoniter.Stream) {
 }
 
 // marshalHPointJSON writes `[ts, { < histogram, see jsonutil.MarshalHistogram > } ]`.
-func marshalHPointJSON(ptr unsafe.Pointer, stream *jsoniter.Stream) {
+func unsafeMarshalHPointJSON(ptr unsafe.Pointer, stream *jsoniter.Stream) {
 	p := *((*promql.HPoint)(ptr))
+	marshalHPointJSON(p, stream)
+}
+
+func marshalHPointJSON(p promql.HPoint, stream *jsoniter.Stream) {
 	stream.WriteArrayStart()
 	jsonutil.MarshalTimestamp(p.T, stream)
 	stream.WriteMore()
@@ -169,10 +184,6 @@ func marshalHPointJSON(ptr unsafe.Pointer, stream *jsoniter.Stream) {
 	stream.WriteArrayEnd()
 }
 
-func marshalPointJSONIsEmpty(unsafe.Pointer) bool {
-	return false
-}
-
 // marshalExemplarJSON writes.
 //
 //	{
@@ -201,10 +212,6 @@ func marshalExemplarJSON(ptr unsafe.Pointer, stream *jsoniter.Stream) {
 	stream.WriteObjectEnd()
 }
 
-func marshalExemplarJSONEmpty(unsafe.Pointer) bool {
-	return false
-}
-
 func unsafeMarshalLabelsJSON(ptr unsafe.Pointer, stream *jsoniter.Stream) {
 	labelsPtr := (*labels.Labels)(ptr)
 	marshalLabelsJSON(*labelsPtr, stream)
@@ -229,3 +236,29 @@ func labelsIsEmpty(ptr unsafe.Pointer) bool {
 	labelsPtr := (*labels.Labels)(ptr)
 	return labelsPtr.IsEmpty()
 }
+
+// Marshal a Vector as `[sample,sample,...]` - empty Vector is `[]`.
+func unsafeMarshalVectorJSON(ptr unsafe.Pointer, stream *jsoniter.Stream) {
+	v := *((*promql.Vector)(ptr))
+	stream.WriteArrayStart()
+	for i, s := range v {
+		marshalSampleJSON(s, stream)
+		if i != len(v)-1 {
+			stream.WriteMore()
+		}
+	}
+	stream.WriteArrayEnd()
+}
+
+// Marshal a Matrix as `[series,series,...]` - empty Matrix is `[]`.
+func unsafeMarshalMatrixJSON(ptr unsafe.Pointer, stream *jsoniter.Stream) {
+	m := *((*promql.Matrix)(ptr))
+	stream.WriteArrayStart()
+	for i, s := range m {
+		marshalSeriesJSON(s, stream)
+		if i != len(m)-1 {
+			stream.WriteMore()
+		}
+	}
+	stream.WriteArrayEnd()
+}
diff --git a/web/api/v1/json_codec_test.go b/web/api/v1/json_codec_test.go
index b8384baaa8..759dabd28e 100644
--- a/web/api/v1/json_codec_test.go
+++ b/web/api/v1/json_codec_test.go
@@ -29,6 +29,40 @@ func TestJsonCodec_Encode(t *testing.T) {
 		response interface{}
 		expected string
 	}{
+		{
+			response: &QueryData{
+				ResultType: parser.ValueTypeVector,
+				Result: promql.Vector{
+					promql.Sample{
+						Metric: labels.FromStrings("__name__", "foo"),
+						T:      1000,
+						F:      1,
+					},
+					promql.Sample{
+						Metric: labels.FromStrings("__name__", "bar"),
+						T:      2000,
+						F:      2,
+					},
+				},
+			},
+			expected: `{"status":"success","data":{"resultType":"vector","result":[{"metric":{"__name__":"foo"},"value":[1,"1"]},{"metric":{"__name__":"bar"},"value":[2,"2"]}]}}`,
+		},
+		{
+			response: &QueryData{
+				ResultType: parser.ValueTypeMatrix,
+				Result: promql.Matrix{
+					promql.Series{
+						Metric: labels.FromStrings("__name__", "foo"),
+						Floats: []promql.FPoint{{F: 1, T: 1000}},
+					},
+					promql.Series{
+						Metric: labels.FromStrings("__name__", "bar"),
+						Floats: []promql.FPoint{{F: 2, T: 2000}},
+					},
+				},
+			},
+			expected: `{"status":"success","data":{"resultType":"matrix","result":[{"metric":{"__name__":"foo"},"values":[[1,"1"]]},{"metric":{"__name__":"bar"},"values":[[2,"2"]]}]}}`,
+		},
 		{
 			response: &QueryData{
 				ResultType: parser.ValueTypeMatrix,
diff --git a/web/federate_test.go b/web/federate_test.go
index f201210ec0..056a95d67f 100644
--- a/web/federate_test.go
+++ b/web/federate_test.go
@@ -22,6 +22,7 @@ import (
 	"net/http"
 	"net/http/httptest"
 	"sort"
+	"strconv"
 	"strings"
 	"testing"
 	"time"
@@ -34,6 +35,7 @@ import (
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/labels"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/textparse"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/promql"
+	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/promql/promqltest"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/storage"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/tsdb"
 	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/util/teststorage"
@@ -201,7 +203,7 @@ test_metric_without_labels{instance="baz"} 1001 6000000
 }
 
 func TestFederation(t *testing.T) {
-	storage := promql.LoadedStorage(t, `
+	storage := promqltest.LoadedStorage(t, `
 		load 1m
 			test_metric1{foo="bar",instance="i"}    0+100x100
 			test_metric1{foo="boo",instance="i"}    1+0x100
@@ -340,8 +342,8 @@ func TestFederationWithNativeHistograms(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 	app := db.Appender(context.Background())
 	for i := 0; i < 6; i++ {
-		l := labels.FromStrings("__name__", "test_metric", "foo", fmt.Sprintf("%d", i))
-		expL := labels.FromStrings("__name__", "test_metric", "instance", "", "foo", fmt.Sprintf("%d", i))
+		l := labels.FromStrings("__name__", "test_metric", "foo", strconv.Itoa(i))
+		expL := labels.FromStrings("__name__", "test_metric", "instance", "", "foo", strconv.Itoa(i))
 		var err error
 		switch i {
 		case 0, 3:
diff --git a/web/ui/module/codemirror-promql/package.json b/web/ui/module/codemirror-promql/package.json
index 31631b3a92..fb67750904 100644
--- a/web/ui/module/codemirror-promql/package.json
+++ b/web/ui/module/codemirror-promql/package.json
@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 {
   "name": "@prometheus-io/codemirror-promql",
-  "version": "0.51.2",
+  "version": "0.53.0",
   "description": "a CodeMirror mode for the PromQL language",
   "types": "dist/esm/index.d.ts",
   "module": "dist/esm/index.js",
@@ -29,21 +29,21 @@
   },
   "homepage": "https://github.com/prometheus/prometheus/blob/main/web/ui/module/codemirror-promql/README.md",
   "dependencies": {
-    "@prometheus-io/lezer-promql": "0.51.2",
+    "@prometheus-io/lezer-promql": "0.53.0",
     "lru-cache": "^7.18.3"
   },
   "devDependencies": {
-    "@codemirror/autocomplete": "^6.11.1",
-    "@codemirror/language": "^6.9.3",
-    "@codemirror/lint": "^6.4.2",
+    "@codemirror/autocomplete": "^6.16.2",
+    "@codemirror/language": "^6.10.2",
+    "@codemirror/lint": "^6.8.0",
     "@codemirror/state": "^6.3.3",
     "@codemirror/view": "^6.22.1",
-    "@lezer/common": "^1.1.1",
+    "@lezer/common": "^1.2.1",
     "@lezer/highlight": "^1.2.0",
-    "@lezer/lr": "^1.3.14",
+    "@lezer/lr": "^1.4.1",
     "eslint-plugin-prettier": "^5.1.3",
     "isomorphic-fetch": "^3.0.0",
-    "nock": "^13.4.0"
+    "nock": "^13.5.4"
   },
   "peerDependencies": {
     "@codemirror/autocomplete": "^6.4.0",
diff --git a/web/ui/module/codemirror-promql/src/client/prometheus.ts b/web/ui/module/codemirror-promql/src/client/prometheus.ts
index 8d57defbff..84d2add6f8 100644
--- a/web/ui/module/codemirror-promql/src/client/prometheus.ts
+++ b/web/ui/module/codemirror-promql/src/client/prometheus.ts
@@ -66,6 +66,7 @@ interface APIResponse<T> {
   data?: T;
   error?: string;
   warnings?: string[];
+  infos?: string[];
 }
 
 // These are status codes where the Prometheus API still returns a valid JSON body,
diff --git a/web/ui/module/codemirror-promql/src/complete/hybrid.test.ts b/web/ui/module/codemirror-promql/src/complete/hybrid.test.ts
index 0f1a8b80a9..7b20bfce38 100644
--- a/web/ui/module/codemirror-promql/src/complete/hybrid.test.ts
+++ b/web/ui/module/codemirror-promql/src/complete/hybrid.test.ts
@@ -251,6 +251,12 @@ describe('analyzeCompletion test', () => {
       pos: 11, // cursor is between the bracket after the string myL
       expectedContext: [{ kind: ContextKind.LabelName }],
     },
+    {
+      title: 'continue to autocomplete QuotedLabelName in aggregate modifier',
+      expr: 'sum by ("myL")',
+      pos: 12, // cursor is between the bracket after the string myL
+      expectedContext: [{ kind: ContextKind.LabelName }],
+    },
     {
       title: 'autocomplete labelName in a list',
       expr: 'sum by (myLabel1,)',
@@ -263,6 +269,12 @@ describe('analyzeCompletion test', () => {
       pos: 23, // cursor is between the bracket after the string myLab
       expectedContext: [{ kind: ContextKind.LabelName }],
     },
+    {
+      title: 'autocomplete labelName in a list 2',
+      expr: 'sum by ("myLabel1", "myLab")',
+      pos: 27, // cursor is between the bracket after the string myLab
+      expectedContext: [{ kind: ContextKind.LabelName }],
+    },
     {
       title: 'autocomplete labelName associated to a metric',
       expr: 'metric_name{}',
@@ -299,6 +311,12 @@ describe('analyzeCompletion test', () => {
       pos: 22, // cursor is between the bracket after the comma
       expectedContext: [{ kind: ContextKind.LabelName, metricName: '' }],
     },
+    {
+      title: 'continue to autocomplete quoted labelName associated to a metric',
+      expr: '{"metric_"}',
+      pos: 10, // cursor is between the bracket after the string metric_
+      expectedContext: [{ kind: ContextKind.MetricName, metricName: 'metric_' }],
+    },
     {
       title: 'autocomplete the labelValue with metricName + labelName',
       expr: 'metric_name{labelName=""}',
@@ -342,6 +360,30 @@ describe('analyzeCompletion test', () => {
         },
       ],
     },
+    {
+      title: 'autocomplete the labelValue with metricName + quoted labelName',
+      expr: 'metric_name{labelName="labelValue", "labelName"!=""}',
+      pos: 50, // cursor is between the quotes
+      expectedContext: [
+        {
+          kind: ContextKind.LabelValue,
+          metricName: 'metric_name',
+          labelName: 'labelName',
+          matchers: [
+            {
+              name: 'labelName',
+              type: Neq,
+              value: '',
+            },
+            {
+              name: 'labelName',
+              type: EqlSingle,
+              value: 'labelValue',
+            },
+          ],
+        },
+      ],
+    },
     {
       title: 'autocomplete the labelValue associated to a labelName',
       expr: '{labelName=""}',
@@ -427,6 +469,12 @@ describe('analyzeCompletion test', () => {
       pos: 22, // cursor is after '!'
       expectedContext: [{ kind: ContextKind.MatchOp }],
     },
+    {
+      title: 'autocomplete matchOp 3',
+      expr: 'metric_name{"labelName"!}',
+      pos: 24, // cursor is after '!'
+      expectedContext: [{ kind: ContextKind.BinOp }],
+    },
     {
       title: 'autocomplete duration with offset',
       expr: 'http_requests_total offset 5',
diff --git a/web/ui/module/codemirror-promql/src/complete/hybrid.ts b/web/ui/module/codemirror-promql/src/complete/hybrid.ts
index cf23aa11ac..46748d5dc3 100644
--- a/web/ui/module/codemirror-promql/src/complete/hybrid.ts
+++ b/web/ui/module/codemirror-promql/src/complete/hybrid.ts
@@ -29,7 +29,6 @@ import {
   GroupingLabels,
   Gte,
   Gtr,
-  LabelMatcher,
   LabelMatchers,
   LabelName,
   Lss,
@@ -52,6 +51,9 @@ import {
   SubqueryExpr,
   Unless,
   VectorSelector,
+  UnquotedLabelMatcher,
+  QuotedLabelMatcher,
+  QuotedLabelName,
 } from '@prometheus-io/lezer-promql';
 import { Completion, CompletionContext, CompletionResult } from '@codemirror/autocomplete';
 import { EditorState } from '@codemirror/state';
@@ -181,7 +183,10 @@ export function computeStartCompletePosition(node: SyntaxNode, pos: number): num
   let start = node.from;
   if (node.type.id === LabelMatchers || node.type.id === GroupingLabels) {
     start = computeStartCompleteLabelPositionInLabelMatcherOrInGroupingLabel(node, pos);
-  } else if (node.type.id === FunctionCallBody || (node.type.id === StringLiteral && node.parent?.type.id === LabelMatcher)) {
+  } else if (
+    node.type.id === FunctionCallBody ||
+    (node.type.id === StringLiteral && (node.parent?.type.id === UnquotedLabelMatcher || node.parent?.type.id === QuotedLabelMatcher))
+  ) {
     // When the cursor is between bracket, quote, we need to increment the starting position to avoid to consider the open bracket/ first string.
     start++;
   } else if (
@@ -212,7 +217,7 @@ export function analyzeCompletion(state: EditorState, node: SyntaxNode): Context
         result.push({ kind: ContextKind.Duration });
         break;
       }
-      if (node.parent?.type.id === LabelMatcher) {
+      if (node.parent?.type.id === UnquotedLabelMatcher || node.parent?.type.id === QuotedLabelMatcher) {
         // In this case the current token is not itself a valid match op yet:
         //      metric_name{labelName!}
         result.push({ kind: ContextKind.MatchOp });
@@ -380,7 +385,7 @@ export function analyzeCompletion(state: EditorState, node: SyntaxNode): Context
         //      sum by (myL)
         // So we have to continue to autocomplete any kind of labelName
         result.push({ kind: ContextKind.LabelName });
-      } else if (node.parent?.type.id === LabelMatcher) {
+      } else if (node.parent?.type.id === UnquotedLabelMatcher) {
         // In that case we are in the given situation:
         //       metric_name{myL} or {myL}
         // so we have or to continue to autocomplete any kind of labelName or
@@ -389,9 +394,9 @@ export function analyzeCompletion(state: EditorState, node: SyntaxNode): Context
       }
       break;
     case StringLiteral:
-      if (node.parent?.type.id === LabelMatcher) {
+      if (node.parent?.type.id === UnquotedLabelMatcher || node.parent?.type.id === QuotedLabelMatcher) {
         // In this case we are in the given situation:
-        //      metric_name{labelName=""}
+        //      metric_name{labelName=""} or metric_name{"labelName"=""}
         // So we can autocomplete the labelValue
 
         // Get the labelName.
@@ -399,18 +404,34 @@ export function analyzeCompletion(state: EditorState, node: SyntaxNode): Context
         let labelName = '';
         if (node.parent.firstChild?.type.id === LabelName) {
           labelName = state.sliceDoc(node.parent.firstChild.from, node.parent.firstChild.to);
+        } else if (node.parent.firstChild?.type.id === QuotedLabelName) {
+          labelName = state.sliceDoc(node.parent.firstChild.from, node.parent.firstChild.to).slice(1, -1);
         }
         // then find the metricName if it exists
         const metricName = getMetricNameInVectorSelector(node, state);
         // finally get the full matcher available
         const matcherNode = walkBackward(node, LabelMatchers);
-        const labelMatchers = buildLabelMatchers(matcherNode ? matcherNode.getChildren(LabelMatcher) : [], state);
+        const labelMatcherOpts = [QuotedLabelName, QuotedLabelMatcher, UnquotedLabelMatcher];
+        let labelMatchers: Matcher[] = [];
+        for (const labelMatcherOpt of labelMatcherOpts) {
+          labelMatchers = labelMatchers.concat(buildLabelMatchers(matcherNode ? matcherNode.getChildren(labelMatcherOpt) : [], state));
+        }
         result.push({
           kind: ContextKind.LabelValue,
           metricName: metricName,
           labelName: labelName,
           matchers: labelMatchers,
         });
+      } else if (node.parent?.parent?.type.id === GroupingLabels) {
+        // In this case we are in the given situation:
+        //      sum by ("myL")
+        // So we have to continue to autocomplete any kind of labelName
+        result.push({ kind: ContextKind.LabelName });
+      } else if (node.parent?.parent?.type.id === LabelMatchers) {
+        // In that case we are in the given situation:
+        //       {""} or {"metric_"}
+        // since this is for the QuotedMetricName we need to continue to autocomplete for the metric names
+        result.push({ kind: ContextKind.MetricName, metricName: state.sliceDoc(node.from, node.to).slice(1, -1) });
       }
       break;
     case NumberLiteral:
diff --git a/web/ui/module/codemirror-promql/src/complete/promql.terms.ts b/web/ui/module/codemirror-promql/src/complete/promql.terms.ts
index 9d5d55f60b..f4f934f500 100644
--- a/web/ui/module/codemirror-promql/src/complete/promql.terms.ts
+++ b/web/ui/module/codemirror-promql/src/complete/promql.terms.ts
@@ -544,6 +544,18 @@ export const aggregateOpTerms = [
     info: 'Group series, while setting the sample value to 1',
     type: 'keyword',
   },
+  {
+    label: 'limitk',
+    detail: 'aggregation',
+    info: 'Sample k elements',
+    type: 'keyword',
+  },
+  {
+    label: 'limit_ratio',
+    detail: 'aggregation',
+    info: 'Sample given ratio of elements',
+    type: 'keyword',
+  },
   {
     label: 'max',
     detail: 'aggregation',
diff --git a/web/ui/module/codemirror-promql/src/parser/matcher.ts b/web/ui/module/codemirror-promql/src/parser/matcher.ts
index f432ffe287..99e2e39699 100644
--- a/web/ui/module/codemirror-promql/src/parser/matcher.ts
+++ b/web/ui/module/codemirror-promql/src/parser/matcher.ts
@@ -12,33 +12,75 @@
 // limitations under the License.
 
 import { SyntaxNode } from '@lezer/common';
-import { EqlRegex, EqlSingle, LabelName, MatchOp, Neq, NeqRegex, StringLiteral } from '@prometheus-io/lezer-promql';
+import {
+  EqlRegex,
+  EqlSingle,
+  LabelName,
+  MatchOp,
+  Neq,
+  NeqRegex,
+  StringLiteral,
+  UnquotedLabelMatcher,
+  QuotedLabelMatcher,
+  QuotedLabelName,
+} from '@prometheus-io/lezer-promql';
 import { EditorState } from '@codemirror/state';
 import { Matcher } from '../types';
 
 function createMatcher(labelMatcher: SyntaxNode, state: EditorState): Matcher {
   const matcher = new Matcher(0, '', '');
   const cursor = labelMatcher.cursor();
-  if (!cursor.next()) {
-    // weird case, that would mean the labelMatcher doesn't have any child.
-    return matcher;
-  }
-  do {
-    switch (cursor.type.id) {
-      case LabelName:
-        matcher.name = state.sliceDoc(cursor.from, cursor.to);
-        break;
-      case MatchOp:
-        const ope = cursor.node.firstChild;
-        if (ope) {
-          matcher.type = ope.type.id;
+  switch (cursor.type.id) {
+    case QuotedLabelMatcher:
+      if (!cursor.next()) {
+        // weird case, that would mean the QuotedLabelMatcher doesn't have any child.
+        return matcher;
+      }
+      do {
+        switch (cursor.type.id) {
+          case QuotedLabelName:
+            matcher.name = state.sliceDoc(cursor.from, cursor.to).slice(1, -1);
+            break;
+          case MatchOp:
+            const ope = cursor.node.firstChild;
+            if (ope) {
+              matcher.type = ope.type.id;
+            }
+            break;
+          case StringLiteral:
+            matcher.value = state.sliceDoc(cursor.from, cursor.to).slice(1, -1);
+            break;
         }
-        break;
-      case StringLiteral:
-        matcher.value = state.sliceDoc(cursor.from, cursor.to).slice(1, -1);
-        break;
-    }
-  } while (cursor.nextSibling());
+      } while (cursor.nextSibling());
+      break;
+    case UnquotedLabelMatcher:
+      if (!cursor.next()) {
+        // weird case, that would mean the UnquotedLabelMatcher doesn't have any child.
+        return matcher;
+      }
+      do {
+        switch (cursor.type.id) {
+          case LabelName:
+            matcher.name = state.sliceDoc(cursor.from, cursor.to);
+            break;
+          case MatchOp:
+            const ope = cursor.node.firstChild;
+            if (ope) {
+              matcher.type = ope.type.id;
+            }
+            break;
+          case StringLiteral:
+            matcher.value = state.sliceDoc(cursor.from, cursor.to).slice(1, -1);
+            break;
+        }
+      } while (cursor.nextSibling());
+      break;
+    case QuotedLabelName:
+      matcher.name = '__name__';
+      matcher.value = state.sliceDoc(cursor.from, cursor.to).slice(1, -1);
+      matcher.type = EqlSingle;
+      break;
+  }
   return matcher;
 }
 
diff --git a/web/ui/module/codemirror-promql/src/parser/parser.test.ts b/web/ui/module/codemirror-promql/src/parser/parser.test.ts
index 54b95553cb..2bc7e67ff0 100644
--- a/web/ui/module/codemirror-promql/src/parser/parser.test.ts
+++ b/web/ui/module/codemirror-promql/src/parser/parser.test.ts
@@ -204,6 +204,11 @@ describe('promql operations', () => {
       expectedValueType: ValueType.vector,
       expectedDiag: [] as Diagnostic[],
     },
+    {
+      expr: 'foo and on(test,"blub") bar',
+      expectedValueType: ValueType.vector,
+      expectedDiag: [] as Diagnostic[],
+    },
     {
       expr: 'foo and on() bar',
       expectedValueType: ValueType.vector,
@@ -214,6 +219,11 @@ describe('promql operations', () => {
       expectedValueType: ValueType.vector,
       expectedDiag: [] as Diagnostic[],
     },
+    {
+      expr: 'foo and ignoring(test,"blub") bar',
+      expectedValueType: ValueType.vector,
+      expectedDiag: [] as Diagnostic[],
+    },
     {
       expr: 'foo and ignoring() bar',
       expectedValueType: ValueType.vector,
@@ -229,6 +239,11 @@ describe('promql operations', () => {
       expectedValueType: ValueType.vector,
       expectedDiag: [] as Diagnostic[],
     },
+    {
+      expr: 'foo / on(test,blub) group_left("bar") bar',
+      expectedValueType: ValueType.vector,
+      expectedDiag: [] as Diagnostic[],
+    },
     {
       expr: 'foo / ignoring(test,blub) group_left(blub) bar',
       expectedValueType: ValueType.vector,
@@ -825,6 +840,134 @@ describe('promql operations', () => {
       expectedValueType: ValueType.vector,
       expectedDiag: [],
     },
+    {
+      expr: '{"foo"}',
+      expectedValueType: ValueType.vector,
+      expectedDiag: [],
+    },
+    {
+      // with metric name in the middle
+      expr: '{a="b","foo",c~="d"}',
+      expectedValueType: ValueType.vector,
+      expectedDiag: [],
+    },
+    {
+      expr: '{"foo", a="bc"}',
+      expectedValueType: ValueType.vector,
+      expectedDiag: [],
+    },
+    {
+      expr: '{"colon:in:the:middle"}',
+      expectedValueType: ValueType.vector,
+      expectedDiag: [],
+    },
+    {
+      expr: '{"dot.in.the.middle"}',
+      expectedValueType: ValueType.vector,
+      expectedDiag: [],
+    },
+    {
+      expr: '{"😀 in metric name"}',
+      expectedValueType: ValueType.vector,
+      expectedDiag: [],
+    },
+    {
+      // quotes with escape
+      expr: '{"this is \"foo\" metric"}', // eslint-disable-line
+      expectedValueType: ValueType.vector,
+      expectedDiag: [],
+    },
+    {
+      expr: '{"foo","colon:in:the:middle"="val"}',
+      expectedValueType: ValueType.vector,
+      expectedDiag: [],
+    },
+    {
+      expr: '{"foo","dot.in.the.middle"="val"}',
+      expectedValueType: ValueType.vector,
+      expectedDiag: [],
+    },
+    {
+      expr: '{"foo","😀 in label name"="val"}',
+      expectedValueType: ValueType.vector,
+      expectedDiag: [],
+    },
+    {
+      // quotes with escape
+      expr: '{"foo","this is \"bar\" label"="val"}', // eslint-disable-line
+      expectedValueType: ValueType.vector,
+      expectedDiag: [],
+    },
+    {
+      expr: 'foo{"bar"}',
+      expectedValueType: ValueType.vector,
+      expectedDiag: [
+        {
+          from: 0,
+          message: 'metric name must not be set twice: foo or bar',
+          severity: 'error',
+          to: 10,
+        },
+      ],
+    },
+    {
+      expr: '{"foo", __name__="bar"}',
+      expectedValueType: ValueType.vector,
+      expectedDiag: [
+        {
+          from: 0,
+          message: 'metric name must not be set twice: foo or bar',
+          severity: 'error',
+          to: 23,
+        },
+      ],
+    },
+    {
+      expr: '{"foo", "__name__"="bar"}',
+      expectedValueType: ValueType.vector,
+      expectedDiag: [
+        {
+          from: 0,
+          message: 'metric name must not be set twice: foo or bar',
+          severity: 'error',
+          to: 25,
+        },
+      ],
+    },
+    {
+      expr: '{"__name__"="foo", __name__="bar"}',
+      expectedValueType: ValueType.vector,
+      expectedDiag: [
+        {
+          from: 0,
+          message: 'metric name must not be set twice: foo or bar',
+          severity: 'error',
+          to: 34,
+        },
+      ],
+    },
+    {
+      expr: '{"foo", "bar"}',
+      expectedValueType: ValueType.vector,
+      expectedDiag: [
+        {
+          from: 0,
+          to: 14,
+          message: 'metric name must not be set twice: foo or bar',
+          severity: 'error',
+        },
+      ],
+    },
+    {
+      expr: `{'foo\`metric':'bar'}`, // eslint-disable-line
+      expectedValueType: ValueType.vector,
+      expectedDiag: [],
+    },
+    {
+      expr: '{`foo\"metric`=`bar`}', // eslint-disable-line
+      expectedValueType: ValueType.vector,
+      expectedDiag: [],
+    },
   ];
   testCases.forEach((value) => {
     const state = createEditorState(value.expr);
diff --git a/web/ui/module/codemirror-promql/src/parser/parser.ts b/web/ui/module/codemirror-promql/src/parser/parser.ts
index 58e56185c9..351183d6b5 100644
--- a/web/ui/module/codemirror-promql/src/parser/parser.ts
+++ b/web/ui/module/codemirror-promql/src/parser/parser.ts
@@ -27,8 +27,9 @@ import {
   Gte,
   Gtr,
   Identifier,
-  LabelMatcher,
   LabelMatchers,
+  LimitK,
+  LimitRatio,
   Lss,
   Lte,
   MatrixSelector,
@@ -36,11 +37,14 @@ import {
   Or,
   ParenExpr,
   Quantile,
+  QuotedLabelMatcher,
+  QuotedLabelName,
   StepInvariantExpr,
   SubqueryExpr,
   Topk,
   UnaryExpr,
   Unless,
+  UnquotedLabelMatcher,
   VectorSelector,
 } from '@prometheus-io/lezer-promql';
 import { containsAtLeastOneChild } from './path-finder';
@@ -165,7 +169,13 @@ export class Parser {
     }
     this.expectType(params[params.length - 1], ValueType.vector, 'aggregation expression');
     // get the parameter of the aggregation operator
-    if (aggregateOp.type.id === Topk || aggregateOp.type.id === Bottomk || aggregateOp.type.id === Quantile) {
+    if (
+      aggregateOp.type.id === Topk ||
+      aggregateOp.type.id === Bottomk ||
+      aggregateOp.type.id === LimitK ||
+      aggregateOp.type.id === LimitRatio ||
+      aggregateOp.type.id === Quantile
+    ) {
       this.expectType(params[0], ValueType.scalar, 'aggregation parameter');
     }
     if (aggregateOp.type.id === CountValues) {
@@ -282,7 +292,11 @@ export class Parser {
 
   private checkVectorSelector(node: SyntaxNode): void {
     const matchList = node.getChild(LabelMatchers);
-    const labelMatchers = buildLabelMatchers(matchList ? matchList.getChildren(LabelMatcher) : [], this.state);
+    const labelMatcherOpts = [QuotedLabelName, QuotedLabelMatcher, UnquotedLabelMatcher];
+    let labelMatchers: Matcher[] = [];
+    for (const labelMatcherOpt of labelMatcherOpts) {
+      labelMatchers = labelMatchers.concat(buildLabelMatchers(matchList ? matchList.getChildren(labelMatcherOpt) : [], this.state));
+    }
     let vectorSelectorName = '';
     // VectorSelector ( Identifier )
     // https://github.com/promlabs/lezer-promql/blob/71e2f9fa5ae6f5c5547d5738966cd2512e6b99a8/src/promql.grammar#L200
@@ -301,6 +315,14 @@ export class Parser {
       // adding the metric name as a Matcher to avoid a false positive for this kind of expression:
       // foo{bare=''}
       labelMatchers.push(new Matcher(EqlSingle, '__name__', vectorSelectorName));
+    } else {
+      // In this case when metric name is not set outside the braces
+      // It is checking whether metric name is set twice like in :
+      // {__name__:"foo", "foo"}, {"foo", "bar"}
+      const labelMatchersMetricName = labelMatchers.filter((lm) => lm.name === '__name__');
+      if (labelMatchersMetricName.length > 1) {
+        this.addDiagnostic(node, `metric name must not be set twice: ${labelMatchersMetricName[0].value} or ${labelMatchersMetricName[1].value}`);
+      }
     }
 
     // A Vector selector must contain at least one non-empty matcher to prevent
diff --git a/web/ui/module/lezer-promql/package.json b/web/ui/module/lezer-promql/package.json
index c22762d8e0..ea80a4af76 100644
--- a/web/ui/module/lezer-promql/package.json
+++ b/web/ui/module/lezer-promql/package.json
@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 {
   "name": "@prometheus-io/lezer-promql",
-  "version": "0.51.2",
+  "version": "0.53.0",
   "description": "lezer-based PromQL grammar",
   "main": "dist/index.cjs",
   "type": "module",
@@ -30,9 +30,9 @@
     "test": "NODE_OPTIONS=--experimental-vm-modules jest"
   },
   "devDependencies": {
-    "@lezer/generator": "^1.5.1",
+    "@lezer/generator": "^1.7.0",
     "@lezer/highlight": "^1.2.0",
-    "@lezer/lr": "^1.3.14",
+    "@lezer/lr": "^1.4.1",
     "@rollup/plugin-node-resolve": "^15.2.3"
   },
   "peerDependencies": {
diff --git a/web/ui/module/lezer-promql/src/highlight.js b/web/ui/module/lezer-promql/src/highlight.js
index 53321c75e3..b8bdab76d1 100644
--- a/web/ui/module/lezer-promql/src/highlight.js
+++ b/web/ui/module/lezer-promql/src/highlight.js
@@ -22,7 +22,7 @@ export const promQLHighLight = styleTags({
     Identifier: tags.variableName,
     'Abs Absent AbsentOverTime Acos Acosh Asin Asinh Atan Atanh AvgOverTime Ceil Changes Clamp ClampMax ClampMin Cos Cosh CountOverTime DaysInMonth DayOfMonth DayOfWeek DayOfYear Deg Delta Deriv Exp Floor HistogramAvg HistogramCount HistogramFraction HistogramQuantile HistogramSum HoltWinters Hour Idelta Increase Irate LabelReplace LabelJoin LastOverTime Ln Log10 Log2 MaxOverTime MinOverTime Minute Month Pi PredictLinear PresentOverTime QuantileOverTime Rad Rate Resets Round Scalar Sgn Sin Sinh Sort SortDesc SortByLabel SortByLabelDesc Sqrt StddevOverTime StdvarOverTime SumOverTime Tan Tanh Time Timestamp Vector Year':
         tags.function(tags.variableName),
-    'Avg Bottomk Count Count_values Group Max Min Quantile Stddev Stdvar Sum Topk': tags.operatorKeyword,
+    'Avg Bottomk Count Count_values Group LimitK LimitRatio Max Min Quantile Stddev Stdvar Sum Topk': tags.operatorKeyword,
     'By Without Bool On Ignoring GroupLeft GroupRight Offset Start End': tags.modifier,
     'And Unless Or': tags.logicOperator,
     'Sub Add Mul Mod Div Atan2 Eql Neq Lte Lss Gte Gtr EqlRegex EqlSingle NeqRegex Pow At': tags.operator,
diff --git a/web/ui/module/lezer-promql/src/promql.grammar b/web/ui/module/lezer-promql/src/promql.grammar
index 4966483179..735fede24f 100644
--- a/web/ui/module/lezer-promql/src/promql.grammar
+++ b/web/ui/module/lezer-promql/src/promql.grammar
@@ -54,6 +54,8 @@ AggregateOp {
   Max |
   Min |
   Quantile |
+  LimitK |
+  LimitRatio |
   Stddev |
   Stdvar |
   Sum |
@@ -97,7 +99,7 @@ binModifiers {
 }
 
 GroupingLabels {
-  "(" (LabelName ("," LabelName)* ","?)? ")"
+  "(" ((LabelName | QuotedLabelName) ("," (LabelName | QuotedLabelName))* ","?)? ")"
 }
 
 FunctionCall {
@@ -220,7 +222,7 @@ VectorSelector {
 }
 
 LabelMatchers {
-  "{" (LabelMatcher ("," LabelMatcher)* ","?)? "}"
+  "{" ((UnquotedLabelMatcher | QuotedLabelMatcher | QuotedLabelName)("," (UnquotedLabelMatcher | QuotedLabelMatcher | QuotedLabelName))* ","?)? "}"
 }
 
 MatchOp {
@@ -230,8 +232,16 @@ MatchOp {
   NeqRegex
 }
 
-LabelMatcher {
-  LabelName MatchOp StringLiteral
+UnquotedLabelMatcher {
+    LabelName MatchOp StringLiteral
+}
+
+QuotedLabelMatcher {
+    QuotedLabelName MatchOp StringLiteral
+}
+
+QuotedLabelName {
+    StringLiteral
 }
 
 StepInvariantExpr {
@@ -253,7 +263,7 @@ NumberLiteral  {
   LineComment { "#" ![\n]* }
 
   number {
-      (std.digit+ ("." std.digit*)? | "." std.digit+) (("e" | "E") ("+" | "-")? std.digit+)? |
+      (std.digit+ (("_")? std.digit)* ("." std.digit+ (("_")? std.digit)*)? | "." std.digit+ (("_")? std.digit)*) (("e" | "E") ("+" | "-")? std.digit+ (("_")? std.digit)*)? |
       "0x" (std.digit | $[a-fA-F])+
   }
   StringLiteral { // TODO: This is for JS, make this work for PromQL.
@@ -322,6 +332,8 @@ NumberLiteral  {
   Max,
   Min,
   Quantile,
+  LimitK,
+  LimitRatio,
   Stddev,
   Stdvar,
   Sum,
diff --git a/web/ui/module/lezer-promql/src/tokens.js b/web/ui/module/lezer-promql/src/tokens.js
index 551040969a..d9e7b1d9b4 100644
--- a/web/ui/module/lezer-promql/src/tokens.js
+++ b/web/ui/module/lezer-promql/src/tokens.js
@@ -33,6 +33,8 @@ import {
     On,
     Or,
     Quantile,
+    LimitK,
+    LimitRatio,
     Start,
     Stddev,
     Stdvar,
@@ -67,6 +69,8 @@ const contextualKeywordTokens = {
     max: Max,
     min: Min,
     quantile: Quantile,
+    limitk: LimitK,
+    limit_ratio: LimitRatio,
     stddev: Stddev,
     stdvar: Stdvar,
     sum: Sum,
diff --git a/web/ui/module/lezer-promql/test/expression.txt b/web/ui/module/lezer-promql/test/expression.txt
index 2e2b2f40bc..daba7d8002 100644
--- a/web/ui/module/lezer-promql/test/expression.txt
+++ b/web/ui/module/lezer-promql/test/expression.txt
@@ -112,6 +112,54 @@ PromQL(
     )
 )
 
+# Quoted label name in grouping labels
+
+sum by("job", mode) (test_metric) / on("job") group_left sum by("job")(test_metric)
+
+==>
+
+PromQL(
+    BinaryExpr(
+        AggregateExpr(
+          AggregateOp(Sum),
+          AggregateModifier(
+            By,
+            GroupingLabels(
+                QuotedLabelName(StringLiteral),
+                LabelName
+            )
+          ),
+          FunctionCallBody(
+                VectorSelector(
+                  Identifier
+                )
+          )
+      ),
+      Div,
+        MatchingModifierClause(
+          On,
+          GroupingLabels(
+              QuotedLabelName(StringLiteral)
+          )
+          GroupLeft
+        ),
+        AggregateExpr(
+          AggregateOp(Sum),
+          AggregateModifier(
+            By,
+            GroupingLabels(
+                QuotedLabelName(StringLiteral)
+            )
+          ),
+          FunctionCallBody(
+                VectorSelector(
+                  Identifier
+                )
+          )
+        )
+    )
+)
+
 # Case insensitivity for aggregations and binop modifiers.
 
 SuM BY(testlabel1) (testmetric1) / IGNOring(testlabel2) AVG withOUT(testlabel3) (testmetric2)
@@ -226,25 +274,25 @@ PromQL(
     VectorSelector(
       Identifier,
       LabelMatchers(
-        LabelMatcher(
-          LabelName,
-          MatchOp(EqlSingle),
-          StringLiteral
+        UnquotedLabelMatcher(
+            LabelName,
+            MatchOp(EqlSingle),
+            StringLiteral
         ),
-        LabelMatcher(
-          LabelName,
-          MatchOp(Neq),
-          StringLiteral
+        UnquotedLabelMatcher(
+            LabelName,
+            MatchOp(Neq),
+            StringLiteral
         ),
-        LabelMatcher(
-          LabelName,
-          MatchOp(EqlRegex),
-          StringLiteral
+        UnquotedLabelMatcher(
+            LabelName,
+            MatchOp(EqlRegex),
+            StringLiteral
         ),
-        LabelMatcher(
-          LabelName,
-          MatchOp(NeqRegex),
-          StringLiteral
+        UnquotedLabelMatcher(
+            LabelName,
+            MatchOp(NeqRegex),
+            StringLiteral
         )
       )
     )
@@ -571,14 +619,14 @@ PromQL(NumberLiteral)
 NaN{foo="bar"}
 
 ==>
-PromQL(BinaryExpr(NumberLiteral,⚠,VectorSelector(LabelMatchers(LabelMatcher(LabelName,MatchOp(EqlSingle),StringLiteral)))))
+PromQL(BinaryExpr(NumberLiteral,⚠,VectorSelector(LabelMatchers(UnquotedLabelMatcher(LabelName,MatchOp(EqlSingle),StringLiteral)))))
 
 # Trying to illegally use Inf as a metric name.
 
 Inf{foo="bar"}
 
 ==>
-PromQL(BinaryExpr(NumberLiteral,⚠,VectorSelector(LabelMatchers(LabelMatcher(LabelName,MatchOp(EqlSingle),StringLiteral)))))
+PromQL(BinaryExpr(NumberLiteral,⚠,VectorSelector(LabelMatchers(UnquotedLabelMatcher(LabelName,MatchOp(EqlSingle),StringLiteral)))))
 
 # Negative offset
 
@@ -614,3 +662,24 @@ MetricName(Identifier)
 
 ==>
 PromQL(BinaryExpr(NumberLiteral,Add,BinaryExpr(VectorSelector(Identifier),Atan2,VectorSelector(Identifier))))
+
+# Testing quoted metric name
+
+{"metric_name"}
+
+==>
+PromQL(VectorSelector(LabelMatchers(QuotedLabelName(StringLiteral))))
+
+# Testing quoted label name
+
+{"foo"="bar"}
+
+==>
+PromQL(VectorSelector(LabelMatchers(QuotedLabelMatcher(QuotedLabelName(StringLiteral), MatchOp(EqlSingle), StringLiteral))))
+
+# Testing quoted metric name and label name
+
+{"metric_name", "foo"="bar"}
+
+==>
+PromQL(VectorSelector(LabelMatchers(QuotedLabelName(StringLiteral), QuotedLabelMatcher(QuotedLabelName(StringLiteral), MatchOp(EqlSingle), StringLiteral))))
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/web/ui/package-lock.json b/web/ui/package-lock.json
index 7207f8c213..119e564f7a 100644
--- a/web/ui/package-lock.json
+++ b/web/ui/package-lock.json
@@ -1,12 +1,12 @@
 {
   "name": "prometheus-io",
-  "version": "0.51.2",
+  "version": "0.53.0",
   "lockfileVersion": 3,
   "requires": true,
   "packages": {
     "": {
       "name": "prometheus-io",
-      "version": "0.51.2",
+      "version": "0.53.0",
       "workspaces": [
         "mantine-ui",
         "module/*"
@@ -106,7 +106,7 @@
     },
     "mantine-ui": {
       "name": "@prometheus-io/mantine-ui",
-      "version": "0.51.2",
+      "version": "0.49.1",
       "dependencies": {
         "@codemirror/autocomplete": "^6.12.0",
         "@codemirror/language": "^6.10.1",
@@ -302,24 +302,24 @@
     },
     "module/codemirror-promql": {
       "name": "@prometheus-io/codemirror-promql",
-      "version": "0.51.2",
+      "version": "0.53.0",
       "license": "Apache-2.0",
       "dependencies": {
-        "@prometheus-io/lezer-promql": "0.51.2",
+        "@prometheus-io/lezer-promql": "0.53.0",
         "lru-cache": "^7.18.3"
       },
       "devDependencies": {
-        "@codemirror/autocomplete": "^6.11.1",
-        "@codemirror/language": "^6.9.3",
-        "@codemirror/lint": "^6.4.2",
+        "@codemirror/autocomplete": "^6.16.2",
+        "@codemirror/language": "^6.10.2",
+        "@codemirror/lint": "^6.8.0",
         "@codemirror/state": "^6.3.3",
         "@codemirror/view": "^6.22.1",
-        "@lezer/common": "^1.1.1",
+        "@lezer/common": "^1.2.1",
         "@lezer/highlight": "^1.2.0",
-        "@lezer/lr": "^1.3.14",
+        "@lezer/lr": "^1.4.1",
         "eslint-plugin-prettier": "^5.1.3",
         "isomorphic-fetch": "^3.0.0",
-        "nock": "^13.4.0"
+        "nock": "^13.5.4"
       },
       "engines": {
         "node": ">=12.0.0"
@@ -343,12 +343,12 @@
     },
     "module/lezer-promql": {
       "name": "@prometheus-io/lezer-promql",
-      "version": "0.51.2",
+      "version": "0.53.0",
       "license": "Apache-2.0",
       "devDependencies": {
-        "@lezer/generator": "^1.5.1",
+        "@lezer/generator": "^1.7.0",
         "@lezer/highlight": "^1.2.0",
-        "@lezer/lr": "^1.3.14",
+        "@lezer/lr": "^1.4.1",
         "@rollup/plugin-node-resolve": "^15.2.3"
       },
       "peerDependencies": {
@@ -1099,9 +1099,10 @@
       "peer": true
     },
     "node_modules/@codemirror/autocomplete": {
-      "version": "6.12.0",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@codemirror/autocomplete/-/autocomplete-6.12.0.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-r4IjdYFthwbCQyvqnSlx0WBHRHi8nBvU+WjJxFUij81qsBfhNudf/XKKmmC2j3m0LaOYUQTf3qiEK1J8lO1sdg==",
+      "version": "6.17.0",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@codemirror/autocomplete/-/autocomplete-6.17.0.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-fdfj6e6ZxZf8yrkMHUSJJir7OJkHkZKaOZGzLWIYp2PZ3jd+d+UjG8zVPqJF6d3bKxkhvXTPan/UZ1t7Bqm0gA==",
+      "license": "MIT",
       "dependencies": {
         "@codemirror/language": "^6.0.0",
         "@codemirror/state": "^6.0.0",
@@ -1127,9 +1128,10 @@
       }
     },
     "node_modules/@codemirror/language": {
-      "version": "6.10.1",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@codemirror/language/-/language-6.10.1.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-5GrXzrhq6k+gL5fjkAwt90nYDmjlzTIJV8THnxNFtNKWotMIlzzN+CpqxqwXOECnUdOndmSeWntVrVcv5axWRQ==",
+      "version": "6.10.2",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@codemirror/language/-/language-6.10.2.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-kgbTYTo0Au6dCSc/TFy7fK3fpJmgHDv1sG1KNQKJXVi+xBTEeBPY/M30YXiU6mMXeH+YIDLsbrT4ZwNRdtF+SA==",
+      "license": "MIT",
       "dependencies": {
         "@codemirror/state": "^6.0.0",
         "@codemirror/view": "^6.23.0",
@@ -1140,9 +1142,10 @@
       }
     },
     "node_modules/@codemirror/lint": {
-      "version": "6.5.0",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@codemirror/lint/-/lint-6.5.0.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-+5YyicIaaAZKU8K43IQi8TBy6mF6giGeWAH7N96Z5LC30Wm5JMjqxOYIE9mxwMG1NbhT2mA3l9hA4uuKUM3E5g==",
+      "version": "6.8.1",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@codemirror/lint/-/lint-6.8.1.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-IZ0Y7S4/bpaunwggW2jYqwLuHj0QtESf5xcROewY6+lDNwZ/NzvR4t+vpYgg9m7V8UXLPYqG+lu3DF470E5Oxg==",
+      "license": "MIT",
       "dependencies": {
         "@codemirror/state": "^6.0.0",
         "@codemirror/view": "^6.0.0",
@@ -2206,10 +2209,11 @@
       "integrity": "sha512-yemX0ZD2xS/73llMZIK6KplkjIjf2EvAHcinDi/TfJ9hS25G0388+ClHt6/3but0oOxinTcQHJLDXh6w1crzFQ=="
     },
     "node_modules/@lezer/generator": {
-      "version": "1.6.0",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@lezer/generator/-/generator-1.6.0.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-mDwFNchv4jBEoZBaZbr5GlKR7BM6W/ZanTOZN6p4avuzcmYHTZ0nIbwtBqvXoeBrqmFSvL2zHL5TX9FWkXKc2w==",
+      "version": "1.7.1",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@lezer/generator/-/generator-1.7.1.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-MgPJN9Si+ccxzXl3OAmCeZuUKw4XiPl4y664FX/hnnyG9CTqUPq65N3/VGPA2jD23D7QgMTtNqflta+cPN+5mQ==",
       "dev": true,
+      "license": "MIT",
       "dependencies": {
         "@lezer/common": "^1.1.0",
         "@lezer/lr": "^1.3.0"
@@ -2227,9 +2231,10 @@
       }
     },
     "node_modules/@lezer/lr": {
-      "version": "1.4.0",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@lezer/lr/-/lr-1.4.0.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-Wst46p51km8gH0ZUmeNrtpRYmdlRHUpN1DQd3GFAyKANi8WVz8c2jHYTf1CVScFaCjQw1iO3ZZdqGDxQPRErTg==",
+      "version": "1.4.1",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@lezer/lr/-/lr-1.4.1.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-CHsKq8DMKBf9b3yXPDIU4DbH+ZJd/sJdYOW2llbW/HudP5u0VS6Bfq1hLYfgU7uAYGFIyGGQIsSOXGPEErZiJw==",
+      "license": "MIT",
       "dependencies": {
         "@lezer/common": "^1.0.0"
       }
@@ -5766,10 +5771,11 @@
       "dev": true
     },
     "node_modules/nock": {
-      "version": "13.5.3",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/nock/-/nock-13.5.3.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-2NlGmHIK2rTeyy7UaY1ZNg0YZfEJMxghXgZi0b4DBsUyoDNTTxZeCSG1nmirAWF44RkkoV8NnegLVQijgVapNQ==",
+      "version": "13.5.4",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/nock/-/nock-13.5.4.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-yAyTfdeNJGGBFxWdzSKCBYxs5FxLbCg5X5Q4ets974hcQzG1+qCxvIyOo4j2Ry6MUlhWVMX4OoYDefAIIwupjw==",
       "dev": true,
+      "license": "MIT",
       "dependencies": {
         "debug": "^4.1.0",
         "json-stringify-safe": "^5.0.1",
diff --git a/web/ui/package.json b/web/ui/package.json
index e4509c342a..67e8297440 100644
--- a/web/ui/package.json
+++ b/web/ui/package.json
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 {
   "name": "prometheus-io",
   "description": "Monorepo for the Prometheus UI",
-  "version": "0.51.2",
+  "version": "0.53.0",
   "private": true,
   "scripts": {
     "build": "bash build_ui.sh --all",
diff --git a/web/ui/react-app/package-lock.json b/web/ui/react-app/package-lock.json
index 407442ff0a..448833b9f5 100644
--- a/web/ui/react-app/package-lock.json
+++ b/web/ui/react-app/package-lock.json
@@ -1,38 +1,38 @@
 {
-  "name": "@prometheus-io/react-app",
-  "version": "0.49.1",
+  "name": "@prometheus-io/app",
+  "version": "0.53.0",
   "lockfileVersion": 3,
   "requires": true,
   "packages": {
     "": {
-      "name": "@prometheus-io/react-app",
-      "version": "0.49.1",
+      "name": "@prometheus-io/app",
+      "version": "0.53.0",
       "dependencies": {
-        "@codemirror/autocomplete": "^6.11.1",
-        "@codemirror/commands": "^6.3.2",
-        "@codemirror/language": "^6.9.3",
-        "@codemirror/lint": "^6.4.2",
-        "@codemirror/search": "^6.5.5",
+        "@codemirror/autocomplete": "^6.16.2",
+        "@codemirror/commands": "^6.6.0",
+        "@codemirror/language": "^6.10.2",
+        "@codemirror/lint": "^6.8.0",
+        "@codemirror/search": "^6.5.6",
         "@codemirror/state": "^6.3.3",
         "@codemirror/view": "^6.22.1",
-        "@forevolve/bootstrap-dark": "^2.1.1",
-        "@fortawesome/fontawesome-svg-core": "6.5.1",
-        "@fortawesome/free-solid-svg-icons": "6.5.1",
+        "@forevolve/bootstrap-dark": "^4.0.2",
+        "@fortawesome/fontawesome-svg-core": "6.5.2",
+        "@fortawesome/free-solid-svg-icons": "6.5.2",
         "@fortawesome/react-fontawesome": "0.2.0",
-        "@lezer/common": "^1.1.1",
+        "@lezer/common": "^1.2.1",
         "@lezer/highlight": "^1.2.0",
-        "@lezer/lr": "^1.3.14",
+        "@lezer/lr": "^1.4.1",
         "@nexucis/fuzzy": "^0.4.1",
         "@nexucis/kvsearch": "^0.8.1",
-        "@prometheus-io/codemirror-promql": "0.49.1",
+        "@prometheus-io/codemirror-promql": "0.53.0",
         "bootstrap": "^4.6.2",
         "css.escape": "^1.5.1",
-        "downshift": "^7.6.2",
-        "http-proxy-middleware": "^2.0.6",
+        "downshift": "^9.0.6",
+        "http-proxy-middleware": "^3.0.0",
         "jquery": "^3.7.1",
         "jquery.flot.tooltip": "^0.9.0",
-        "moment": "^2.29.4",
-        "moment-timezone": "^0.5.43",
+        "moment": "^2.30.1",
+        "moment-timezone": "^0.5.45",
         "popper.js": "^1.14.3",
         "react": "^17.0.2",
         "react-copy-to-clipboard": "^5.1.0",
@@ -42,8 +42,8 @@
         "react-router-dom": "^5.3.4",
         "react-test-renderer": "^17.0.2",
         "reactstrap": "^8.10.1",
-        "sanitize-html": "^2.11.0",
-        "sass": "1.69.5",
+        "sanitize-html": "^2.13.0",
+        "sass": "1.77.4",
         "tempusdominus-bootstrap-4": "^5.39.2",
         "tempusdominus-core": "^5.19.3"
       },
@@ -51,15 +51,15 @@
         "@testing-library/react-hooks": "^7.0.2",
         "@types/enzyme": "^3.10.18",
         "@types/flot": "0.0.36",
-        "@types/jest": "^29.5.11",
-        "@types/jquery": "^3.5.29",
+        "@types/jest": "^29.5.12",
+        "@types/jquery": "^3.5.30",
         "@types/node": "^20.10.4",
         "@types/react": "^17.0.71",
         "@types/react-copy-to-clipboard": "^5.0.7",
         "@types/react-dom": "^17.0.25",
         "@types/react-router-dom": "^5.3.3",
-        "@types/sanitize-html": "^2.9.5",
-        "@types/sinon": "^10.0.20",
+        "@types/sanitize-html": "^2.11.0",
+        "@types/sinon": "^17.0.3",
         "@wojtekmaj/enzyme-adapter-react-17": "^0.8.0",
         "enzyme": "^3.11.0",
         "enzyme-to-json": "^3.6.2",
@@ -71,8 +71,8 @@
         "mutationobserver-shim": "^0.3.7",
         "prettier": "^2.8.8",
         "react-scripts": "^5.0.1",
-        "sinon": "^14.0.2",
-        "ts-jest": "^29.1.1"
+        "sinon": "^18.0.0",
+        "ts-jest": "^29.2.2"
       },
       "optionalDependencies": {
         "fsevents": "^2.3.3"
@@ -2170,9 +2170,10 @@
       "dev": true
     },
     "node_modules/@babel/runtime": {
-      "version": "7.24.4",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@babel/runtime/-/runtime-7.24.4.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-dkxf7+hn8mFBwKjs9bvBlArzLVxVbS8usaPUDd5p2a9JCL9tB8OaOVN1isD4+Xyk4ns89/xeOmbQvgdK7IIVdA==",
+      "version": "7.24.8",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@babel/runtime/-/runtime-7.24.8.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-5F7SDGs1T72ZczbRwbGO9lQi0NLjQxzl6i4lJxLxfW9U5UluCSyEJeniWvnhl3/euNiqQVbo8zruhsDfid0esA==",
+      "license": "MIT",
       "dependencies": {
         "regenerator-runtime": "^0.14.0"
       },
@@ -2236,9 +2237,10 @@
       "dev": true
     },
     "node_modules/@codemirror/autocomplete": {
-      "version": "6.16.0",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@codemirror/autocomplete/-/autocomplete-6.16.0.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-P/LeCTtZHRTCU4xQsa89vSKWecYv1ZqwzOd5topheGRf+qtacFgBeIMQi3eL8Kt/BUNvxUWkx+5qP2jlGoARrg==",
+      "version": "6.17.0",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@codemirror/autocomplete/-/autocomplete-6.17.0.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-fdfj6e6ZxZf8yrkMHUSJJir7OJkHkZKaOZGzLWIYp2PZ3jd+d+UjG8zVPqJF6d3bKxkhvXTPan/UZ1t7Bqm0gA==",
+      "license": "MIT",
       "dependencies": {
         "@codemirror/language": "^6.0.0",
         "@codemirror/state": "^6.0.0",
@@ -2253,20 +2255,22 @@
       }
     },
     "node_modules/@codemirror/commands": {
-      "version": "6.3.3",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@codemirror/commands/-/commands-6.3.3.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-dO4hcF0fGT9tu1Pj1D2PvGvxjeGkbC6RGcZw6Qs74TH+Ed1gw98jmUgd2axWvIZEqTeTuFrg1lEB1KV6cK9h1A==",
+      "version": "6.6.0",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@codemirror/commands/-/commands-6.6.0.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-qnY+b7j1UNcTS31Eenuc/5YJB6gQOzkUoNmJQc0rznwqSRpeaWWpjkWy2C/MPTcePpsKJEM26hXrOXl1+nceXg==",
+      "license": "MIT",
       "dependencies": {
         "@codemirror/language": "^6.0.0",
         "@codemirror/state": "^6.4.0",
-        "@codemirror/view": "^6.0.0",
+        "@codemirror/view": "^6.27.0",
         "@lezer/common": "^1.1.0"
       }
     },
     "node_modules/@codemirror/language": {
-      "version": "6.10.1",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@codemirror/language/-/language-6.10.1.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-5GrXzrhq6k+gL5fjkAwt90nYDmjlzTIJV8THnxNFtNKWotMIlzzN+CpqxqwXOECnUdOndmSeWntVrVcv5axWRQ==",
+      "version": "6.10.2",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@codemirror/language/-/language-6.10.2.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-kgbTYTo0Au6dCSc/TFy7fK3fpJmgHDv1sG1KNQKJXVi+xBTEeBPY/M30YXiU6mMXeH+YIDLsbrT4ZwNRdtF+SA==",
+      "license": "MIT",
       "dependencies": {
         "@codemirror/state": "^6.0.0",
         "@codemirror/view": "^6.23.0",
@@ -2277,9 +2281,10 @@
       }
     },
     "node_modules/@codemirror/lint": {
-      "version": "6.5.0",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@codemirror/lint/-/lint-6.5.0.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-+5YyicIaaAZKU8K43IQi8TBy6mF6giGeWAH7N96Z5LC30Wm5JMjqxOYIE9mxwMG1NbhT2mA3l9hA4uuKUM3E5g==",
+      "version": "6.8.1",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@codemirror/lint/-/lint-6.8.1.tgz",
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       },
@@ -8526,20 +8536,27 @@
       "dev": true
     },
     "node_modules/downshift": {
-      "version": "7.6.2",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/downshift/-/downshift-7.6.2.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-iOv+E1Hyt3JDdL9yYcOgW7nZ7GQ2Uz6YbggwXvKUSleetYhU2nXD482Rz6CzvM4lvI1At34BYruKAL4swRGxaA==",
+      "version": "9.0.6",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/downshift/-/downshift-9.0.6.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-lkqWh0eb34XuH+3z3/BH/LGVRV7ur0rielSlxtlQKsjAFF/wc/c0wsM9phUGXyzK2g1QWHoNHQyc+vVAheI17Q==",
+      "license": "MIT",
       "dependencies": {
-        "@babel/runtime": "^7.14.8",
-        "compute-scroll-into-view": "^2.0.4",
-        "prop-types": "^15.7.2",
-        "react-is": "^17.0.2",
-        "tslib": "^2.3.0"
+        "@babel/runtime": "^7.24.5",
+        "compute-scroll-into-view": "^3.1.0",
+        "prop-types": "^15.8.1",
+        "react-is": "18.2.0",
+        "tslib": "^2.6.2"
       },
       "peerDependencies": {
         "react": ">=16.12.0"
       }
     },
+    "node_modules/downshift/node_modules/react-is": {
+      "version": "18.2.0",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/react-is/-/react-is-18.2.0.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-xWGDIW6x921xtzPkhiULtthJHoJvBbF3q26fzloPCK0hsvxtPVelvftw3zjbHWSkR2km9Z+4uxbDDK/6Zw9B8w==",
+      "license": "MIT"
+    },
     "node_modules/duplexer": {
       "version": "0.1.2",
       "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/duplexer/-/duplexer-0.1.2.tgz",
@@ -11044,26 +11061,20 @@
       }
     },
     "node_modules/http-proxy-middleware": {
-      "version": "2.0.6",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/http-proxy-middleware/-/http-proxy-middleware-2.0.6.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-ya/UeJ6HVBYxrgYotAZo1KvPWlgB48kUJLDePFeneHsVujFaW5WNj2NgWCAE//B1Dl02BIfYlpNgBy8Kf8Rjmw==",
+      "version": "3.0.0",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/http-proxy-middleware/-/http-proxy-middleware-3.0.0.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-36AV1fIaI2cWRzHo+rbcxhe3M3jUDCNzc4D5zRl57sEWRAxdXYtw7FSQKYY6PDKssiAKjLYypbssHk+xs/kMXw==",
+      "license": "MIT",
       "dependencies": {
-        "@types/http-proxy": "^1.17.8",
+        "@types/http-proxy": "^1.17.10",
+        "debug": "^4.3.4",
         "http-proxy": "^1.18.1",
         "is-glob": "^4.0.1",
         "is-plain-obj": "^3.0.0",
-        "micromatch": "^4.0.2"
+        "micromatch": "^4.0.5"
       },
       "engines": {
-        "node": ">=12.0.0"
-      },
-      "peerDependencies": {
-        "@types/express": "^4.17.13"
-      },
-      "peerDependenciesMeta": {
-        "@types/express": {
-          "optional": true
-        }
+        "node": "^14.15.0 || ^16.10.0 || >=18.0.0"
       }
     },
     "node_modules/https-proxy-agent": {
@@ -15491,7 +15502,8 @@
       "version": "6.2.0",
       "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/just-extend/-/just-extend-6.2.0.tgz",
       "integrity": "sha512-cYofQu2Xpom82S6qD778jBDpwvvy39s1l/hrYij2u9AMdQcGRpaBu6kY4mVhuno5kJVi1DAz4aiphA2WI1/OAw==",
-      "dev": true
+      "dev": true,
+      "license": "MIT"
     },
     "node_modules/keyv": {
       "version": "4.5.4",
@@ -15659,7 +15671,8 @@
       "version": "4.4.2",
       "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/lodash.get/-/lodash.get-4.4.2.tgz",
       "integrity": "sha512-z+Uw/vLuy6gQe8cfaFWD7p0wVv8fJl3mbzXh33RS+0oW2wvUqiRXiQ69gLWSLpgB5/6sU+r6BlQR0MBILadqTQ==",
-      "dev": true
+      "dev": true,
+      "license": "MIT"
     },
     "node_modules/lodash.isequal": {
       "version": "4.5.0",
@@ -16042,8 +16055,7 @@
     "node_modules/ms": {
       "version": "2.1.2",
       "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/ms/-/ms-2.1.2.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-sGkPx+VjMtmA6MX27oA4FBFELFCZZ4S4XqeGOXCv68tT+jb3vk/RyaKWP0PTKyWtmLSM0b+adUTEvbs1PEaH2w==",
-      "dev": true
+      "integrity": "sha512-sGkPx+VjMtmA6MX27oA4FBFELFCZZ4S4XqeGOXCv68tT+jb3vk/RyaKWP0PTKyWtmLSM0b+adUTEvbs1PEaH2w=="
     },
     "node_modules/multicast-dns": {
       "version": "7.2.5",
@@ -16142,10 +16154,11 @@
       "dev": true
     },
     "node_modules/nise": {
-      "version": "5.1.9",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/nise/-/nise-5.1.9.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-qOnoujW4SV6e40dYxJOb3uvuoPHtmLzIk4TFo+j0jPJoC+5Z9xja5qH5JZobEPsa8+YYphMrOSwnrshEhG2qww==",
+      "version": "6.0.0",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/nise/-/nise-6.0.0.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-K8ePqo9BFvN31HXwEtTNGzgrPpmvgciDsFz8aztFjt4LqKO/JeFD8tBOeuDiCMXrIl/m1YvfH8auSpxfaD09wg==",
       "dev": true,
+      "license": "BSD-3-Clause",
       "dependencies": {
         "@sinonjs/commons": "^3.0.0",
         "@sinonjs/fake-timers": "^11.2.2",
@@ -16154,29 +16167,12 @@
         "path-to-regexp": "^6.2.1"
       }
     },
-    "node_modules/nise/node_modules/@sinonjs/commons": {
-      "version": "3.0.1",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@sinonjs/commons/-/commons-3.0.1.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-K3mCHKQ9sVh8o1C9cxkwxaOmXoAMlDxC1mYyHrjqOWEcBjYr76t96zL2zlj5dUGZ3HSw240X1qgH3Mjf1yJWpQ==",
-      "dev": true,
-      "dependencies": {
-        "type-detect": "4.0.8"
-      }
-    },
-    "node_modules/nise/node_modules/@sinonjs/fake-timers": {
-      "version": "11.2.2",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@sinonjs/fake-timers/-/fake-timers-11.2.2.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-G2piCSxQ7oWOxwGSAyFHfPIsyeJGXYtc6mFbnFA+kRXkiEnTl8c/8jul2S329iFBnDI9HGoeWWAZvuvOkZccgw==",
-      "dev": true,
-      "dependencies": {
-        "@sinonjs/commons": "^3.0.0"
-      }
-    },
     "node_modules/nise/node_modules/path-to-regexp": {
       "version": "6.2.2",
       "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/path-to-regexp/-/path-to-regexp-6.2.2.tgz",
       "integrity": "sha512-GQX3SSMokngb36+whdpRXE+3f9V8UzyAorlYvOGx87ufGHehNTn5lCxrKtLyZ4Yl/wEKnNnr98ZzOwwDZV5ogw==",
-      "dev": true
+      "dev": true,
+      "license": "MIT"
     },
     "node_modules/no-case": {
       "version": "3.0.4",
@@ -20859,9 +20855,10 @@
       "dev": true
     },
     "node_modules/sass": {
-      "version": "1.69.5",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/sass/-/sass-1.69.5.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-qg2+UCJibLr2LCVOt3OlPhr/dqVHWOa9XtZf2OjbLs/T4VPSJ00udtgJxH3neXZm+QqX8B+3cU7RaLqp1iVfcQ==",
+      "version": "1.77.4",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/sass/-/sass-1.77.4.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-vcF3Ckow6g939GMA4PeU7b2K/9FALXk2KF9J87txdHzXbUF9XRQRwSxcAs/fGaTnJeBFd7UoV22j3lzMLdM0Pw==",
+      "license": "MIT",
       "dependencies": {
         "chokidar": ">=3.0.0 <4.0.0",
         "immutable": "^4.0.0",
@@ -21247,18 +21244,18 @@
       "dev": true
     },
     "node_modules/sinon": {
-      "version": "14.0.2",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/sinon/-/sinon-14.0.2.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-PDpV0ZI3ZCS3pEqx0vpNp6kzPhHrLx72wA0G+ZLaaJjLIYeE0n8INlgaohKuGy7hP0as5tbUd23QWu5U233t+w==",
-      "deprecated": "16.1.1",
+      "version": "18.0.0",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/sinon/-/sinon-18.0.0.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-+dXDXzD1sBO6HlmZDd7mXZCR/y5ECiEiGCBSGuFD/kZ0bDTofPYc6JaeGmPSF+1j1MejGUWkORbYOLDyvqCWpA==",
       "dev": true,
+      "license": "BSD-3-Clause",
       "dependencies": {
-        "@sinonjs/commons": "^2.0.0",
-        "@sinonjs/fake-timers": "^9.1.2",
-        "@sinonjs/samsam": "^7.0.1",
-        "diff": "^5.0.0",
-        "nise": "^5.1.2",
-        "supports-color": "^7.2.0"
+        "@sinonjs/commons": "^3.0.1",
+        "@sinonjs/fake-timers": "^11.2.2",
+        "@sinonjs/samsam": "^8.0.0",
+        "diff": "^5.2.0",
+        "nise": "^6.0.0",
+        "supports-color": "^7"
       },
       "funding": {
         "type": "opencollective",
@@ -22384,12 +22381,14 @@
       "dev": true
     },
     "node_modules/ts-jest": {
-      "version": "29.1.2",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/ts-jest/-/ts-jest-29.1.2.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-br6GJoH/WUX4pu7FbZXuWGKGNDuU7b8Uj77g/Sp7puZV6EXzuByl6JrECvm0MzVzSTkSHWTihsXt+5XYER5b+g==",
+      "version": "29.2.2",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/ts-jest/-/ts-jest-29.2.2.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-sSW7OooaKT34AAngP6k1VS669a0HdLxkQZnlC7T76sckGCokXFnvJ3yRlQZGRTAoV5K19HfSgCiSwWOSIfcYlg==",
       "dev": true,
+      "license": "MIT",
       "dependencies": {
         "bs-logger": "0.x",
+        "ejs": "^3.0.0",
         "fast-json-stable-stringify": "2.x",
         "jest-util": "^29.0.0",
         "json5": "^2.2.3",
@@ -22402,10 +22401,11 @@
         "ts-jest": "cli.js"
       },
       "engines": {
-        "node": "^16.10.0 || ^18.0.0 || >=20.0.0"
+        "node": "^14.15.0 || ^16.10.0 || ^18.0.0 || >=20.0.0"
       },
       "peerDependencies": {
         "@babel/core": ">=7.0.0-beta.0 <8",
+        "@jest/transform": "^29.0.0",
         "@jest/types": "^29.0.0",
         "babel-jest": "^29.0.0",
         "jest": "^29.0.0",
@@ -22415,6 +22415,9 @@
         "@babel/core": {
           "optional": true
         },
+        "@jest/transform": {
+          "optional": true
+        },
         "@jest/types": {
           "optional": true
         },
@@ -23215,6 +23218,31 @@
         "ajv": "^8.8.2"
       }
     },
+    "node_modules/webpack-dev-server/node_modules/http-proxy-middleware": {
+      "version": "2.0.6",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/http-proxy-middleware/-/http-proxy-middleware-2.0.6.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-ya/UeJ6HVBYxrgYotAZo1KvPWlgB48kUJLDePFeneHsVujFaW5WNj2NgWCAE//B1Dl02BIfYlpNgBy8Kf8Rjmw==",
+      "dev": true,
+      "license": "MIT",
+      "dependencies": {
+        "@types/http-proxy": "^1.17.8",
+        "http-proxy": "^1.18.1",
+        "is-glob": "^4.0.1",
+        "is-plain-obj": "^3.0.0",
+        "micromatch": "^4.0.2"
+      },
+      "engines": {
+        "node": ">=12.0.0"
+      },
+      "peerDependencies": {
+        "@types/express": "^4.17.13"
+      },
+      "peerDependenciesMeta": {
+        "@types/express": {
+          "optional": true
+        }
+      }
+    },
     "node_modules/webpack-dev-server/node_modules/json-schema-traverse": {
       "version": "1.0.0",
       "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/json-schema-traverse/-/json-schema-traverse-1.0.0.tgz",
diff --git a/web/ui/react-app/package.json b/web/ui/react-app/package.json
index 66bac0e3b3..e50c7637b4 100644
--- a/web/ui/react-app/package.json
+++ b/web/ui/react-app/package.json
@@ -1,33 +1,33 @@
 {
   "name": "@prometheus-io/app",
-  "version": "0.51.2",
+  "version": "0.53.0",
   "private": true,
   "dependencies": {
-    "@codemirror/autocomplete": "^6.11.1",
-    "@codemirror/commands": "^6.3.2",
-    "@codemirror/language": "^6.9.3",
-    "@codemirror/lint": "^6.4.2",
-    "@codemirror/search": "^6.5.5",
+    "@codemirror/autocomplete": "^6.16.2",
+    "@codemirror/commands": "^6.6.0",
+    "@codemirror/language": "^6.10.2",
+    "@codemirror/lint": "^6.8.0",
+    "@codemirror/search": "^6.5.6",
     "@codemirror/state": "^6.3.3",
     "@codemirror/view": "^6.22.1",
-    "@forevolve/bootstrap-dark": "^2.1.1",
-    "@fortawesome/fontawesome-svg-core": "6.5.1",
-    "@fortawesome/free-solid-svg-icons": "6.5.1",
+    "@forevolve/bootstrap-dark": "^4.0.2",
+    "@fortawesome/fontawesome-svg-core": "6.5.2",
+    "@fortawesome/free-solid-svg-icons": "6.5.2",
     "@fortawesome/react-fontawesome": "0.2.0",
-    "@lezer/common": "^1.1.1",
+    "@lezer/common": "^1.2.1",
     "@lezer/highlight": "^1.2.0",
-    "@lezer/lr": "^1.3.14",
+    "@lezer/lr": "^1.4.1",
     "@nexucis/fuzzy": "^0.4.1",
     "@nexucis/kvsearch": "^0.8.1",
-    "@prometheus-io/codemirror-promql": "0.51.2",
+    "@prometheus-io/codemirror-promql": "0.53.0",
     "bootstrap": "^4.6.2",
     "css.escape": "^1.5.1",
-    "downshift": "^7.6.2",
-    "http-proxy-middleware": "^2.0.6",
+    "downshift": "^9.0.6",
+    "http-proxy-middleware": "^3.0.0",
     "jquery": "^3.7.1",
     "jquery.flot.tooltip": "^0.9.0",
-    "moment": "^2.29.4",
-    "moment-timezone": "^0.5.43",
+    "moment": "^2.30.1",
+    "moment-timezone": "^0.5.45",
     "popper.js": "^1.14.3",
     "react": "^17.0.2",
     "react-copy-to-clipboard": "^5.1.0",
@@ -37,8 +37,8 @@
     "react-router-dom": "^5.3.4",
     "react-test-renderer": "^17.0.2",
     "reactstrap": "^8.10.1",
-    "sanitize-html": "^2.11.0",
-    "sass": "1.69.5",
+    "sanitize-html": "^2.13.0",
+    "sass": "1.77.4",
     "tempusdominus-bootstrap-4": "^5.39.2",
     "tempusdominus-core": "^5.19.3"
   },
@@ -68,15 +68,15 @@
     "@testing-library/react-hooks": "^7.0.2",
     "@types/enzyme": "^3.10.18",
     "@types/flot": "0.0.36",
-    "@types/jest": "^29.5.11",
-    "@types/jquery": "^3.5.29",
+    "@types/jest": "^29.5.12",
+    "@types/jquery": "^3.5.30",
     "@types/node": "^20.10.4",
     "@types/react": "^17.0.71",
     "@types/react-copy-to-clipboard": "^5.0.7",
     "@types/react-dom": "^17.0.25",
     "@types/react-router-dom": "^5.3.3",
-    "@types/sanitize-html": "^2.9.5",
-    "@types/sinon": "^10.0.20",
+    "@types/sanitize-html": "^2.11.0",
+    "@types/sinon": "^17.0.3",
     "@wojtekmaj/enzyme-adapter-react-17": "^0.8.0",
     "enzyme": "^3.11.0",
     "enzyme-to-json": "^3.6.2",
@@ -88,8 +88,8 @@
     "mutationobserver-shim": "^0.3.7",
     "prettier": "^2.8.8",
     "react-scripts": "^5.0.1",
-    "sinon": "^14.0.2",
-    "ts-jest": "^29.1.1"
+    "sinon": "^18.0.0",
+    "ts-jest": "^29.2.2"
   },
   "jest": {
     "snapshotSerializers": [
diff --git a/web/ui/react-app/src/pages/graph/HistogramChart.tsx b/web/ui/react-app/src/pages/graph/HistogramChart.tsx
index ae171c5e43..83be21d13b 100644
--- a/web/ui/react-app/src/pages/graph/HistogramChart.tsx
+++ b/web/ui/react-app/src/pages/graph/HistogramChart.tsx
@@ -2,22 +2,93 @@ import React, { FC } from 'react';
 import { UncontrolledTooltip } from 'reactstrap';
 import { Histogram } from '../../types/types';
 import { bucketRangeString } from './DataTable';
+import {
+  calculateDefaultExpBucketWidth,
+  findMinPositive,
+  findMaxNegative,
+  findZeroAxisLeft,
+  showZeroAxis,
+  findZeroBucket,
+  ScaleType,
+} from './HistogramHelpers';
 
-type ScaleType = 'linear' | 'exponential';
+interface HistogramChartProps {
+  histogram: Histogram;
+  index: number;
+  scale: ScaleType;
+}
 
-const HistogramChart: FC<{ histogram: Histogram; index: number; scale: ScaleType }> = ({ index, histogram, scale }) => {
+const HistogramChart: FC<HistogramChartProps> = ({ index, histogram, scale }) => {
   const { buckets } = histogram;
-  const rangeMax = buckets ? parseFloat(buckets[buckets.length - 1][2]) : 0;
-  const countMax = buckets ? buckets.map((b) => parseFloat(b[3])).reduce((a, b) => Math.max(a, b)) : 0;
+  if (!buckets || buckets.length === 0) {
+    return <div>No data</div>;
+  }
   const formatter = Intl.NumberFormat('en', { notation: 'compact' });
-  const positiveBuckets = buckets?.filter((b) => parseFloat(b[1]) >= 0); // we only want to show buckets with range >= 0
-  const xLabelTicks = scale === 'linear' ? [0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1] : [1];
+
+  // For linear scales, the count of a histogram bucket is represented by its area rather than its height. This means it considers
+  // both the count and the range (width) of the bucket. For this, we can set the height of the bucket proportional
+  // to its frequency density (fd). The fd is the count of the bucket divided by the width of the bucket.
+  const fds = [];
+  for (const bucket of buckets) {
+    const left = parseFloat(bucket[1]);
+    const right = parseFloat(bucket[2]);
+    const count = parseFloat(bucket[3]);
+    const width = right - left;
+
+    // This happens when a user want observations of precisely zero to be included in the zero bucket
+    if (width === 0) {
+      fds.push(0);
+      continue;
+    }
+    fds.push(count / width);
+  }
+  const fdMax = Math.max(...fds);
+
+  const first = buckets[0];
+  const last = buckets[buckets.length - 1];
+
+  const rangeMax = parseFloat(last[2]);
+  const rangeMin = parseFloat(first[1]);
+  const countMax = Math.max(...buckets.map((b) => parseFloat(b[3])));
+
+  const defaultExpBucketWidth = calculateDefaultExpBucketWidth(last, buckets);
+
+  const maxPositive = rangeMax > 0 ? rangeMax : 0;
+  const minPositive = findMinPositive(buckets);
+  const maxNegative = findMaxNegative(buckets);
+  const minNegative = parseFloat(first[1]) < 0 ? parseFloat(first[1]) : 0;
+
+  // Calculate the borders of positive and negative buckets in the exponential scale from left to right
+  const startNegative = minNegative !== 0 ? -Math.log(Math.abs(minNegative)) : 0;
+  const endNegative = maxNegative !== 0 ? -Math.log(Math.abs(maxNegative)) : 0;
+  const startPositive = minPositive !== 0 ? Math.log(minPositive) : 0;
+  const endPositive = maxPositive !== 0 ? Math.log(maxPositive) : 0;
+
+  // Calculate the width of negative, positive, and all exponential bucket ranges on the x-axis
+  const xWidthNegative = endNegative - startNegative;
+  const xWidthPositive = endPositive - startPositive;
+  const xWidthTotal = xWidthNegative + defaultExpBucketWidth + xWidthPositive;
+
+  const zeroBucketIdx = findZeroBucket(buckets);
+  const zeroAxisLeft = findZeroAxisLeft(
+    scale,
+    rangeMin,
+    rangeMax,
+    minPositive,
+    maxNegative,
+    zeroBucketIdx,
+    xWidthNegative,
+    xWidthTotal,
+    defaultExpBucketWidth
+  );
+  const zeroAxis = showZeroAxis(zeroAxisLeft);
+
   return (
     <div className="histogram-y-wrapper">
       <div className="histogram-y-labels">
         {[1, 0.75, 0.5, 0.25].map((i) => (
           <div key={i} className="histogram-y-label">
-            {formatter.format(countMax * i)}
+            {scale === 'linear' ? '' : formatter.format(countMax * i)}
           </div>
         ))}
         <div key={0} className="histogram-y-label" style={{ height: 0 }}>
@@ -31,62 +102,175 @@ const HistogramChart: FC<{ histogram: Histogram; index: number; scale: ScaleType
               <div className="histogram-y-grid" style={{ bottom: i * 100 + '%' }}></div>
               <div className="histogram-y-tick" style={{ bottom: i * 100 + '%' }}></div>
               <div className="histogram-x-grid" style={{ left: i * 100 + '%' }}></div>
-              <div className="histogram-x-tick" style={{ left: i * 100 + '%' }}></div>
             </React.Fragment>
           ))}
-          {positiveBuckets?.map((b, bIdx) => {
-            const bucketIdx = `bucket-${index}-${bIdx}-${Math.ceil(parseFloat(b[3]) * 100)}`;
-            const bucketLeft =
-              scale === 'linear' ? (parseFloat(b[1]) / rangeMax) * 100 + '%' : (bIdx / positiveBuckets.length) * 100 + '%';
-            const bucketWidth =
-              scale === 'linear'
-                ? ((parseFloat(b[2]) - parseFloat(b[1])) / rangeMax) * 100 + '%'
-                : 100 / positiveBuckets.length + '%';
-            return (
-              <React.Fragment key={bIdx}>
-                <div
-                  id={bucketIdx}
-                  className="histogram-bucket-slot"
-                  style={{
-                    left: bucketLeft,
-                    width: bucketWidth,
-                  }}
-                >
-                  <div
-                    id={bucketIdx}
-                    className="histogram-bucket"
-                    style={{
-                      height: (parseFloat(b[3]) / countMax) * 100 + '%',
-                    }}
-                  ></div>
-                  <UncontrolledTooltip
-                    style={{ maxWidth: 'unset', padding: 10, textAlign: 'left' }}
-                    placement="bottom"
-                    target={bucketIdx}
-                  >
-                    <strong>range:</strong> {bucketRangeString(b)}
-                    <br />
-                    <strong>count:</strong> {b[3]}
-                  </UncontrolledTooltip>
-                </div>
-              </React.Fragment>
-            );
-          })}
+          <div className="histogram-x-tick" style={{ left: '0%' }}></div>
+          <div className="histogram-x-tick" style={{ left: zeroAxisLeft }}></div>
+          <div className="histogram-x-grid" style={{ left: zeroAxisLeft }}></div>
+          <div className="histogram-x-tick" style={{ left: '100%' }}></div>
+
+          <RenderHistogramBars
+            buckets={buckets}
+            scale={scale}
+            rangeMin={rangeMin}
+            rangeMax={rangeMax}
+            index={index}
+            fds={fds}
+            fdMax={fdMax}
+            countMax={countMax}
+            defaultExpBucketWidth={defaultExpBucketWidth}
+            minPositive={minPositive}
+            maxNegative={maxNegative}
+            startPositive={startPositive}
+            startNegative={startNegative}
+            xWidthPositive={xWidthPositive}
+            xWidthNegative={xWidthNegative}
+            xWidthTotal={xWidthTotal}
+          />
+
           <div className="histogram-axes"></div>
         </div>
         <div className="histogram-x-labels">
-          <div key={0} className="histogram-x-label" style={{ width: 0 }}>
-            0
+          <div className="histogram-x-label">
+            <React.Fragment>
+              <div style={{ position: 'absolute', left: 0 }}>{formatter.format(rangeMin)}</div>
+              {rangeMin < 0 && zeroAxis && <div style={{ position: 'absolute', left: zeroAxisLeft }}>0</div>}
+              <div style={{ position: 'absolute', right: 0 }}>{formatter.format(rangeMax)}</div>
+            </React.Fragment>
           </div>
-          {xLabelTicks.map((i) => (
-            <div key={i} className="histogram-x-label">
-              <div style={{ position: 'absolute', right: i === 1 ? 0 : -18 }}>{formatter.format(rangeMax * i)}</div>
-            </div>
-          ))}
         </div>
       </div>
     </div>
   );
 };
 
+interface RenderHistogramProps {
+  buckets: [number, string, string, string][];
+  scale: ScaleType;
+  rangeMin: number;
+  rangeMax: number;
+  index: number;
+  fds: number[];
+  fdMax: number;
+  countMax: number;
+  defaultExpBucketWidth: number;
+  minPositive: number;
+  maxNegative: number;
+  startPositive: number;
+  startNegative: number;
+  xWidthNegative: number;
+  xWidthPositive: number;
+  xWidthTotal: number;
+}
+
+const RenderHistogramBars: FC<RenderHistogramProps> = ({
+  buckets,
+  scale,
+  rangeMin,
+  rangeMax,
+  index,
+  fds,
+  fdMax,
+  countMax,
+  defaultExpBucketWidth,
+  minPositive,
+  maxNegative,
+  startPositive,
+  startNegative,
+  xWidthNegative,
+  xWidthPositive,
+  xWidthTotal,
+}) => {
+  return (
+    <React.Fragment>
+      {buckets.map((b, bIdx) => {
+        const left = parseFloat(b[1]);
+        const right = parseFloat(b[2]);
+        const count = parseFloat(b[3]);
+        const bucketIdx = `bucket-${index}-${bIdx}-${Math.ceil(parseFloat(b[3]) * 100)}`;
+
+        const logWidth = Math.abs(Math.log(Math.abs(right)) - Math.log(Math.abs(left)));
+        const expBucketWidth = logWidth === 0 ? defaultExpBucketWidth : logWidth;
+
+        let bucketWidth = '';
+        let bucketLeft = '';
+        let bucketHeight = '';
+
+        switch (scale) {
+          case 'linear':
+            bucketWidth = ((right - left) / (rangeMax - rangeMin)) * 100 + '%';
+            bucketLeft = ((left - rangeMin) / (rangeMax - rangeMin)) * 100 + '%';
+            if (left === 0 && right === 0) {
+              bucketLeft = '0%'; // do not render zero-width zero bucket
+              bucketWidth = '0%';
+            }
+            bucketHeight = (fds[bIdx] / fdMax) * 100 + '%';
+            break;
+          case 'exponential':
+            let adjust = 0; // if buckets are all positive/negative, we need to remove the width of the zero bucket
+            if (minPositive === 0 || maxNegative === 0) {
+              adjust = defaultExpBucketWidth;
+            }
+            bucketWidth = (expBucketWidth / (xWidthTotal - adjust)) * 100 + '%';
+            if (left < 0) {
+              // negative buckets boundary
+              bucketLeft = (-(Math.log(Math.abs(left)) + startNegative) / (xWidthTotal - adjust)) * 100 + '%';
+            } else {
+              // positive buckets boundary
+              bucketLeft =
+                ((Math.log(left) - startPositive + defaultExpBucketWidth + xWidthNegative - adjust) /
+                  (xWidthTotal - adjust)) *
+                  100 +
+                '%';
+            }
+            if (left < 0 && right > 0) {
+              // if the bucket crosses the zero axis
+              bucketLeft = (xWidthNegative / xWidthTotal) * 100 + '%';
+            }
+            if (left === 0 && right === 0) {
+              // do not render zero width zero bucket
+              bucketLeft = '0%';
+              bucketWidth = '0%';
+            }
+
+            bucketHeight = (count / countMax) * 100 + '%';
+            break;
+          default:
+            throw new Error('Invalid scale');
+        }
+
+        return (
+          <React.Fragment key={bIdx}>
+            <div
+              id={bucketIdx}
+              className="histogram-bucket-slot"
+              style={{
+                left: bucketLeft,
+                width: bucketWidth,
+              }}
+            >
+              <div
+                id={bucketIdx}
+                className="histogram-bucket"
+                style={{
+                  height: bucketHeight,
+                }}
+              ></div>
+              <UncontrolledTooltip
+                style={{ maxWidth: 'unset', padding: 10, textAlign: 'left' }}
+                placement="bottom"
+                target={bucketIdx}
+              >
+                <strong>range:</strong> {bucketRangeString(b)}
+                <br />
+                <strong>count:</strong> {count}
+              </UncontrolledTooltip>
+            </div>
+          </React.Fragment>
+        );
+      })}
+    </React.Fragment>
+  );
+};
+
 export default HistogramChart;
diff --git a/web/ui/react-app/src/pages/graph/HistogramHelpers.ts b/web/ui/react-app/src/pages/graph/HistogramHelpers.ts
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..ae1efd308a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/web/ui/react-app/src/pages/graph/HistogramHelpers.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,126 @@
+export type ScaleType = 'linear' | 'exponential';
+
+// Calculates a default width of exponential histogram bucket ranges. If the last bucket is [0, 0],
+// the width is calculated using the second to last bucket. returns error if the last bucket is [-0, 0],
+export function calculateDefaultExpBucketWidth(
+  last: [number, string, string, string],
+  buckets: [number, string, string, string][]
+): number {
+  if (parseFloat(last[2]) === 0 || parseFloat(last[1]) === 0) {
+    if (buckets.length > 1) {
+      return Math.abs(
+        Math.log(Math.abs(parseFloat(buckets[buckets.length - 2][2]))) -
+          Math.log(Math.abs(parseFloat(buckets[buckets.length - 2][1])))
+      );
+    } else {
+      throw new Error('Only one bucket in histogram ([-0, 0]). Cannot calculate defaultExpBucketWidth.');
+    }
+  } else {
+    return Math.abs(Math.log(Math.abs(parseFloat(last[2]))) - Math.log(Math.abs(parseFloat(last[1]))));
+  }
+}
+
+// Finds the lowest positive value from the bucket ranges
+// Returns 0 if no positive values are found or if there are no buckets.
+export function findMinPositive(buckets: [number, string, string, string][]) {
+  if (!buckets || buckets.length === 0) {
+    return 0; // no buckets
+  }
+  for (let i = 0; i < buckets.length; i++) {
+    const right = parseFloat(buckets[i][2]);
+    const left = parseFloat(buckets[i][1]);
+
+    if (left > 0) {
+      return left;
+    }
+    if (left < 0 && right > 0) {
+      return right;
+    }
+    if (i === buckets.length - 1) {
+      if (right > 0) {
+        return right;
+      }
+    }
+  }
+  return 0; // all buckets are negative
+}
+
+// Finds the lowest negative value from the bucket ranges
+// Returns 0 if no negative values are found or if there are no buckets.
+export function findMaxNegative(buckets: [number, string, string, string][]) {
+  if (!buckets || buckets.length === 0) {
+    return 0; // no buckets
+  }
+  for (let i = 0; i < buckets.length; i++) {
+    const right = parseFloat(buckets[i][2]);
+    const left = parseFloat(buckets[i][1]);
+    const prevRight = i > 0 ? parseFloat(buckets[i - 1][2]) : 0;
+
+    if (right >= 0) {
+      if (i === 0) {
+        if (left < 0) {
+          return left; // return the first negative bucket
+        }
+        return 0; // all buckets are positive
+      }
+      return prevRight; // return the last negative bucket
+    }
+  }
+  console.log('findmaxneg returning: ', buckets[buckets.length - 1][2]);
+  return parseFloat(buckets[buckets.length - 1][2]); // all buckets are negative
+}
+
+// Calculates the left position of the zero axis as a percentage string.
+export function findZeroAxisLeft(
+  scale: ScaleType,
+  rangeMin: number,
+  rangeMax: number,
+  minPositive: number,
+  maxNegative: number,
+  zeroBucketIdx: number,
+  widthNegative: number,
+  widthTotal: number,
+  expBucketWidth: number
+): string {
+  if (scale === 'linear') {
+    return ((0 - rangeMin) / (rangeMax - rangeMin)) * 100 + '%';
+  } else {
+    if (maxNegative === 0) {
+      return '0%';
+    }
+    if (minPositive === 0) {
+      return '100%';
+    }
+    if (zeroBucketIdx === -1) {
+      // if there is no zero bucket, we must zero axis between buckets around zero
+      return (widthNegative / widthTotal) * 100 + '%';
+    }
+    if ((widthNegative + 0.5 * expBucketWidth) / widthTotal > 0) {
+      return ((widthNegative + 0.5 * expBucketWidth) / widthTotal) * 100 + '%';
+    } else {
+      return '0%';
+    }
+  }
+}
+
+// Determines if the zero axis should be shown such that the zero label does not overlap with the range labels.
+// The zero axis is shown if it is between 5% and 95% of the graph.
+export function showZeroAxis(zeroAxisLeft: string) {
+  const axisNumber = parseFloat(zeroAxisLeft.slice(0, -1));
+  if (5 < axisNumber && axisNumber < 95) {
+    return true;
+  }
+  return false;
+}
+
+// Finds the index of the bucket whose range includes zero
+export function findZeroBucket(buckets: [number, string, string, string][]): number {
+  for (let i = 0; i < buckets.length; i++) {
+    const left = parseFloat(buckets[i][1]);
+    const right = parseFloat(buckets[i][2]);
+    if (left <= 0 && right >= 0) {
+      return i;
+    }
+  }
+  return -1;
+}
diff --git a/web/ui/react-app/src/pages/graph/Panel.tsx b/web/ui/react-app/src/pages/graph/Panel.tsx
index f60812a503..1b2956fd78 100644
--- a/web/ui/react-app/src/pages/graph/Panel.tsx
+++ b/web/ui/react-app/src/pages/graph/Panel.tsx
@@ -37,6 +37,7 @@ interface PanelState {
   lastQueryParams: QueryParams | null;
   loading: boolean;
   warnings: string[] | null;
+  infos: string[] | null;
   error: string | null;
   stats: QueryStats | null;
   exprInputValue: string;
@@ -87,6 +88,7 @@ class Panel extends Component<PanelProps, PanelState> {
       lastQueryParams: null,
       loading: false,
       warnings: null,
+      infos: null,
       error: null,
       stats: null,
       exprInputValue: props.options.expr,
@@ -204,6 +206,7 @@ class Panel extends Component<PanelProps, PanelState> {
         data: query.data,
         exemplars: exemplars?.data,
         warnings: query.warnings,
+        infos: query.infos,
         lastQueryParams: {
           startTime,
           endTime,
@@ -307,6 +310,11 @@ class Panel extends Component<PanelProps, PanelState> {
             <Col>{warning && <Alert color="warning">{warning}</Alert>}</Col>
           </Row>
         ))}
+        {this.state.infos?.map((info, index) => (
+          <Row key={index}>
+            <Col>{info && <Alert color="info">{info}</Alert>}</Col>
+          </Row>
+        ))}
         <Row>
           <Col>
             <Nav tabs>
diff --git a/web/web.go b/web/web.go
index 4f65cf39d7..37a7d71bb7 100644
--- a/web/web.go
+++ b/web/web.go
@@ -266,6 +266,8 @@ type Options struct {
 	IsAgent                    bool
 	AppName                    string
 
+	AcceptRemoteWriteProtoMsgs []config.RemoteWriteProtoMsg
+
 	Gatherer   prometheus.Gatherer
 	Registerer prometheus.Registerer
 }
@@ -354,6 +356,7 @@ func New(logger log.Logger, o *Options) *Handler {
 		o.Registerer,
 		nil,
 		o.EnableRemoteWriteReceiver,
+		o.AcceptRemoteWriteProtoMsgs,
 		o.EnableOTLPWriteReceiver,
 	)